ACHPER Healthy Lifestyles Journal – 1



James F. Sallis, Ph.D., Director

alr@projects.sdsu.edu

Carmen L. Cutter, MPH, Deputy Director

ccutter@projects.sdsu.edu

Introduction to the Active Living Research Reference List 2002

The following pages are citations of studies of the relationships between the environment, physical activity, and obesity published in 2002.  We have organized the publications into 9 categories to make them easier to review. The categories are:

• Built Environment – Child Physical Activity/Obesity,

• Built Environment – Adult Physical Activity/Obesity,

• Policy – Physical Activity/Obesity,

• Social, Cultural & Family Environments – Child Physical Activity/Obesity,

• Social, Cultural & Family Environments – Adult Physical Activity/Obesity,

• Measurement,

• Community Based Interventions – Physical Activity and Obesity,

• Childhood Obesity – General

• Other

The searches were conducted with several databases and were designed to represent the multiple disciplines in Active Living Research. The number of citations continues to grow. Especially, there is an extraordinary amount of literature on built environment and policy related to physical activity and obesity. Some citations do not include a journal issue or page numbers; these are articles that are available online ahead of print publication.

We have improved upon our search terms and hope that this list is inclusive. Please send us relevant citations we have missed. Studies that focus on food environments will be covered by the RWJF Healthy Eating Research program.

Papers that specifically report environmental correlates of physical activity behavior or obesity will be included in the online ALR literature database ()

If you have questions or comments please contact Chad Spoon at cspoon@projects.sdsu.edu.

Sincerely,

Ding Ding, Erin Merz, & the Active Living Research Staff

2002 Search Terms

|Physical Activity/Obesity terms (abstract only) |Environment terms (title or abstract) |

|non motorized OR NMT OR multimodal transportation OR active |environment OR environments OR environmental OR sprawl OR neighbourhood*|

|transport* OR driving OR active living OR inactivity OR inactive |OR neighborhood* OR recreation* OR metropolitan OR rural OR urban* OR |

|OR fit OR fitness OR body mass index OR BMI OR car OR cars OR |pedestrian OR pedestrians OR equipment OR geograph* OR aesthet* OR |

|automobile OR leisure OR television OR TV OR obese OR obesity OR |convenient OR convenience OR urban form OR destination* OR trail OR |

|weight OR overweight OR journey OR travel* OR walk OR walking OR |trails OR park OR parks OR path OR paths OR distance* OR density OR |

|cycle OR cycling OR bike OR bikers OR biking OR bicycle OR |access* OR planning OR location* OR feature* OR polic* OR facility OR |

|bicycling OR sedentary OR commuter* OR commuting OR exercise OR |facilities OR crime OR architecture OR building* OR transit OR street* |

|exercising OR exerciser* OR physical activity OR physically |OR stair* OR playground OR playgrounds OR urban design OR neighborhood |

|active OR play OR playground* OR playing OR vehicle OR obesogenic|development OR neighbourhood development OR smart growth OR outdoor OR |

| |indoor OR connectivity OR new urbanism OR healthy places OR healthy |

| |communities OR greenway OR greenways OR rail-trail OR home OR school OR |

| |schools OR land use OR safe OR safety OR route OR routes OR workplace OR|

| |community OR communities OR attractive* OR green space* OR public space*|

| |OR open space* OR place OR places OR site OR sites OR siting OR greenery|

| |OR amenity OR amenities OR attribute* OR walkable OR walkability OR |

| |residential OR residence OR sidewalks OR availability |

Databases used in the literature searches included Pub Med, ISI Web of Science, Leisure and Recreation Journals and other non-indexed journals.

For more specific information please contact Chad Spoon at cspoon@projects.sdsu.edu.

Journal Counts:

These may indicate journals more interested in built environment research where you could send your manuscripts. Note that only journals with more than one count were included.

American Journal of Preventive Medicine- 8

Australasian Epidemiologist – 2

Health Promotion International – 2

Journal of Human Movement Studies – 2

Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise – 2

Obesity Research – 2

Pediatric Exercise Science- 4

Preventive Medicine – 2

Research Quarterly For Exercise and Sport – 2

Women & Health – 5

Built Environment and Children

(2002). Barriers to children walking and biking to school--United States, 1999. MMWR. 51, 701-4.

Physical activity is an important part of a healthy lifestyle; however, many children in the United States do not meet recommended levels of physical activity. Although walking and biking to school can increase physical activity among children, motor-vehicle traffic and other factors can make these activities difficult. The majority of U.S. children do not walk or bike to school, approximately one third ride a school bus, and half are driven in a private vehicle. Less than one trip in seven is made by walking or biking. To examine why the majority of children do not walk or bike to school, CDC analyzed data from the national HealthStyles Survey. This report summarizes the results of that analysis, which indicate that long distances and dangerous motor-vehicle traffic pose the most common barriers to children walking and biking to school. Public health and community-based efforts that encourage walking and biking to school should address these barriers.

J. Dollman. (2002). Psychosocial and environmental correlates of physical activity among 11 year old South Australians - abstract. Journal of Science & Medicine in Sport. 5, 111.

Predictors of physical activity in different contexts were examined among 242 11 yr old South Australians. Physical activity, self-reported on three separate days through a computer-based questionnaire, was expressed as total minutes, school minutes, out-of-school minutes and organised sport participation. Hard-copy questionnaires surveyed children’s activity-related psychosocial attributes, and parents’ perceptions of environmental barriers to children’s activity. Hierarchical regression models identified predictors, controlling for biological and sociodemographic factors. Among boys, psychosocial attributes accounted for 18%, 21% and 10% of the variance in total minutes, out-of-school minutes and sport participation, respectively. Peer support and efficacy were the most consistent predictors of these representations of boys’ activity. There were no psychosocial predictors of boys’ activity at school. Among girls, psychosocial attributes accounted for 19% of the variance in school minutes and 20% of the variance in sport participation. There were no significant psychosocial correlates of girls’ total minutes and out-of-school minutes. Parents’ perceptions of environmental barriers accounted for 4% and 8% of the variance in girls’ total minutes and sport participation, respectively, and 6% of the variance in boys’ out-of-school minutes. In summary, correlates of physical activity among this sample varied by gender and the context within which the activity was performed.

J. Dollman, K. Norton and G. Tucker. (2002). Anthropometry, fitness and physical activity of urban and rural South Australian children. Pediatric Exercise Science. 14, 297-312.

The aim of this study was to compare urban and rural South Australian primary schoolchildren on measures of anthropometry, fitness, and environmental mediators of physical activity. The sample was comprised of 445 urban and 205 rural boys and 423 urban and 158 rural girls, all age 10-11 yrs at the time of testing. After controlling for socioeconomic status and ethnicity, rural girls and boys were faster over 1.6 k than their urban counterparts while rural girls were also faster over 50 in. Rural residence independently predicted participation in organized activity, increasing involvement in club sport, and decreasing involvement in school sport. Rural children reported a greater likelihood of participating in two or more physical education classes per week. It is evident that urban and rural South Australia differ in ways which impact on fitness and physical activity patterns of upper primary age children.

S. C. Duncan, T. E. Duncan, L. A. Strycker and N. R. Chaumeton. (2002). Neighborhood physical activity opportunity: a multilevel contextual model. / Etude des possibilites de pratiquer une activite physique en fonction de l ' environnement social, familial et communautaire. Research Quarterly for Exercise & Sport. 73, 457.

Presents a study done to survey children's exercise and physical activity behaviour patterns within their neighbourhood and how these patterns are influenced by community and neighbourhood characteristics.

G. M. Felton, M. Dwoda, D. S. Ward, R. K. Dishman, S. G. Trost, R. Saunders and R. R. Pate. (2002). Differences in physical activity between Black and White girls living in rural and urban areas. Journal of School Health. 72, 250.

This study examined the relationship of race and rural/urban setting to physical, behavioral, psychosocial, and environmental factors associated with physical activity. Subjects included 1,668 eighth-grade girls from 31 middle schools: 933 from urban settings, and 735 from rural settings. Forty-six percent of urban girls and 59 % of rural girls were Black. One-way and two-way ANOVAs with school as a covariate were used to analyze the data. Results indicated that most differences were associated with race rather than setting. Black girls were less active than White girls, reporting significantly fewer 30-minute blocks of both vigorous and moderate-to-vigorous physical activity. Black girls also spent more time watching television, and had higher BMIs and greater prevalence of overweight than White girls. However, enjoyment of physical education and family involvement in physical activity were greater among Black girls than White girls. Rural White girls and urban Black girls had more favorable attitudes toward physical activity. Access to sports equipment, perceived safety of neighborhood, and physical activity self-efficacy were higher in White girls than Black girls.

T. Hendy. (2002). Playgrounds for the mind, body and spirit. Successful play environments are those that engage people. Parks & Recreation. 37, 64.

Playgrounds can be designed to encourage dynamic play, excite the senses of those who visit them, and can nurture a child's imagination and growth.

A. P. Hills and B. Cambourne. (2002). Walking to school - a sustainable environmental strategy to prevent childhood obesity. Australasian Epidemiologist. 9, 15.

G. C. Liu, C. Cunningham, S. M. Downs, D. G. Marrero and N. Fineberg. (2002). A spatial analysis of obesogenic environments for children. Proc AMIA Symp. 459-63.

In this study, we use spatial analysis techniques to explore environmental and social predictors of obesity in children. We constructed a merged database, incorporating clinical data from an electronic medical record system, the Regenstrief Medical Record System (RMRS) and societal & environmental data from a geographical information system, the Social Assets and Vulnerabilities Indicators (SAVI) Project. We used the RMRS to identify cohorts of children that were normal weight, overweight, or obese. The RMRS records were geocoded and merged into the SAVI database. Using the merged databases, we analyzed the relationships between markers of socioeconomic status and obesity outcomes in children. Our preliminary analyses show that markers of low socioeconomic status at the census tract level correlate with both overweight and obese outcomes in our study population. Utilization of geographic information systems (GIS) for the study of health epidemiology is discussed.

B. E. Saelens, J. F. Sallis, P. R. Nader, S. L. Broyles, C. C. Berry and H. L. Taras. (2002). Home environmental influences on children's television watching from early to middle childhood. J Dev Behav Pediatr. 23, 127-32.

Identifying correlates of children's television (TV) watching could help identify strategies to reduce children's TV watching and impact children's weight status. Children's TV time and home environment factors were assessed longitudinally among 169 families with children followed from 6 to 12 years of age. TV watching increased with age, as did the number of in-home TVs and the presence of videocassette recorders (VCRs), the frequency of meal eating while watching TV, and the percentage of children with bedroom TVs. Greater meal eating while watching TV was consistently related to overall TV watching and increases in TV watching over time. The number of in-home TVs and the presence of a bedroom TV were less consistent correlates. TV watching was related to weight status when children were younger, and when children were older, more than 2 hours of TV daily was a risk factor for higher weight. Modifying TV access, particularly by reducing the frequency of meals eaten while watching TV, could promote lower children's TV watching and adiposity.

J. F. Sallis, L. T. McKenzie, T. L. Conway, J. P. Elder, J. J. Prochaska, M. Brown, S. J. Marshall, J. E. Alcaraz, P. Rosengard, J. Strelow and H. Powers. (2002). Promoting and measuring youth physical activity throughout the school day: Project M-Span. Acta Kinesiologiae Universitatis Tartuensis. 7, 44.

Effects of environmental and policy interventions on the eating and physical activity of students at twnty-four public middle schools in San Diego County, California.

A. N. Sjolie and F. Thuen. (2002). School journeys and leisure activities in rural and urban adolescents in Norway. Health Promotion International. 17, 21-30.

Health promotion measures in order to increase physical activity should include environmental and policy approaches Studies in natural living environments such as rural and urban areas may provide valuable information about the effects of environmental factors on physical activity. The present study was performed among 88 adolescents living in one rural and one urban area in Norway, with particular focus on the availability of cycling tracks and walking trails. The study showed that both rural and urban adolescents spent more time on sedentary activities, such as watching TV/video and playing TV/data-games, than on regular physical activity. No differences were observed between the two groups in regard to activity patterns. However, the median distance the urban adolescents walked or cycled to school was three times greater than the median distance the rural adolescents walked or cycled to a bus stop or to school. The urban adolescents also walked or cycled more to regular activities than the rural ones. Positive correlations were found between walking or cycling from home to school and walking or cycling to regular activities. In multiple regression analysis, urban area, female gender and distance walked or cycled to school or bus stop predicted increased walking or cycling to activities. The results confirm other studies on adolescents, showing that much more time is spent on sedentary rather than on physical activity. Knowledge is still lacking concerning predictors of sedentary and general physical activity, but the results indicate that access to cycling tracks and walking trails in residential areas may increase both walking or cycling to school and to leisure activities. A relevant strategy for health promotion may therefore be to make cycling tracks and walking trails accessible; some passive transport both to school and to leisure activities may thus probably be replaced by walking or cycling.

J. A. Sutterby and J. L. Frost. (2002). Making playgrounds fit for children and children fit on playgrounds. Young Children. 57, 36-41.

Built Environment and Adults

A. C. Bell, K. Ge and B. M. Popkin. (2002). The road to obesity or the path to prevention: motorized transportation and obesity in China. Obes Res. 10, 277-83.

OBJECTIVE: Dependence on motorized forms of transportation may contribute to the worldwide obesity epidemic. Shifts in transportation patterns occurring in China provide an ideal opportunity to study the association between vehicle ownership and obesity. Our objective was to determine whether motorized forms of transportation promote obesity. RESEARCH METHODS AND PROCEDURES: A multistage random-cluster sampling process was used to select households from eight provinces in China. Data were included on household vehicle ownership and individual anthropometric and sociodemographic status. Cross-sectional data (1997) from 4741 Chinese adults aged 20 to 55 years were used to explore the association between vehicle ownership and obesity. Cohort data (1989 to 1997) from 2485 adults aged 20 to 45 years in 1989 (59% follow-up) were used to measure the impact of vehicle acquisition on the odds of becoming obese. RESULTS: Our main outcome measure was current obesity status and the odds of becoming obese over an 8-year period. In 1997, 84% of adults did not own motorized transportation. However, the odds of being obese were 80% higher (p < 0.05) for men and women in households who owned a motorized vehicle compared with those who did not own a vehicle. Fourteen percent of households acquired a motorized vehicle between 1989 and 1997. Compared with those whose vehicle ownership did not change, men who acquired a vehicle experienced a 1.8-kg greater weight gain (p < 0.05) and had 2 to 1 odds of becoming obese. DISCUSSION: Encouraging active forms of transportation may be one way to protect against obesity.

D. Berrigan and R. P. Troiano. (2002). The association between urban form and physical activity in US adults. American Journal Of Preventive Medicine. 23, 74-79.

Background: Physical inactivity is associated with multiple adverse health outcomes. Results from the transportation literature suggest that aspects of the urban environment may influence walking for transportation. In this paper we examine the association between a proxy measure of the urban environment and walking behavior. Methods: We analyzed the association between home age and walking behavior in U.S. adults using data from the Third National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey. Logistic regression was used to estimate odds ratios and 95% confidence intervals and to control for the effects of gender, race/ethnicity, age, education level, household income, and activity limitations. Results: Adults who lived in homes built before 1946 and from 1946 to 1973 were significantly more likely to walk 1+ miles greater than or equal to20 times per month than those who lived in homes built after 1973. This association was present among people living in urban and suburban counties, but absent among those living in rural counties. The association was also found in models that controlled for gender, race/ethnicity, age, education, income, and any health-related activity limitation. Other forms of leisure-time physical activity were nor independently associated with home age. Conclusions: These results support the hypothesis that environmental variables influence walking frequency and suggest that home age may be a useful proxy for features of the urban environment that influence physical activity in the form of walking. Such proxy measures could facilitate testing ecologic models of health behavior using survey data.

M. A. Carnegie, A. Bauman, A. L. Marshall, M. Mohsin, V. Westley-Wise and M. L. Booth. (2002). Perceptions of the physical environment, stage of change for physical activity, and walking among Australian adults. / Perceptions de l ' environnement physique, de stages d ' orientations pour l ' activite physique et la marche chez des adultes australiens. Research Quarterly for Exercise & Sport. 73, 146.

Data for this study were from a population survey of 1,200 adults ages 40-60 years, sampled from the Illawarra region of New South Wales. Questionnaire items on perceptions of the environment were factor analyzed into: Aesthetic Environment and Practical Environment. For both factors, those in the Contemplation stage had more negative views of the environment than those in Maintenance. Those who walked for 0-20 min/week held more negative perceptions of their environment than those who walked for 21-120 min/week and those who walked for > 120 min/week. The health promotion implications of these findings are that environments perceived as attractive and as providing convenient access to services and facilities may influence motivational readiness for physical activity and time spent walking.

C. L. Craig, R. C. Brownson, S. E. Cragg and A. L. Dunn. (2002). Exploring the effect of the environment on physical activity: a study examining walking to work. Am J Prev Med. 23, 36-43.

BACKGROUND: Research on physical activity and the physical environment is at the correlates stage, so it is premature to attribute causal effects. This paper provides a conceptual approach to understanding how the physical design of neighborhoods may influence behavior by disentangling the potential effects of income, university education, poverty, and degree of urbanization on the relationship between walking to work and neighborhood design characteristics.METHODS: The study merges Canadian data from 27 neighborhood observations with information on walking to work from the 1996 census. Hierarchical linear modeling was used to create a latent environment score based on 18 neighborhood characteristics (e.g., variety of destinations, visual aesthetics, and traffic). The relationship between the environment score and walking to work was modeled at the second level, controlling for income, university education, poverty, and degree of urbanization.RESULTS: With the exceptions of visual interest and aesthetics, each neighborhood characteristic contributed significantly to the environment score. The environment score was positively associated with walking to work, both with and without adjustment for degree of urbanization. Controlling for university education, income, and poverty did not influence these relationships.CONCLUSIONS: The positive association between the environment score and walking to work, controlling for degree of urbanization supports the current movement toward the development of integrated communities for housing, shops, workplaces, schools, and public spaces. Given the need for research to guide environmental interventions, collaboration among public health practitioners, urban planners, and transportation researchers is essential to integrate knowledge across sectors.

F. M. Dieleman, M. Dijst and G. Burghouwt. (2002). Urban form and travel behaviour: Micro-level household attributes and residential context. Urban Studies. 39, 507-527.

Many countries now have policies to reduce distances travelled by private car and to favour the use of public transport, cycling and walking. The development of compact urban forms and the design of urban communities which favour walking are seen as particularly effective strategies for reducing car dependency. The factors which determine travel behaviour are not fully understood, so that effective policies influencing travel patterns are difficult to formulate. Apart from urban form and design, personal attributes and circumstances have an impact on modal choice and distances travelled. People with higher incomes are more likely to own and use a private car than low-income households. Families with children use cars more often than one-person households. The purpose of a trip-work, shopping and leisure-also influences travel mode and distance. We used the Netherlands National Travel Survey (OVG) to explore some of these relationships in more depth. The relative importance of personal attributes and the characteristics of residential environments as determinants of modal choice and travel distance were explored. Both sets of factors maintain a clear, strong relationship with travel behaviour in multivariate models of travel behaviour.

K. R. Evenson, O. L. Sarmiento, M. L. Macon, K. W. Tawney and A. S. Ammerman. (2002). Environmental, policy, and cultural factors related to physical activity among Latina immigrants. Women & Health. 36, 43-57.

According to national surveillance studies, participation in leisure-time physical activity remains low among minority women. Furthermore, the correlates of such activity in this group are not well understood. To better understand the environmental, policy, and sociocultural correlates of physical activity among Latina immigrants, six focus groups were conducted in rural North Carolina. Among the 49 participants, median age was 32 years and median education I I years. Participants were first generation immigrants from Mexico (n = 43), El Salvador (n = 3), Colombia (n = 1), the Dominican Republic (n = 1), and Honduras (n = 1). Environmental and policy barriers to activity were identified, including transportation, lack of facilities, cost, and safety. Sociocultural correlates of activity included gender roles for activity, importance of support from the family and husband, child care issues tied to having few relatives who lived close by, language, and isolation in the community. The women suggested changes and programs that could promote physical activity through multiple channels, especially involving the family. This information can be used to develop culturally appropriate interventions to increase physical activity among Latinas.

B. Giles-Corti and R. J. Donovan. (2002). The relative influence of individual, social and physical environment determinants of physical activity. Social Science & Medicine. 54, 1793-1812.

Environmental determinants of health are receiving growing attention in the literature, although there is little empirical research in this area. The Study on Environmental and Individual Determinants of Physical Activity (known as the SEID project) was a social ecological project that examined the relative influence of individual, social environmental and physical environmental determinants of recreational physical activity. It involved a community survey of 1803 healthy workers and home-makers aged 18-59 years living in a 408km(2) area of metropolitan Perth, Western Australia. Physical environmental determinants were mainly conceptualised as spatial access to popular recreational facilities. Overall, 59% of respondents exercised as recommended. Recreational facilities located near home were used by more respondents than facilities located elsewhere. The most frequently, used facilities were informal: the streets (45.6%): public open space (28.8%) and the beach (22.7%). The physical environment's directs the influence on exercising as recommended was found to be secondary to individual and social environmental determinants. Nevertheless. accessible facilities determined,whether or not they were used and in this way, support and enhance the achievement of recommended levels of physical activity behaviour by providing opportunities. The results suggest that access to a supportive physical environment is necessary, but may be insufficient to increase recommended levels of physical activity in the community. Complementary strategies are required that aim to influence individual and social environmental factors. Given the popularity of walking in the community. it is recommended that greater emphasis be placed on creating streetscapes that enhance walking for recreation and transport. (C) 2002 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.

B. Giles-Corti and R. J. Donovan. (2002). Socioeconomic status differences in recreational physical activity levels and real and perceived access to a supportive physical environment. Prev Med. 35, 601-11.

BACKGROUND: Spatial access to recreational facilities and perceptions of the neighborhood environment and physical activity levels were examined by the socioeconomic status of area of residence (SES). METHODS: A cross-sectional survey of adults (18-59 years) (n = 1,803) stratified by SES using a geographic-based index was conducted. RESULTS: Respondents in low SES areas had superior spatial access to many recreational facilities, but were less likely to use them compared with those living in high SES areas. They were more likely to perceive that they had access to sidewalks and shops, but also perceived that their neighborhood was busier with traffic, less attractive, and less supportive of walking. After adjustment, respondents living in low SES areas were 36% less likely to undertake vigorous activity. While they were more likely to walk for transport, this was not statistically significant (OR, 1.27; 95% CI, 0.98-1.64), nor were other SES differences in walking for recreation and walking as recommended. Modifiable environmental factors were associated with walking and vigorous activity, especially perceived access to sidewalks and neighborhood attractiveness. Spatial access to attractive, public open space was associated with walking. CONCLUSIONS: Creating supportive environments--particularly sidewalks in attractive neighborhoods--has the potential to increase walking and vigorous activity.

S. L. Handy, M. G. Boarnet, R. Ewing and R. E. Killingsworth. (2002). How the built environment affects physical activity - Views from urban planning. American Journal Of Preventive Medicine. 23, 64-73.

The link between the built environment and human behavior has long been of interest to the field of urban planning, but direct assessments of the links between the built environment and physical activity as it influences personal health are still rare in the field. Yet the concepts, theories, and methods used by urban planners provide a foundation for an emerging body of research on the relationship between the built environment and physical activity. Recent research efforts in urban planning have focused on the idea that land use and design policies can be used to increase transit use as well as walking and bicycling. The development of appropriate measures for the built environment and for travel behavior is an essential element of this research. The link between the built environment and travel behavior is then made using theoretical frameworks borrowed from economics, and in particular, the concept of travel as a derived demand. The available evidence lends itself to the argument that a combination of urban design, land use patterns, and transportation systems that promotes walking and bicycling will help create active, healthier, and more livable communities. To provide more conclusive evidence, however, researchers must address the following issues: An alternative to the derived-demand framework must be developed for walking, measures of the built environment must be refined, and more-complete data on walking must be developed. In addition, detailed data on the built environment must be spatially matched to detailed data on travel behavior.

N. Humpel, N. Owen and E. Leslie. (2002). Environmental factors associated with adults' participation in physical activity: a review. Am J Prev Med. 22, 188-99.

BACKGROUND: Promoting physical activity is a public health priority, and changes in the environmental contexts of adults' activity choices are believed to be crucial. However, of the factors associated with physical activity, environmental influences are among the least understood. METHOD: Using journal scans and computerized literature database searches, we identified 19 quantitative studies that assessed the relationships with physical activity behavior of perceived and objectively determined physical environment attributes. Findings were categorized into those examining five categories: accessibility of facilities, opportunities for activity, weather, safety, and aesthetic attributes. RESULTS: Accessibility, opportunities, and aesthetic attributes had significant associations with physical activity. Weather and safety showed less-strong relationships. Where studies pooled different categories to create composite variables, the associations were less likely to be statistically significant. CONCLUSIONS: Physical environment factors have consistent associations with physical activity behavior. Further development of ecologic and environmental models, together with behavior-specific and context-specific measurement strategies, should help in further understanding of these associations. Prospective studies are required to identify possible causal relationships.

A. C. King, D. Stokols, E. Talen, G. S. Brassington and R. Killingsworth. (2002). Theoretical approaches to the promotion of physical activity - Forging a transdisciplinary paradigm. American Journal Of Preventive Medicine. 23, 15-25.

Background: Research in the physical activity promotion arena has focused on the application of theoretical perspectives aimed primarily at personal levels of understanding and analysis. The investigation of such theories has provided some insights related to potentially useful mediators of physical activity behavior. However, to continue to expand this field, new perspectives on personal-level theories, in addition to the exploration of more macro-level conceptual perspectives, are required. Objective: The purpose of this article is to: (1) briefly review the current strengths and limitations of the personal-level, physical activity-theory literature; and (2) introduce concepts and perspectives from other fields, including the social-ecology and urban-planning fields, of potential relevance to the physical activity arena. Method: We provide an overview of potentially relevant theoretical perspectives aimed at different levels of understanding and analysis, from the personal level through the broader-scale meso- and macro-environmental perspectives. In addition, we suggest initial steps to take in developing a transdisciplinary paradigm encompassing all such levels of analysis and investigation. Conclusions: Given the scope of the physical inactivity epidemic facing the U.S. population currently and in the future, methods and approaches that integrate theory and concepts across a broader group of disciplines will be increasingly necessary.

D. D. Reidpath, C. Burns, J. Garrard, M. Mahoney and M. Townsend. (2002). An ecological study of the relationship between social and environmental determinants of obesity. Health & Place. 8, 141-145.

There is growing concern with the increasing prevalence of obesity in industrialised countries, a trend that is more apparent in the poor than in the rich. In an ecological study, the relationship between an area measure of socioeconomic status (SES) and the density of fast-food outlets was examined as one possible explanation for the phenomenon. It was found that there was a dose-response between SES and the density of fast-food outlets, with people living in areas from the poorest SES category having 2.5 times the exposure to outlets than people in the wealthiest category. The findings are discussed. (C) 2002 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.

D. L. Richter, S. Wilcox, M. L. Greaney, K. A. Henderson and B. E. Ainsworth. (2002). Environmental, policy, and cultural factors related to physical activity in African American women. Women & Health. 36, 91-109.

Six focus groups were conducted in South Carolina with African American women (n = 42) aged 19-51 years to identify factors that influence physical activity. Transcripts were analyzed using NUD*IST. Cultural influences were seen as more important in determining the type of physical activity than its level. Barriers to and enablers of physical activity were identified in the social and physical environments, as were policy issues affecting physical activity in the community and at the work site. Potential community and work site interventions were suggested. Child care and monetary costs were frequently cited as barriers to physical activity. (C) 2002 by The Haworth Press, Inc. All rights reserved.

J. F. Sallis, K. Kraft and L. S. Linton. (2002). How the environment shapes physical activity: a transdisciplinary research agenda. Am J Prev Med. 22, 208.

B. Sanderson, M. Littleton and L. Pulley. (2002). Environmental, policy, and cultural factors related to physical activity among rural, African American women. Women & Health. 36, 75-90.

Sixty-one African American women (ages 20-50 years) from a rural community in Alabama participated in six focus groups. Barriers to and enablers of physical activity were identified and grouped into personal, environmental (social and physical), policy, and cultural themes for qualitative analyses. Personal factors included motivation, perceived health, feeling tired, and lack of time; social environmental factors included support from friends, family, and issues related to child care; physical environmental factors included weather, access to facilities, availability of sidewalks or other places to walk; policy factors included personal safety concerns (loose dogs, traffic, etc.) and inflexible work environments. Some, but not all, women perceived cultural differences as a factor affecting physical activity levels. Differences in socioeconomic levels and time demands among women of different cultures were identified as factors that may influence physical activity. Participants provided suggestions for community-based physical activity interventions using an environmental approach.

J. L. Thompson, P. Allen, L. Cunningham-Sabo, D. A. Yazzie, M. Curtis and S. M. Davis. (2002). Environmental, policy, and cultural factors related to physical activity in sedentary American Indian women. Women & Health. 36, 59-74.

Focus group interviews were conducted to explore sociocultural, environmental, and policy-related determinants of physical activity among sedentary American Indian women. Thirty women aged 20 to 50 years (mean = 37.4 +/- 10.6 years) participated. Three sessions were conducted with women aged 20 to 34 years and three with women aged 35 to 50 to evaluate response differences by age. Because no obvious age differences were observed, data were pooled. Barriers to physical activity included inadequate support for household and child care responsibilities and difficulties balancing home-related and societal expectations with physical activity. In addition, women reported little support from their communities and work sites to be physically active. Environmental barriers included lack of safe outdoor areas and accessible walking traits. Weather and stray dogs were also commonly mentioned. Sociocultural barriers included giving family obligations priority above all other things, being expected to eat large portions of high-fat foods, and failing to follow a traditionally active lifestyle. Enablers of physical activity included support from family and coworkers and participation in traditional community events. Suggested intervention approaches included accessible and affordable programs and facilities, community emphasis on physical activity, and programs that incorporated the needs of larger women and of families. Participants emphasized a preference for programs that were compatible with the role expectations of their families and communities, and they expressed the desire for acceptance and encouragement to be physically active from the family, the community, the worksite, and their tribal leaders. (C) 2002 by The Haworth Press, Inc. All rights reserved.

D. R. Young, X. He, J. Harris and I. Mabry. (2002). Environmental, policy, and cultural factors related to physical activity in well-educated urban African American women. Women Health. 36, 29-41.

The purpose of this qualitative study was to identify environmental, policy, and cultural predictors of physical activity in urban African American women living in Baltimore, MD. Thirty-nine mostly well-educated women participated in eight focus group discussions, five for women aged 36 to 50 years and three for women 20 to 35 years of age. Transcripts were analyzed using QSR NUD*IST qualitative software, and themes were identified. The discussions identified numerous opportunities and barriers for physical activity. The women reported being aware of physical activity resources and facilities available to them, but they lacked time and motivation to participate. Family responsibilities and duties unique to African American women were cited often. The results suggest that providing more environmental facilities may not be sufficient to increase physical activity in well-educated urban African American women. Intervention strategies that place value on family and cultural responsibilities should be considered.

Policy

W. H. Dietz, M. G. Bland, S. L. Gortmaker, M. Molloy and T. L. Schmid. (2002). Policy tools for the childhood obesity epidemic. J Law Med Ethics. 30, 83-7.

The rapid increases in childhood and adolescent overweight between 1980 and 1999 can only be explained by environmental factors. Historically, the most effective strategies to address nutritional problems that have caused such widespread disease have been policy-driven environmental changes. To develop effective public policy responses to the obesity epidemic, we must expand the science base linking environmental conditions and policies to health behaviors and conditions; establish effective intersectoral coalitions of stakeholders; and create effective policy at the national and state levels. Although the childhood obesity epidemic is still evolving, this article provides several examples of potentially effective strategic approaches to address it.

A. Sivan. (2002). Leisure participation of Hong Kong elderly: policy and practice. World Leisure Journal. 44, 11.

The paper examines the leisure participation of Hong Kong elderly. Based on data gathered through a recent study and secondary data from territory-wide surveys, the paper depicts the type, frequency rate and companionship in leisure activities. It further reviews the Hong Kong government's policy for the elderly. Results indicate that while the government encourages the elderly to maintain their active lifestyle, they participate in different types of leisure activity and especially in physical and sports activities. Their participation rate is similar to those at their adulthood years and even higher in certain activities. Results are discussed in light of three theories of experience in later life suggesting the application of the activity and continuity theories. Implications are drawn for future longitudinal research on leisure of adults and elderly and for further implementation of leisure education so as to enhance the quality of life of older people in Hong Kong.

T. Stahl, A. Rutten, D. Nutbeam and L. Kannas. (2002). The importance of policy orientation and environment on physical activity participation - a comparative analysis between Eastern Germany, Western Germany and Finland. Health Promotion International. 17, 235-246.

Environmental and policy interventions are seen as boosting physical activity, because they are designed to influence large groups. However they have not been much researched and the evidence on their role is still quite limited. The purpose of this study was to investigate differences in and relationships between policy orientation, the objective and perceived physical environment, and physical activity between Finland, Eastern Germany and Western Germany. The data are taken from a public telephone survey carried out as part of the international MAREPS project (Methodology, for the Analysis of Rationality and Effectiveness of Prevention and Health Promotion Strategies; Eastern Germany, n=913; Western Germany, n=489; Finland, n=400), statistics of sports facilities and policy documents. Results from the survey showed that Finns are more active than Germans and that they differ in their way of practising physical activity from Germans. Finns were more satisfied with their opportunities for physical activity and were better informed about physical programmes and measures. Finland also has the best opportunities in indoor sports facilities and outdoor sports grounds per number of inhabitants (excluding indoor swimming pools). Analysis of policy, orientations showed that Finland had the most extensive 'Sport for All' policy, although West Germany's policy orientation did not differ that much from Finland's. East Germany's policy orientation was characterized by competitive sports. A policy orientation that places emphasis on the physical activity of the whole population seems to be related to better opportunities and a better infrastructure for sports and physical activity. This study suggests that there is a relationship between policy orientation, physical environment and physical activity participation.

Social Environment and Children

K. K. Davison and L. L. Birch. (2002). Obesigenic families: parents' physical activity and dietary intake patterns predict girls' risk of overweight. International Journal Of Obesity. 26, 1186-1193.

OBJECTIVE: To determine whether obesigenic families can be identified based on mothers' and fathers' dietary and activity patterns. METHODS: A total of 197 girls and their parents were assessed when girls were 5y old; 192 families were reassessed when girls were 7y old. Measures of parents' physical activity and dietary intake were obtained and entered into a cluster analysis to assess whether distinct family clusters could be identified. Girls' skinfold thickness and body mass index (BMI) were also assessed and were used to examine the predictive validity of the clusters. RESULTS: Obesigenic and a non-obesigenic family clusters were identified, Mothers and fathers in the obesigenic cluster reported high levels of dietary intake and low levels of physical activity, while mothers and fathers in the non-obesigenic cluster reported low levels of dietary intake and high levels of activity. Girls from families in the obesigenic cluster had significantly higher BMI and skinfold thickness values at age 7 and showed significantly greater increases in BMI and skinfold thickness from ages 5 to 7y than girls from non-obesigenic families; differences were reduced but not eliminated after controlling for parents' BMI. CONCLUSIONS: Obesigenic families, defined in terms of parents' activity and dietary patterns, can be used predict children's risk of obesity.

M. Duncan, L. Woodfield, Y. Al-Nakeeb and A. Nevill. (2002). The impact of socio-economic status on the physical activity levels of British secondary school children. European Journal of Physical Education. 7, 30.

The aim of this study was to examine the physical activity levels of British secondary school children according to school year, gender and socio-economic status. Three hundred and one children from school years 7, 8 and 9 took part in the study. Physical activity was assessed using the four by one day recall questionnaire. Results indicate that the majority of children were classified as inactive but did appear to accumulate at least 30 minutes moderate activity daily. Significant differences were evident in average daily energy expenditure (p < 0.05), time spent in moderate and vigorous activity (both p < 0.01), with all aspects declining with age. Males reported greater average daily energy expenditure, time spent in moderate activity and time spent in vigorous activity than females (all p < 0.01). High socio-economic status children reported greater levels of average daily energy expenditure (p < 0.01) and time spent in both moderate and vigorous activity (both p < 0.05). It was concluded that the physical activity levels of older children, females and children from low socio-economic status groups may be a cause for concern.

K. Langnase, M. Mast and M. J. Muller. (2002). Social class differences in overweight of prepubertal children in northwest Germany. Int J Obes Relat Metab Disord. 26, 566-72.

OBJECTIVES: To assess social class differences in overweight and health-related behaviours in 5-7-y-old German children. DESIGN: Cross-sectional study. SETTING: Twenty-nine primary schools in Kiel (inhabitants: 248000), northwest Germany. SUBJECTS: A total of 1350 German 5-7-y-old children and their parents. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Body mass index (BMI), fat mass and health-related behaviours of the children. Self-reported height and weight of their parents, parental school education as a measure of social class. RESULTS: The prevalence of overweight (> or = 90th percentile of reference) was 18.5%. There was an inverse social gradient (P < 0.01): the highest fat mass was observed in children from low social class. The odds ratios for overweight reached 3.1 (CI 1.7-5.4) in boys and 2.3 (CI 1.2-4.3) in girls, respectively (low vs high social class). Overweight parents (BMI > or = 25 kg/m2) were more likely to have overweight children. Parental overweight enhanced the inverse social gradient. The prevalence of overweight was 37.5% (low social class) vs 22.9% (high social class) in children from overweight parents, respectively. There was an inverse social gradient in unhealthy behaviours. Parental BMI and physical inactivity were independent risk factors of overweight in children. CONCLUSIONS: In 5 to 7-y-old children overweight and health-related behaviours are inversely related to social class. Parental overweight enhanced the risk of childhood overweight. The familial effect on body weight is most pronounced in children with low social class. Preventive measures should specifically tackle 'overweight families' from low social class.

M. T. McGuire, D. R. Neumark-Sztainer and M. Story. (2002). Correlates of time spent in physical activity and television viewing in a multi-racial sample of adolescents. / Comparaison entre le temps passe a pratiquer une activite physique et a regarder la television chez un echantillon multi-racial d ' adolescents. Pediatric Exercise Science. 14, 75.

This study assessed whether the correlates related to physical activity and television viewing differed across gender, grade, and racial groups. Adolescents (n = 4746) from 31 junior and senior high schools completed a self-administered survey. Adolescents' physical activity was related to their families' and friends' fitness concerns. Adolescents' physical activity was also related to their own fitness and health concerns. Few correlates of physical activity differed by gender, age, or race. Television viewing was negatively related to the family's fitness concerns and health concerns; however, these factors accounted for a small amount of the variance in adolescents' television viewing. None of the factors related to television viewing differed by age or race groups. Future studies will need to identify the factors related to physical activity and television viewing among adolescents who are at greatest risk for inactivity.

R. Monge-Rojas, H. P. Nunez, C. Garita and M. Chen-Mok. (2002). Psychosocial aspects of Costa Rican adolescents' eating and physical activity patterns. J Adolesc Health. 31, 212-9.

PURPOSE: To determine the importance of some psychosocial aspects on the eating and physical activity patterns of Costa Rican adolescents.METHODS: A total of 1200 adolescents were included in the study. Data were collected using a self-administered instrument containing the following elements: questions to elicit demographic information and five sections with several items (stated as positive or negative behaviors) to study the influence of peers, parents, social environment, body image, and self-efficacy on five target behaviors, intake of foods rich in saturated fats, calcium, and iron, along with consumption of fruits and vegetables and physical activity practices. Data were analyzed using a factor analysis with main component extraction and varimax rotation, along with multiple regression analyses.RESULTS: Social environment and peer influence were the major factors that predict behaviors associated with the intake of foods rich in saturated fat. Meanwhile, parental and social environment influences were the main factors in explaining the fruit and vegetable intake-related behaviors. Self-efficacy was a significant predictor of behaviors associated with physical activity. Body image influence was an important variable associated with all the behaviors analyzed. Multiple regression analyses suggest that the fathers' educational level, the adolescents' age, being female, and living in a rural area may have positive influence on the behaviors studied; however, the overall R(2) for all regression models was quite small (or=49 y of age) compared to younger participants. The pattern of increasing odds ratios of overweight by neighbourhood deprivation was generally similar in all educational groups, the highest educational group being the exception with no association between neighbourhood deprivation and overweight. CONCLUSIONS: Increased prevalence rates of overweight in more compared to less deprived neighbourhoods are likely to contribute to the positive association between neighbourhood deprivation and CHD. Our results justify the development of a community-based strategy of primary prevention of overweight in deprived neighbourhoods, which may have a larger impact in females and older residents in particular. Prior to implementation, however, longitudinal research needs to further examine responsible mechanisms for the development of neighbourhood inequalities in overweight.

J. Wilbur, P. Chandler, B. Dancy, J. Choi and D. Plonczynski. (2002). Environmental, policy, and cultural factors related to physical activity in urban, African American women. Women Health. 36, 17-28.

This study was part of a multi-site project carried out with seven universities throughout the United States to identify cultural, environmental, and policy determinants of physical activity in ethnic minority women aged 20 to 50 years. Following an extensive literature review, nine core research questions were created to examine potential barriers to physical activity as well as enabling factors. Methods and findings presented are from six focus groups of low-income, urban African American women. These focus groups were held at each of two health centers serving communities in Chicago, Illinois, that are predominantly African American and low income and have households usually headed by women. Forty-eight women participated, with 5 to 11 in each group. Most (85%) were unmarried, 40% had less than a high school education, and 33% were neither employed nor attending school. Findings reflected the influence of a culture of poverty and the importance of environmental safety and community support. The findings will be used to inform the development of community-based exercise interventions and policies that are culturally and socially sensitive to the needs of low-income, urban African American women.

Measurement

J. A. Britton, L. H. Kushi, A. Morabia, J. Bernstein, R. Shore, W. Geringer and T. Rohan. (2002). The development of a questionnaire to assess past year physical activity in a multi-ethnic/racial urban population. Sozial-Und Praventivmedizin. 47, 178-194.

Objectives: Describe the development of a questionnaire to assess past year physical activity, including activities of daily living, in a multi-ethnic/racial cohort. Describe energy expenditure (EE) patterns in the sample used for questionnaire development. Methods: 24-hour activity recalls were collected from a convenience sample (N = 367) at four New York City health agencies (October 1999-February 2000). EE was determined at the population, subgroup, and individual level. EE distributions were compared. Results: Activities identified were similar to those on established questionnaires. Subgroup and individual EE differences were noted. Median EE at the Chinese and Puerto Rican sites were lower than those at the Caribbean or Dominican sites. No clear age pattern was apparent. Overall, a greater percentage of daily EE was spent in low intensity activities. The resultant 30-minute interviewer-administered questionnaire ascertains patterns (frequency and duration) of domain-specific (recreational, household, occupational, and transportation) activity. This information combined with published intensity levels provides summary EE measures. Conclusion: Variation in EE levels requires information on activity type and amount. Summary activity measures can be used to rank individuals analogous to nutrient food frequency measures.

M. Castro, J. L. Mendez and J. Fantuzzo. (2002). A validation study of the Penn Interactive Peer Play Scale with urban Hispanic and African American preschool children. School Psychology Quarterly. 17, 109-127.

The development of culturally and linguistically appropriate measurement is necessary to enable accurate assessment of preschool children's interpersonal competence and behavioral difficulties. This need is most pressing for children from Hispanic backgrounds, who currently represent the fastest growing population of U.S. children. The present study investigated the psychometric properties of a Spanish and English version of the Penn Interactive Peer Play Scale (PIPPS; Fantuzzo et al., 1995) when employed with Spanish- and English-speaking teachers and students in an urban, Southeastern community. Psychometrically sound structures were obtained with the Spanish translation of the PIPPS in support of the three original dimensions named Play Interaction, Play Disruption, and Play Disconnection, which were derived from studies of African American preschool children in lower income, Northeastern communities. Concurrent validity was supported by significant correlations between the three Spanish PIPPS constructs and teacher ratings of externalizing and internalizing behavior problems. Significant group differences in classroom peer play interactions were also detected for children's gender and ethnicity. The independent emergence of comparable Spanish and English PIPPS factor structures across two distinct regional samples provides initial support for use of this measure in research with Hispanic preschool children from low-income backgrounds. Implications for school psychologists engaging in outreach to preschool programs servicing diverse groups of children are discussed, including the generalizability of interactive peer play constructs for preschool children across racial, ethnic, linguistic, and geographic backgrounds.

L. Chasan-Taber, J. B. Erickson, J. W. McBride, P. C. Nasca, S. Chasan-Taber and P. S. Freedson. (2002). Reproducibility of a self-administered lifetime physical activity questionnaire among female college alumnae. American Journal Of Epidemiology. 155, 282-289.

Recent epidemiologic evidence suggests that lifetime physical activity is an important factor in the development of many chronic diseases. The authors assessed the reproducibility of a self-administered physical activity questionnaire designed to assess the duration, frequency, and intensity of lifetime household and recreational activities. The study was conducted among 134 female college alumnae from two colleges in western Massachusetts who were aged 39-65 years in 1998. A modified version of the Historical Leisure Activity Questionnaire was used to assess physical activity over four prior age periods (menarche to 21 years and 22-34, 35-50, and 51-65 years). The questionnaire was administered to participants by mail twice 1 year apart. The intraclass correlation coefficients used to measure reproducibility were 0.82 for total lifetime physical activity, 0.80 for lifetime mode rate-intensity activities, 0.86 for lifetime vigorous-intensity activities, 0.87 for lifetime recreational activities, and 0.78 for lifetime household activities. Correlations were 0.73 for total activity during the earliest prior age period (menarche to 21 years), 0.70 for ages 22-34 years, 0.78 for ages 35-50 years, and 0.83 for ages 51-65 years. These data indicate that this physical activity questionnaire is reproducible and provides a useful measure of average lifetime activity.

L. Chasan-Taber, J. B. Erickson, P. C. Nasca, S. Chasan-Taber and P. S. Freedson. (2002). Validity and reproducibility of a physical activity questionnaire in women. Medicine And Science In Sports And Exercise. 34, 987-992.

CHASAN-TABER, L., J. B. ERICKSON, P. C. NASCA, S. CHASAN-TABER, and P. S. FREEDSON. Validity and reproducibility of a physical activity questionnaire in women. Med. Sci. Sports Exerc., Vol. 34, No. 6, pp. 987-992, 2002. Purpose: To determine the validity and reproducibility of a self-administered physical activity questionnaire that assesses the frequency, intensity, and duration of recreational, household, and occupational activity in women. Methods: The questionnaire was administered by mail twice to 131 participants 1 yr apart. During this interval, participants completed four 1-wk activity logs corresponding to different seasons throughout the year. Results: The intraclass correlation coefficients used to measure reproducibility were 0.82 for total activity, 0.79 for moderate activity, 0.86 for vigorous activity, 0.80 for recreational activity, and 0.73 for household activity. The distribution of activity scores was similar between the questionnaires and the average of the four logs, indicating the participants' ability to incorporate seasonal variation into their recall on a questionnaire. The correlations between the questionnaire-based activity scores and log-based activity scores, indicating validity, were 0.26 for total activity, 0.15 for moderate activity, and 0.52 for vigorous activity. Women younger than age 50 tended to have higher validity scores than women aged 50 yr and older (r = 0.31 vs r = 0.19, respectively, for total activity). Conclusion: These data indicate that this physical activity questionnaire is reproducible and provides a useful measure of current activity, particularly vigorous activity, over a 1-yr period.

C. L. Craig, S. J. Russell and C. Cameron. (2002). Reliability and validity of Canada's physical activity monitor for assessing trends. Medicine And Science In Sports And Exercise. 34, 1462-1467.

Purpose: This investigation assessed the reliability and criterion validity of the Physical Activity Monitor, a telephone-interview adaptation of the Minnesota Leisure Time Physical Activity Questionnaire (MLTPAQ), which is currently used to assess trends in the Canadian population. Methods: A sample of 512 people aged 18 yr and older was selected by random-digit dialing for telephone interviewing in the reliability study. The Monitor questions were administered twice, 3 wk apart. For the criterion validity study, a sample of 148 people aged 18-69 yr was selected at random from households. Participants completed the Monitor questions by telephone and an in-home step test to estimate maximum oxygen uptake. Another random sample of individuals aged 18-69 yr participated in a comparison study of the Monitor against the 1988 Campbell's Survey of Well-Being (CSWB) instrument. All studies were conducted in the vicinity of Toronto, Ontario. Spearman correlations controlling for age and sex were calculated as a measure of association for the reliability, validity, and comparison studies. Validity estimates were further adjusted for body mass index and physical activity demands of work and chores. Results: The Monitor instrument produced reliable estimates of total energy expenditure (P = 0.90, P < 0.0001) with criterion validity of 0.36 (P < 0.0001). The association between estimates of total energy expenditure derived from the Monitor and CSWB instruments was 0.77 (P < 0.0001). Conclusion: The Physical Activity Monitor has acceptable test-retest reliability and criterion validity. The research also demonstrated that for the purpose of population monitoring a change in data collection mode-telephone interview versus self-administration in households-can yield reasonably comparable estimates from two adaptations of the MLTPAQ.

J. C. Eisenmann, N. Milburn, L. Jacobsen and S. J. Moore. (2002). Reliability and convergent validity of the Godin Leisure-Time Exercise Questionnaire in rural 5th-grade school-children. Journal Of Human Movement Studies. 43, 135-149.

The purpose of this study was to examine the reliability and convergent validity of the Godin Leisure-Time Exercise Questionnaire in fifth-grade students. Thirty-one children (average age 10.6 +/- 0.2yrs) from a rural elementary school in Wyoming completed the Godin Leisure-Time Exercise Questionnaire on two separate occasions and wore the Caltrac accelerometer for one day to determine the convergent validity of the questionnaire. The questionnaire was administered at the beginning and end of the school day. The test-retest reliabilities for females were low (r0.80) for the strenuous exercise category and the total leisure activity score. In males, test-retest reliabilities were moderate (r=0.30-0.45) for the mild and moderate exercise categories and moderate (r=0.50-0.60) for the strenuous exercise category and the total leisure activity score. Overall, the strength of the reliability coefficient was moderate (r=0.62) for the total leisure activity score. The relationship between the Caltrac (counts per hour) and average total leisure activity score was 0.50. The Godin Leisure-Time Exercise Questionnaire is therefore a cost-effective, easy-to-administer self-report survey that showed moderate test-retest reliability and convergent validity in fifth-grade school-children.

V. B. Jenvey and H. L. Jenvey. (2002). CRITERIA USED TO CATEGORIZE CHILDREN'S PLAY: PRELIMINARY FINDINGS. Social Behavior & Personality: An International Journal. 30, 733.

Debate exists about the defining characteristics of play, yet there have been few empirical studies to assess the reliability of existing categorizations. This preliminary study aimed to identify and assess the reliability of criteria generated by participants themselves to categorize children's play. Twelve participants (6F/6M), who were experienced in observing children's play, were shown eight video excerpts of children's play and asked questions to elicit (a) the criteria they used to categorize play and (b) the features of each play episode that were salient to the participants. Results showed that participants categorized play according to a mixture of Behavioral (Positive Affect; Nonliterality; Unrestrained/Unrestricted); Motivational (Practice; Communication and Cooperation) and Contextual (Presence of toys and props) criteria. These criteria were mostly comparable with existing criteria used to categorize play. Results are discussed in terms of the multidimensional nature of children's play and its characteristic and reliably identifiable features.

M. S. Kerner and M. I. Kalinski. (2002). Scale construction for measuring adolescent boys' and girls' attitudes, beliefs, perception of control, and intention to engage in leisure-time physical activity. Perceptual And Motor Skills. 95, 109-117.

Using the Theory of Planned Behavior as a framework, the Attitude to Leisure-time Physical Activity, Expectations of Others, Perceived Control, and Intention to Engage in Leisure-time Physical Activity scales were developed for use among high school students. The study population included 20 boys and 68 girls 13 to 17 years of age (for boys, M= 15.1 yr., SD= 1.0; for girls, M= 15.0 yr., SD= 1.1). Generation of items and the establishment of content validity were performed by professionals in exercise physiology, physical education, and clinical psychology. Each scale item was phrased in a Likert-type format. Both unipolar and bipolar scales with seven response choices were developed. Following the pilot testing and subsequent revisions, 32 items were retained in the Attitude to Leisure-time Physical Activity scale, 10 items were retained in the Expectations of Others scale, 3 items were retained in the Perceived Control Scale, and 24 items were retained in the Intention to Engage in Leisure-time Physical Activity scale. Coefficients indicated adequate stability and internal consistency with alpha ranging from.81 to.96. Studies of validities are underway, after which scales would be made available to those interested in intervention techniques for promoting positive attitudes toward physical fitness, perception of control over engaging in leisure-time physical activities, and good intentions to engage in leisure-time physical activities. The present results are encouraging.

P. H. Kulinna, J. J. Martin, W. Zhu and B. Reed. (2002). Development and calibration of an instrument measuring barriers to physically active physical education classes. Journal Of Human Movement Studies. 43, 1-16.

The purposes of this study were: (a) to develop and calibrate an instrument that measures barriers to providing physically active physical education classes and (b) to examine the severity of the barriers that teachers face and to determine differences in teacher perceived barriers by their characteristics. The study was conducted in two phases, consisting of a pilot study (N=66) and a calibration study (N=213). Rasch analysis was used in the calibration phase to investigate model-data fit and to examine the difficulty of the barriers. Results indicated that the model fit the data well, and that the two most severe barriers were 'I do not have enough fitness equipment' and 'students bring notes from parents to be excused from activity'. Results from t-tests suggested that the barriers teachers faced in providing physically active classes differed in terms of their years of teaching experience and level of teaching.

L. C. Masse, C. Dassa, L. Gauvin, B. Giles-Corti and R. Motl. (2002). Emerging measurement and statistical methods in physical activity research. American Journal Of Preventive Medicine. 23, 44-55.

Although many studies have attempted to identify mediators and moderators of changes in physical activity involvement, the literature is inconclusive regarding which variable(s) relate to physical activity behavior change. The Cooper 2001 Conference series dedicated a session to discussing measurement and statistical methods that could contribute to advancing this research agenda. This article focuses on four such methodologic approaches: qualitative; psychometric; latent-variable, structural equation modeling; and multilevel modeling. The article presents a brief overview of these methods and discusses potential advantages and limitations of using them.

Z. Mei, L. M. Grummer-Strawn, A. Pietrobelli, A. Goulding, M. I. Goran and W. H. Dietz. (2002). Validity of body mass index compared with other body-composition screening indexes for the assessment of body fatness in children and adolescents. Am J Clin Nutr. 75, 978-85.

BACKGROUND: Validation studies of height- and weight-based indexes of body fatness in children and adolescents have examined only small samples of school-age children. OBJECTIVE: The objective was to validate the performance of age- and sex-specific body mass index (BMI) compared with the Rohrer index (RI) and weight-for-height in screening for both underweight and overweight in children aged 2-19 y. DESIGN: Data from the third National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (n = 11096) and a pooled data set from 3 studies that used dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry (n = 920) were examined. The receiver operating characteristic curve was used to characterize the sensitivity and specificity of these 3 indexes in classifying both underweight and overweight. Percentage body fat and total fat mass were determined by dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry. Subcutaneous fat was assessed on the basis of the average of triceps and subscapular skinfold thicknesses. RESULTS: For children aged 2-19 y, BMI-for-age was significantly better than were weight-for-height and RI-for-age in detecting overweight when average skinfold thicknesses were used as the standard, but no differences were found in detecting underweight. When percentage body fat or total fat mass was used as the standard, BMI-for-age was significantly better than was RI-for-age in detecting overweight in children aged 3-19 y. No differences were found between BMI-for-age and weight-for-height in detecting overweight or underweight. CONCLUSION: For children and adolescents aged 2-19 y, the performance of BMI-for-age is better than that of RI-for-age in predicting underweight and overweight but is similar to that of weight-for-height.

B. S. Metcalf, L. D. Voss and T. J. Wilkin. (2002). Accelerometers identify inactive and potentially obese children (EarlyBrid 3). Archives Of Disease In Childhood. 87, 166-167.

Accelerometers revealed a fivefold variation in physical activity among healthy 5 year old children. They singled out habitually inactive children, most of them girls, who did little, whether at school or over the weekend. Accelerometers are of potential value in identifying, from an early age, children at risk of becoming obese.

A. J. Milat, J. Stubbs, S. Engelhard, P. Weston, B. Giles-Corti and S. Fitzgerald. (2002). Measuring physical activity in public open space - an electronic device versus direct observation. Australian And New Zealand Journal Of Public Health. 26, 50-51.

Objective: To evaluate the practicality and validity of using infra-red beam counters (IRBCs) to measure walking path use and overall park use. Method: Direct observation was carried out simultaneously with IRBC data collection in five parks on seven non-consecutive days during February-March in 1998 and on matched days in 1999. A second validation study was undertaken in one park in October 1999. Results: The IRBC over-estimated the observed number of people using walking paths by 14% to 78%. When assessed by path volume, the difference between the IRBC and observer ranged from 10% under-estimation to 16% over-estimation. In a more rigorous evaluation of path volume the IRBC under-estimated the observed count by 20%. The extent to which the IRBC equated with the number of observed park users varied from 69% underestimation to no difference, Conclusion: IRBCs are not appropriate for measuring the number of people engaging in physical activity in parks, Implications: IRBCs cannot replace direct observation for the collection of valid data on physical activity participation in parks. Further research is needed to determine settings in which electronic devices such as IRBCs may provide valid data on physical activity participation.

J. Mota, P. Santos, S. Guerra, J. C. Ribeiro, J. A. Duarte and J. F. Sallis. (2002). Validation of a physical activity self-report questionnaire in a Portuguese pediatric population. Pediatric Exercise Science. 14, 269-276.

The goal of this study was to validate an adapted version of the "weekly checklist" in a Portuguese population. The validity was assessed by comparing self-reports against the Computer Science and Application, Inc (CSA) monitor. The sample comprised 109 children (boys, n = 42; girls, n = 67), aged 8 to 16 years old. All subjects were volunteers from local schools (Oporto region). The weekly activity checklist was modestly (r = 0.30) but significantly (P ................
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