Section Title (17 pt)
CHAPTER 6: GENDER
INTRODUCTION
THE TERM GENDER REFERS TO THE SOCIOCULTURAL DIMENSION OF BEING MALE OR FEMALE; GENDER ROLES ARE SOCIETAL EXPECTATIONS OF CIVILIZED BEHAVIOR FOR MALES AND FEMALES. FIRST, THE INHERITED BIOLOGICAL BLUEPRINT INFLUENCES OUR GENDER BY PROGRAMMED HORMONAL CHANGES ASSOCIATED WITH PUBERTY. THE INTENSITY OF FEELINGS ASSOCIATED WITH HORMONAL FLOODING DURING ADOLESCENCE USUALLY LEADS TO THE MAGNIFICATION OF GENDER GENDER-BASED BEHAVIOR. SECOND, THE RESULTANT BEHAVIOR, OR DANCE, DEMONSTRATED BY ADOLESCENTS APPEARS TO BE INFLUENCED BY SOCIAL NORMS OF THE COMMUNITY. OTHER MEMBERS OF THE FAMILY, PEER GROUP, AND CULTURE MODEL AND REINFORCE THE BEHAVIOR BELIEVED TO BE CIVILIZED. THIRD, THE ADOLESCENT HAS THE ABILITY TO CHOOSE THE BEHAVIOR PATTERN THAT BEST FITS HIS OR HER UNDERSTANDING OF SELF AND EXPECTATIONS FOR PERSONAL OUTCOME.
The following points summarize main theories and evidence explaining gender:
( Freud and Erikson believed sexual differences explained the psychological and gender gender-based differences between males and females.
( Evolutionary psychology explains that successful men were aggressive to fend off competitors; women developed a preference for successful men.
( Alice Eagly suggests that women perform more domestic roles, have fewer resources, and have less control and thus developed cooperative behavior patterns.
( Social cognitive theory of gender explains that gender roles are modeled, reinforced and punished directly, and shown to be successful by parents and peers.
( School and teachers influence gender roles by designing schools for male patterns of learning and providing disproportionate levels of attention to male students.
( The mass media presents magnified gender role behavior that solidifies stereotypical expectations and behavior patterns including gender roles.
( The cognitive developmental theory explains that newly acquired cognitive capacity allows adolescents to choose a gender identity that fits personal goals and attitudes.
( The gender schema theory suggests that the paths adolescents choose are determined by the combined factors of cognitive, societal, and biological influences.
Gender stereotypes reflect sweeping explanations that are believed to characterize patterns of thought and behavior. Once established, gender stereotypes are hard to shake. Sexism occurs as a result of exclusionary practices based on a categorization of male or female as opposed to determining actual capability required for the task. In reality, the differences between males and females are relatively small. The area of greatest difference occurs following puberty in the area of physical development. The male and female differences in cognitive performance are small. In the area of socioemotional differences, several patterns emerge: females establish connections through rapport talk versus the male style of report talk; males are more physically aggressive and active than are females. Most psychologists argue that differences between males and females very vary in degree depending on the domain observed. Behavior characteristic of either gender may be influenced by the context in which it is observed.
Gender role classifications include the following:
( Traditional gender roles–—males are independent, aggressive, and power oriented; females are dependent, nurturing, and uninterested in power; women’s traits are expressive, warm, and emotional; and men’s traits are instrumental and competent.
( Androgyny—–males and females demonstrate high levels of both expressive and instrumental behavior, as both are desirable characteristics in promoting mental health due to increased flexibility, responsiveness in personal relationships, and managers.
( Attempts to change attitudes about gender-role orientation have shown mixed results as children demonstrate more liberal responses to role diversity than do young adolescents.
( Traditional masculinity and problem behaviors—–males engage in officially sanctioned but covertly reinforced behavior that heightens an image of masculinity, e.g., risky, aggressive or violent, and sexual behavior.
( Health—–men have riskier lives than do women including shorter lives and more violence.
( Male-female relationships—–men often interpret societal expectations as men’s responsibility to be in control; and societal sanctions for dominance, power, and aggression.
( Male-male relationships—–men have had too little time with fathers demonstrating flexibility, nurturance, and sensitivity toward others.
( Gender-role transcendence—–the competence of males and females is not based on gender roles but on peoples’ ability to respond humanely to each other.
Developmental changes associated with puberty have a tremendous impact on gender gender-based behavior. The gender intensification hypothesis explains that behavior change during maturation signals others to impose social expectations for the adolescent to demonstrate appropriate gender roles. Carol Gilligan explained that females must adapt to different levels of sensitivity between males and females, and adapt to male-dominated societies. An unfortunate side effect occurs as females suppress their ideas and sometimes become self-destructive. Feminine girls appear to lower their voices and adopt gender appropriate expectations in public settings; androgynous females maintain strong voices in all settings.
Feminists are concerned about the study of women in the context of a male dominated theme. Carol Gilligan encourages women to establish their own perspective from personal development and experience. Assertive, independent, and authentic selves present a distinct female voice and perspective on gender. Biology and social factors influence gender expectations, yet determining individual roles serves as a central task of adolescent development——one adolescents are highly motivated to complete.
TOTAL TEACHING PACKAGE OUTLINE
CHAPTER 6: GENDER
|HEADING | |RESOURCE |
| | | |
| | | |
|I. BIOLOGICAL, SOCIAL, AND COGNITIVE INFLUENCES ON GENDER | |Learning Goal: 1 |
| | |Image Gallery: 22 |
| | |Critical Thinking Exercise: 6.1, 6.3 |
| | |Short Scenario: 6.1 |
| | |Essay Question: 1 |
| | | |
|Biological Influences on Gender | |Lecture Topic: 6.1 |
| | |Discussion Topic: 6.1 |
| | |Short Scenarios: 6.3 |
| | |Essay Question: 1 |
| | | |
|Pubertal Change and Sexuality | |Image Gallery: 144, 146 |
| | |Short Scenario: 6.3 |
| | |Essay Question: 1 |
| | | |
|Freud and Erikson—Anatomy Is Destiny | |Essay Question: 1 |
| | | |
|Evolutionary Psychology and Gender | |Discussion Topic: 6.1 |
| | |Essay Question: 1 |
| | |WWW: Gender Resources at santrocka10 |
| | | |
|Social Influences on Gender | |Lecture Topic: 6.1 |
| | |Short Scenario: 6.1, 6.2, 6.3 |
| | |Research Article: 6.2 |
| | |Research Project: 6.1 |
| | |Essay Question: 1 |
| | |WWW: Alice Eagly’s Research at santrocka10 |
| | | |
|Parental Influences | |Discussion Topic: 6.3 |
| | |Short Scenario: 6.1 |
| | |Essay Question: 1 |
| | | |
|Siblings | |Short Scenario: 6.1 |
| | | |
|Peers | |Research Article: 6.1 |
| | |Essay Question: 1 |
| | | |
|Schools and Teachers | |Essay Questions: 1, 2 |
| | |WWW: Shortchanging Girls; Shortchanging America; Positive Expectations |
| | |for Girls; War on Boys; Center for Gender Equity; Gender and Television |
| | |at santrocka10 |
| | | |
|Mass-Media Influences | |Critical Thinking Exercise: 6.1 |
| | |Research Article: 6.2 |
| | |Research Project: 6.2 |
| | |Essay Questions: 1, 3 |
| | | |
|Cognitive Influences on Gender | |Short Scenario: 6.1, 6.2, 6.3 |
| | |Research Project: 6.1 |
| | |Essay Question: 1, 4 |
| | |Research Article: 6.2 |
| | | |
|III. GENDER STEREOTYPES, SIMILARITIES, AND DIFFERENCES | |Learning Goal: 2 |
| | |Lecture Topic: 6.2, 6.3 |
| | |Critical Thinking Exercise: 6.3 |
| | |In-Class Activity: 6.1 |
| | |Essay Question: 5 |
| | | |
|Gender Stereotyping | |In-Class Activity: 6.1 |
| | |Short Scenarios: 6.2, 6.3 |
| | |Research Project: 6.1 |
| | |Essay Question: 5 |
| | |WWW: Girls and Technology; Telementoring for Girls at |
| | |santrocka10 |
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|Gender Similarities and Differences | |Lecture Topic: 6.2 |
| | |In-Class Activity: 6.2 |
| | |Research Articles: 6.1, 6.2 |
| | |Essay Question: 6 |
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|Physical Similarities and Differences | |Critical Thinking Exercise: 6.1 |
| | |Research Article: 6.2 |
| | |Essay Question: 6 |
| | | |
|Cognitive Similarities and Differences | |Research Article: 6.1 |
| | |Essay Question: 6 |
| | | |
|Socioemotional Similarities and Differences | |Essay Question: 6 |
| | | |
|Gender in Context | |Learning Goal: 2 |
| | |Discussion Topic: 6.2 |
| | |In-Class Activity: 6.2 |
| | |Research Articles: 6.1, 6.2 |
| | |Essay Question: 6 |
| | | |
|IV. GENDER-ROLE CLASSIFICATION | |Learning Goal: 3 |
| | |Image Gallery: 132 |
| | |Discussion Topic: 6.2 |
| | |Critical Thinking Exercise: 6.3 |
| | |Essay Question: 7 |
| | | |
|Masculinity, Femininity, and Androgyny | |Lecture Topic: 6.3 |
| | |Discussion Topic: 6.3 |
| | |Short Scenario: 6.3 |
| | |Essay Question: 8 |
| | |Research Project: 6.1 |
| | |WWW: Gender Around the World; Gender Socialization in Six Countries at |
| | |santrocka10 |
| | | |
|Context, Culture, and Gender Roles | |Lecture Topic: 6.1 |
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|Androgyny and Education | |Essay Question: 2 |
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|Traditional Masculinity and Problem Behaviors in Adolescent | |Learning Goal: 3 |
|Males | |Lecture Topic: 6.3 |
| | |Short Scenario: 6.1, 6.2, 6.3 |
| | |Essay Question: 8 |
| | |WWW: The Men’s Bibliography; Psychological Study of Men and Masculinity; |
| | |Male Issues; Men’s Movement Organizations at santrocka10 |
| | | |
|Gender-Role Transcendence | |Critical Thinking Exercise: 6.3 |
| | | |
|V. DEVELOPMENTAL CHANGES AND JUNCTURES | |Learning Goal: 4 |
| | |WWW: American Association of University Women at |
| | | |
|Early Adolescence and Gender Intensification | |Short Scenario: 6.5 |
| | | |
|Is Early Adolescence a Critical Juncture for Females? | |Critical Thinking Exercises: 6.1, 6.2 |
| | |Essay Questions: 9,10 |
| | |Careers in Adolescent Development: Carol Gilligan, Professor and Chair of|
| | |Gender Studies Program |
SUGGESTED LECTURE TOPICS
TOPIC 6.1—CROSS-CULTURAL COMPARISON OF CHILDREN
Santrock defines gender as a sociocultural dimension of being male or female. A logical question is, “How does female and male gender differ across cultures?” Beatrice Whiting and John Whiting conducted cross-cultural investigations of aggression, nurturance, help seeking, sociability, and other social behaviors in children living in six cultures. Six field teams collected data in Kenya, Okinawa, India, the Philippines, Mexico, and the United States. The behaviors that they observed included offers help, offers support, and suggests responsibly (high positive), seeks help, seeks dominance, and seeks attention (high negative), acts sociably, assaults sociably, and touches (high positive), and reprimands and assaults (high negative). Chores that the children were observed doing included carrying wood, water, or fodder; cleaning and other household work; gathering, preparing, or cooking food; gardening; caring for animals; and caring for younger siblings. A comparison of cultures showed that differences in behavior between males and females were more exaggerated in some cultures than in others. The United States revealed the least distinct differences between males and females. The most common and dominant behavior across the cultural groups was acts sociably. The least common behaviors were touches and assaults. The other nine behaviors occurred at varying levels of frequency throughout the six cultures. An interesting result of the observations was that children involved with the care of the household and siblings tended to show lower levels of gender differences and more reluctance toward aggression that than children not conducting those chores. The variability of the outcomes suggests that biological factors cannot be ignored, but that cultural influence was responsible for a great deal of variation between demonstrated gender roles.
Reference
Whiting, B. B., & Whiting, J. W. M. (1975). Children of six cultures: A psycho-cultural analysis. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Topic 6.2—Researching Gender Roles
In early gender research, psychologists tended to emphasize gender differences. Scientific observations start with the assumption that males are reason-oriented and females are emotion-oriented. In doing this, psychologists have followed prevailing cultural beliefs that males and females are opposites, that women are the vassals of nonmasculine traits, and that gender differences are based on biological differences (Hare-Mustin & Marecek, 1988). Yet, which would be a longer list: a list of how females and males are different, or a list of how females and males are similar?
On the other hand, when not directly observing gender roles, psychologists have sometimes ignored gender differences. Prior to the 1970s, many research studies used male subjects and generalized the results to all people. Since the male norms were most valued within the society, all human behavior was measured on the basis of the male norm. Psychology needs to develop research that neither overestimates gender differences (called an alpha bias) nor underestimates gender differences (called a beta bias). “Paradoxes arise, because every representation conceals at the same time it reveals. For example, focusing on gender differences marginalizes and obscures the inter-relatedness of women and men, as well as the restricted opportunities of both. It also obscures institutional sexism and the extent of male authority . . . [On the other hand, the beta bias attempt at denying differences reaffirms male behavior as the standard against which all behavior is judged.]” (Hare-Mustin & Marecek, 1988, p. 462). Both psychology and society are learning how to think more constructively about gender roles.
Reference
Hare-Mustin, R. T. & Marecek, (1988). The meaning of difference: Gender theory, postmodernism, and psychology. American Psychologist, 43, 455-–464.
Topic 6.3—The Four Rules of Male Gender Role
Both boys and girls believe that male gender-role deviations are more serious than female gender-role deviations (Smetana, 1986). Traditionally, males are taught four strong rules about their gender role (David & Brannon, 1976):
1. “No sissy stuff.” This rule encourages boys to be as different from girls as possible (e.g., “Don’t be a baby and don’t be a girl”).
2. “Be a big wheel.” This rule encourages boys to be superior to others and to compete rather than to cooperate (e.g., “Winning is everything”).
3. “Be a sturdy oak.” This rule encourages male independence and self-reliance, but may also keep boys from asking for help when they need help and from feeling comfortable with their emotions (e.g., “Big boys don’t cry”).
4. “Give ‘em hell.” This rule encourages boys to be power-oriented, aggressive, ruthless, and even violent (e.g., “My dad can whip your dad”).
References
David, D. S., & Brannon, R. (1976). The forty-nine percent majority: The male sex role. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.
Smetana, J. G. (1986). Preschool children’s conceptions of sex-role transgressions. Child Development, 57, 862-–871.
CLASSROOM DISCUSSIONS AND ACTIVITIES
DISCUSSION TOPICS
Discussion 6.1—A Biologist’s Perspective on Differences
Anne Fausto-Sterling, member of the Department of Molecular and Cell Biology and Biochemistry at Brown University, provides her biological perspective on current discussion by social scientists that study gender. Fausto-Sterling suggests that in order for social scientists to use biology to answer developmental or evolutionary questions, questions must be considered carefully. If one is interested in explaining the way things are, then an evolutionary perspective works best. Developmental understandings are more useful for designing policies to change the status quo. As an example, David Buss (1995) proposed that women, in an effort to sustain themselves through childbearing and difficult times of low resource availability, prefer mates who demonstrate the ability to secure resources. Fausto-Sterling suggests that an equally plausible explanation to men’s skills of providing for women is that women’s spatial and memory skills evolved to ensure their survival. Without adequate data and specific hypotheses, there is no way of knowing exactly what occurred.
Latour and Strum (1986) devised a set of questions to help propose specific hypotheses about human evolution. The questionnaire was used to evaluate the quality of theories constructed by social scientists and biologists. The nine questions follow:
1. Are the units of evolution measured by genes, individuals, family, or species?
2. Do the units possess qualities of selfishness, self-regulation, harmony, or aggression?
3. Based on the qualities of the units, were relationships exploitative, trade-offs, or competitive?
4. Are time delays between relationships pre-hominid, hominid, homosapiens, or prehistorical?
5. What type of measurement can be used to answer questions 1–4?
6. What framework is used to explain the story?
7. What causes explain the events (e.g., shifts in fauna)?
8. What methodology is specified?
9. What are the explicit political lessons that the theory authors conclude?
Evolutionary psychologists reason backward from contemporary humans. This approach requires that they analyze carefully human epigenetic systems and attend to the specific context in which specific behavior occurs. Sound evolutionary arguments must clearly distinguish between information that documents specific current events and information that is used to construct a hypothesis about the past. By the way, Latour and Strum (1986) concluded the that social scientists and biologists universally failed the test in hypothesis construction.
References
Buss, D. (1995). Psychological sex differences: Origins through sexual selection. American Psychologist, 50, 164-168.
Fausto-Sterling, A. (1997). Beyond difference: A biologist’s perspective. Journal of Social Issues, 53, 233-–258.
Latour, B., & Strum, S. C. (1986). Human social origins: Oh please, tell us another story. Journal of Social Biological Structure, 9, 169-–187.
Discussion 6.2—Tootsie and Gender Roles
Ask students to view the movie Tootsie or Mrs. Doubtfire before the class that you would like to discuss gender roles. Before watching the film, instruct students to look for specific gender concepts, either from Figure 6.1, Old-Fashioned and Modern Sexism, or Figure 6.3, Changing Attitudes About Gender Roles, from Chapter 6. The films lead to discussion of gender role differences demonstrated by men and women as depicted by men forced to learn the new roles quickly. During the discussion, take note of the differences in behavior, such as smiling, eye contact, gestures, physical stance, and walking. If both films are watched, compare the different behaviors both actors demonstrate when playing the roles of women.
Other aspects of the movies are also interesting and applicable to the topics of this chapter. The concept of androgyny emerges as each actor discovers more feminine components as he develops the personality of the new character, Dorothy or Mrs. Doubtfire. The relationships between the men and the leading women were also important as they developed connections between masculine and feminine characteristics.
Reference
Jessen, B. C. (1990). Tootsie and gender roles. In V. P. Makosky, C. C. Sileo, L. G. Whittemore, C. P. Landry, & M. L. Skutley (Eds.), Activities handbook for the teaching of psychology (Vol. 3) (pp. 301). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
Discussion 6.3—Gender-Biased Treatment by Parents
Have students discuss how parents reward and punish boys and girls differently and thereby contribute to gender differences in behaviors, beliefs, and so forth. Have them provide specific examples.
Parents, especially mothers, act fairly consistently toward boys and girls, but the subtle differences contribute to gender-typed behavior. Here are a few examples from the following articles:
( Parents are more favorably responsive to girls talking about emotions and feelings than they are toward boys. In fact, they may give negative responses to boys who act or talk about being sad.
( Parents are also more negative toward sons who act dependent than to daughters who do so.
( Sons are more likely to be punished for misbehaving, and parents also allow sons to be more independent and expect less compliance.
References
Fuchs, D. & Thelen, M. H. (1988). Children’s expected interpersonal consequences of communicating their affective state and reported likelihood of expression. Child Development, 59, 1314-–1322.
Russell, G. & Russell, A. (1987). Mother-child and father-child relationships in middle childhood. Child Development, 58, 1573-–1585.
In-Class Activities
Activity 6.1—Current Sex-role Stereotypes
This classroom activity follows a procedure used in Inga Broverman’s research. Divide the class randomly into thirds, asking one-third to describe a competent woman, one-third to describe a competent man, and one-third to describe a competent adult. Each group is then given bipolar adjective scales (e.g., gentle-rough, tactful-blunt) to formulate their descriptions. The class then analyzes the results. Are competent adults described in masculine terms?
Broverman found that most of her competency or instrumentality items were masculine-oriented, while whereas most of the warmth-expressive items were feminine-oriented. You can emphasize some of Santrock’s comments about androgeny androgyny and competence, and you might point out certain dilemmas associated with traditional sex roles. For example, traditional males are often “unsexed” by failure, while whereas traditional females are “unsexed” by success. Patterns of dominance and dependency may lead to problematic heterosexual relationships as well. A good way to conclude your comments could be to read the “Berkeley Men’s Center Manifesto” (Garfinkle & Morin, 1978, p. 110).
References
Broverman, I. K.; Vogel, S. R.; Broverman, D. M.; Clarkson, F. E., & Rosenkrantz, P.S. (1972). Sex-role stereotypes: A current appraisal. Journal of Social Issues, 28(2), 59-–78.
Garfinkle, E. M., & Morin, S. F. (1978). Psychologists’ attitudes toward homosexual psychotherapy clients. The Journal of Social Issues, 34(3), 101-–112.
Walraven, M. G. (1993). Instructor’s course planner to accompany Adolescence (5th ed.) by J. Santrock. Dubuque: Brown and Benchmark, Publishers.
Williams, J. E., & Best, D. L. (1990). Measuring sex stereotypes: A multinational study (rev. ed.). Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
Activity 6.2—Role-playing the Opposite Gender
Ask students to pair up and do a role-playing task, with males playing the female role and females playing the male role. This activity can allow each sex to try to understand the feelings of the other in certain situations. Have them role-play situations like the following:
( A male is drunk at a party. He wants to drive home, but his sober girlfriend wants to drive instead.
( A girl becomes pregnant and tells her boyfriend.
( A female is transferred from her job to another city and tells her husband.
( A male is transferred from his job to another city and tells his wife.
( A woman wants to go to work but her husband is against it, and they are trying to settle the conflict.
( A girl asks a guy out. Or, a guy asks a girl out.
( A husband loses his job and tells his wife. Or, a wife loses her job and tells her husband.
( A boss makes advances on a worker.
( A husband wants another child but his wife does not.
( A boy wants to live with a girl but the girl wants marriage. Or, a girl wants to live with a boy but the boy wants marriage.
( A girl picks up a boy in a bar. Or, a boy picks up a girl in a bar.
These tasks, if done well, allow the students to empathize with the opposite sex. It is expected that the role-playing will most likely be stereotyped, with males portrayed as dominant and independent and females as emotional and dependent. It is also predicted that in the worker scenes, the male’s job situation will take priority over the female’s job. Students may attempt to simplify these situations by having the female stay home and have a family.
Reference
King, M. B. & Clark, D. E. (1989). Instructor’s manual to accompany Child development: An introduction (4th ed.) by J. W. Santrock and S. R. Yussen. Dubuque: Wm. C. Brown.
Critical Thinking Exercises
Exercise 6.1—Being A Wise Consumer
At the end of Chapter 2 of Adolescence Santrock presents some guidelines for being a wise consumer of information about adolescent development. Study the pairings of guidelines and research findings presented in Chapter 6 below, and decide which pair represents an appropriate criticism of the information presented in the chapter. Circle the letter of the best answer, and explain why it is the best answer, and why each of the other answers is not as appropriate.Circle the letter of the best answer, and explain why it is the best answer and why each other answer is not as appropriate.
A. Consider the source of information and evaluate its credibility: attention and behavioral differences between boys and girls become greater during early adolescence.
B. Causal conclusions cannot be made from correlational data: boys’ sexual activity is related to increases in the level of androgens in their bodies.
C. Be cautious of what is reported in the popular media: television is highly gender-stereotyped and conveys messages about the relative power and importance of women.
D. Distinguish between nomothetic research and idiographic needs: the work of Carol Gilligan.
E. A single study is usually not the defining word: section section—physical/biological differences.
Exercise 6.2—Characterizing Gilligan’s Work
Santrock summarizes Carol Gilligan’s work on the idea that early adolescence is a critical juncture for females, and then outlines several criticisms of Gilligan’s work. Which of the following brief statements best characterizes these criticisms? Circle the letter of the best answer, and explain why it is the best answer, and why each of the other answers is not as appropriate.Circle the letter of the best answer, and explain why it is the best answer and why each other answer is not as appropriate.
A. Gilligan’s work is sexist.
B. Gilligan’s work is unethical.
C. Gilligan’s work is not about a developmental issue.
D. Gilligan’s ideas cannot be tested.
E. Gilligan draws causal conclusions from correlational data.
Exercise 6.3—Investigating Gender Roles
In this chapter Santrock describes attempts to define and measure gender roles. Which of the following statements constitutes an assumption made by gender role researchers, rather than an inference or an observation? Circle the letter of the best answer, and explain why it is the best answer, and why each of the other answers is not as appropriate.Circle the letter of the best answer, and explain why it is the best answer and why each other answer is not as appropriate.
A. Girls will grow up to have feminine gender roles, and boys will grow up to have masculine gender roles.
B. Gender-role stereotypes are more harmful to females than to males.
C. Femininity and masculinity are separable aspects of personality that have their own unique characteristics.
D. Most college students agree that women should not be restricted to traditional roles.
E. Rather than merge gender roles, females and males should transcend gender-role characteristics.
Answer Key for Critical Thinking Exercises
Exercise 6.1
A. This is not the best answer. Santrock cites several appropriate studies that support this claim.
B. This is not the best answer. Santrock does not say that the relationship is causal.
C. This is not the best answer. The information in the text emphasizes the concern that the media sends inaccurate messages.
D. This is not the best answer. The main argument against it is that Gilligan and her colleagues have used large samples of girls and women in their work. The difficulty is that they have usually excluded males, which may render plausible the claim that they have not overcome their own idiographic needs.
E. This is the best answer. There is only one reference for the information provided in this section of the chapter.
Exercise 6.2
A. This is the best answer. In Chapter 1 Santrock points out that a researcher’s stereotyped assumptions about sexes can lead to research that omits one sex from a study. Some of Gilligan’s critics say just that about her work, that Gilligan assumed girls are different from boys and therefore did not include boys in her research. Critics also suggest Gilligan exaggerates sex differences.
B. This is not the best answer. The critics say nothing about Gilligan’s harming her subjects, failing to obtain informed consent, or violating any other of APA’s guidelines for ethical research.
C. This is not the best answer. For example, Gilligan’s theory is about discontinuity in the development of girl’s self-esteem; her theory is about how girls’ personalities change over a portion of the life span, with special reference to early adolescence as a special period of development.
D. This is not the best answer. What critics have suggested is that Gilligan has not tested her own ideas because she excludes males from her research. Sympathetic researchers have, in fact, tested aspects of Gilligan’s theory with appropriate samples of boys and girls.
E. This is not the best answer. Gilligan herself does not have correlational data, because she did not include boys in her research. More importantly, Santrock does not describe any correlational work that Gilligan has done.
Exercise 6.3
A. This is an inference. Especially during adolescence, females and males demonstrate behavior to differentiate them from the opposite sex. Biological, social, and cognitive theories explain how the developmental process occurs.
B. This is an inference. It is based on the observation that males enjoy more favorable gender stereotypes, which (logically) suggests that they these roles will harm them less than women. However, the actual claim is not supported in the chapter with direct evidence.
C. This is the assumption. This belief led researchers to develop separate scales for masculinity and femininity. However, the belief itself has not been independently confirmed, and the text does not present either argument or evidence for its validity.
D. This is an observation. The statement is presented as a description of survey results.
E. This is an inference. It is the conclusion of Pleck’s argument that gender-role classifications create false dichotomies or contrasts, and that individuals are actually unique and must resolve gender issues on their own terms.
Short Scenarios
Scenario 6.1
Amy and Marian are discussing their adolescent children and the differences they experienced during their own adolescence. Amy grew up in a home where both of their parents worked. Her mom was an accountant and her dad was the principal at a high school. Amy and her brother had responsibilities at home including finishing dinner that her mom started the night before, regularly doing a load of laundry, vacuuming, or finishing yard work after school. They also were expected to do well academically, participate in civic clubs with friends their age, and choose a sport to which they would commit some time throughout the year.
Marian was one of four children in a somewhat traditional home. Her father was a machinist for a car manufacturing plant and her mother was a homemaker. Marian’s mother waited on everyone with seemingly endless amounts of energy and commitment. She never complained or protested if someone criticized her or the things that she did. Her father, however, could be counted on to dole out some serious consequences if any of the kids were really out of line. As the children grew older, the boys took part-time jobs, but Marian was expected to continue to help her mother at home. Without plans or expectations for her to go to college, Marian took the first seemingly good opportunity to marry. She soon had a baby, divorced, and completed an x-ray technician program. Amy and Marian are proud of their own children’s accomplishments and their ability to take on a wide variety of responsibilities. The adolescents demonstrate concern for others and motivation to achieve. The mothers also marvel at the solipsism demonstrated by so many other teenagers.
( Amy grew up in a middle-class home with two professional parents as models.
( According to the social cognitive theory of gender, both Amy and Marian learned the gender roles for which they were reinforced.
( Amy and her brother were expected to complete household tasks and were reinforced for doing so. (social cognitive theory of development)
( According to the cognitive developmental theory, Amy and Marian had the opportunity to choose the gender-based behavior that they demonstrate.
( Marian did not follow through with the roles that her parents demonstrated for her; she divorced and is promoting androgynous behavior by her children. (cognitive developmental)
( Amy and her brother had similar expectations; no designation was made between genders, suggesting that androgynous behavior was reinforced in both children.
( Marian came from a traditional family; her mother modeled traditional gender roles of serving the family. (Gilligan’s selfless female role)
( Marian and her siblings experienced an authoritarian parenting style and were expected to maintain traditional roles.
( Marian’s father saw male-female relationships in a very traditional way, expecting to have responsibility and to be in control.
( In an attempt to escape the family responsibilities that she had in her parents’ home, Marian began a family of her own.
( Both women are encouraging their children to develop androgynous gender roles, positive mental health, and responsive interpersonal relationships.
Scenario 6.2
Alicia is 20 years old. Ten years ago she moved from Guadalajara, Mexico, to San Diego, California, with her parents and siblings. In Guadalajara, there were not enough jobs or chances for children to go to school. San Diego is so different from what she grew up with in Mexico. At home, men were very machismo—they were in charge of everything. She was expected to wait on her father and brothers, and did not go to school very often. Women expected to wait in line and be last. Even at fancy clubs, unescorted women were seated last.
In the United States, Alicia works as a housekeeper for the Wheeler family. Mr. and Mrs. Wheeler have three children: Heather is 15, Thomas is 12, and Beth is 4 years old. The children take turns going first as they play games or are served at mealtime. Heather and Thomas regularly swim in their backyard pool and compete with each other athletically. Heather wins the swimming and diving contests with her brother now, but they joke about Thomas’s becoming a monster swimmer as he reaches puberty. Alicia hopes that when she has children, they will have the same opportunities for fun and for choosing their roles in life.
( Alice Alicia is describing cultural influences on gender roles.
( In Mexico, Alicia was expected to take a very traditional role and not encouraged to participate in the educational process.
( Social factors influence cognitive factors; women are viewed as lacking logical thinking skills——a direct result of their exclusion from education.
( Men assumed a traditional male-female relationship in which they take control, protecting and dominating the family in Hispanic culture.
( The Wheelers, as a typical upper-middle class family, have noticeably different standards for their children than Alicia experienced.
( The three children are treated equally, with the same expectations for social behavior and athletic skill.
Scenario 6.3
Steve has just experienced a major change in his voice. Sometimes he doesn’t recognize that it is his. Actually, there are a lot of things about himself that he does not recognize. He is no longer interested in playing soccer on a co-ed team because the girls are a distraction. They need protecting from guys on the opposing team, they take his mind off the game, and they can’t play as well as the guys, anyway. He’s also finding that the girls he previously thought were too prissy are now very enticing.
Steve also wants to enhance his image. He has started weight lifting, is much more interested in clothes than he used to be, and will be buying a motorcycle as soon as he gets his license. Of course he doesn’t need a girlfriend, but it would be handy to have a girl for parties and driving around town.
Steve’s mother is both appalled and hurt by his magnified attention to gender differences. As a professional observing and experiencing sexism in the work environment, she has pointed out differences in salaries, job opportunities, and community expectations that place the onus on women to be extremely competent and well organized to be successful. Steve argues that men are in positions of greater responsibility and therefore must be confidant confident about who they hire for various positions. Further, they should be adequately compensated for the additional responsibility. His mother hopes that this is a phase, and that it passes quickly.
( Steve seems to have a gender schema that places males and females in traditional gender roles.
( Steve is an example of youth exposed to androgynous behavior expectations, but caught up in gender stereotypes.
( Steve is expressing the male-female relationship in traditional terms of male dominance and control.
( Steve has drawn the conclusion that the female players are not as good, possibly due to his sexism more than an objective assessment of the girls’ performance.
( Steve is demonstrating the gender intensification.
( Steve has formed a hypothesis, and is developing expectations that fit distinct gender roles.
( Steve’s explanations of gender roles could be identified as examples of the Freud, Erikson, or evolutionary psychology perspective that anatomy is destiny.
( An explanation for Steve’s behavior could be the social influences of the mass media; distinct roles portrayed by television characters, and music video stereotypes.
( Steve’s mother attempted to explain the issues of sexism through rapport talk.
( Steve’s responses to his mother about sexism reflect solid, old-fashioned sexism.
CURRENT RESEARCH ARTICLES
ARTICLE 6.1—GOALS AS A MEDIATOR IN DYADIC CONVERSATIONS
Similarities and differences in peer conversation between girls, boys, and mixed-gender dyads are evident as documented by extensive previous research. Differences have been attributed to divergent goals: girls’ concern for needs of self and peer and boys’ concern for control and status. Same-gender dyads show greater affiliation between females and low-affiliation strategies between boys. Mixed-gender dyads often show that girls change interaction style to low-affiliation strategies while whereas boys usually continue to demonstrate the same approach with girls as with boys.
This research investigated (1) whether similarities and differences in mutual-participation goals were a function of the gender of the participants, and (2) whether goals influenced gender differences in high-affiliation conversations.
The participants included 104 sixth-grade preadolescents (53 girls) averaging 12 years of age (11.67 to 13.25 years). Seventy-seven percent of students recruited from a public school participated in the study. Participants were randomly assigned to same- or other-gender dyads creating 18 female, 17 male, and 17 mixed-gender dyads.
The first set of procedures involved completing the creative writing assignment. Participants were assigned to work with their peers for 45 minutes, two times a week, for 4 weeks as a part of class assignments. A mixed-gender pair of researchers videotaped two 15-minute writing periods and administered questionnaires following completion of the two sessions. The questionnaires, based on pilot research, were used to determine the extent to which participants attempted to accomplish each of 20 goals during the previous session. Videotaping and questionnaire administration took place at the beginning and end of the project, an average of 2 weeks apart.
The second set of procedures included segmenting the conversations into communication units, divided by change in speaker, pause, or change in idea. The communication units were identified as falling into one of 17 categories. High-affiliation conversations were characterized as collaborative (affirming, elaborating, informing, and asking) and obliging (going along, willingly submitting, and seeking manipulation/suggestion) communication units. Low-affiliation conversations were characterized as controlling (denigrating, countering, commanding, and resisting) and withdrawing (evasiveness, hesitancy, reluctance, nonparticipation, and silence) communication units.
Gender, conversations, and goals over time were analyzed through repeated measure designs. A repeated measures analysis of variance comparing dyad gender and conversation showed high-affiliation conversations were more prevalent in female dyads than in male or mixed-gender dyads. A comparison of conversations between Times 1 and 2 showed that high-affiliation conversations were more prevalent at Time 1 than at Time 2.
Mutual-participation goal scores were higher in female dyads than in the other two dyads; mutual-participation goal scores did not differ between male or mixed-gender dyads. In mixed-gender dyads, collaboration units, obliging communication units, and mutual-participation goals did not differ for male and female participants.
The hypothesized model, goals as a mediator of dyad gender differences in conversations, was examined through a regression analysis of differences in high-affiliation conversations. Separate analyses of data from Times 1 and 2 found similar results. First, female dyads demonstrated a higher occurrence of high-affiliation conversations than did male or mixed-gender dyads. Second, mutual-participation goal scores were higher for female dyads than for male or mixed-gender dyads. Third, goals were identified as a significant mediator of differences between dyads in high-affiliation conversations. The same regression analyses completed at Time 2 showed no significant differences between dyad gender for high-affiliation conversations; there were reduced effects of dyad gender. The mutual-participation goal at Time 2 did not show change; mutual participation was significant.
In conclusion, mutual-participation goals influenced pairs of young adolescents to engage in high-affiliation conversations whether they were same- or mixed-gender dyads. The results showed that female dyads demonstrated more high-affiliation conversation than did the male- or mixed-gender dyads. Further, high-affiliation conversation occurred during the first assessment period at the beginning of the project compared to the second assessment period. Differences in conversation for mixed-gender dyads were associated with similar levels of high-affiliation conversation by females and males. The differences between same- and mixed-gender dyads suggest that females reduce and males increase the amount of high-affiliation conversation they likely would demonstrate in same-gender dyads. In the context of a written assignment, the salience of gender may be reduced.
Reference
Strough, J., & Berg, C. A. (2000). Goals as a mediator of gender differences in high-affiliation dyadic conversations. Developmental Psychology, 36, 117-–125.
Article 6.2—Gender Differences in Depressed Mood
Previous research has shown that females experience depression at a rate 1.6 to 2 times higher than that by males during adulthood. Measures of depressed mood and depressive syndrome also show different rates of occurrence between adolescent males and females. Recent research identified the shift as occurring somewhere between early and middle adolescence, or between 13 and 14 years of age. A question that has not been answered is that of the event or experience that influences depressed mood at the time of or just prior to the emergence of sex differences.
The age and maturity of female adolescents influences the way in which peers and adults respond toward them, and, subsequently, a shift toward stereotypical female behaviors. The gender intensification process also suggests that girls will identify more strongly with female stereotypes during adolescence than at other times. Three major challenges, or stressors, have been identified that represent key factors in the gender intensification hypothesis including pubertal development, school change, and body dissatisfaction. Changes in pubertal status appear to be most troublesome for early adolescent females, although the results across studies are not entirely consistent. School changes in combination with pubertal changes were identified as accounting for poor self-esteem and depressed mood among girls. Finally, body satisfaction appears to be the most important factor in relation to global self-esteem; low levels of satisfaction are associated with poor self-esteem.
The extended gender intensification model (EGIM) proposes that both the gender intensification hypothesis and the body dissatisfaction hypothesis may be influencing a causal chain. The result of being an early-adolescent female, as opposed to a male, entails (1) maturing earlier, (2) having smaller physique, (3) perceiving self as fatter, (4) identifying resolutely with the female stereotype, (5) increasing physical mass, (6) perceiving self as less attractive than acceptable stereotypes, and (7) developing general dissatisfaction with appearance.
The 10,839 subjects were students enrolled in grades 7 through 12, ranging in age from 12 to 20 years, from 67 schools in Norway. The questionnaire was administered during school and took about 90 minutes to complete. All students completed the questionnaire at the same time except for a small number absent during the first administration.
The questionnaire included instruments for six categories of behavior: Depressed mood was measured using a form derived from the SCL-90 checklist. Using a 4-point rating scale, students were asked to indicate the frequency of events such as having trouble going to sleep or feeling too tired to do anything. Sex role identification was measured with a brief form of the Bem’s Sex-Role Inventory using a 5-point scale. The Pubertal Development Scale was used to assess five areas of development with a 4-point scale. Body mass index was based on the students’ self reports, and perceived obesity was based on a single measure. Satisfaction with body and appearance was measured with the Body Area Satisfaction Scale made up of 7 seven items asking students to rank satisfaction with specific body parts including face, lower torso, mid-torso, upper torso, muscle tone, weight, and height. Self-esteem was measured using the Global Self-Worth subscale of the SPPA. School change and its occurrence with puberty were measured for elementary to junior high school changes.
As expected, girls reported higher levels of depression than did boys. For the entire age span from 12 to 20 years of age, the mean score for girls was 58 percent of a standard deviation above boys. An analysis of variance showed that both sex and age influenced the reported differences in depressed mood. Levels of depression showed a gradual shift for girls from age 12 to age 14: 12-year-old girls showed similar mood to boys; 13-year-olds showed a slight sex difference; but by age 14 and through age 20, girls showed a one-half standard deviation above the boys. About 5 five percent of adolescents reported above average levels of distress or trouble, which was interpreted as depressed mood.
Structural equation modeling was used to test the complete extended gender intensification model (EGIM). The results showed a weak path between pubertal timing and femininity (dissatisfaction resulted from increased tissue fat and perception of being overweight). Including a direct effect of gender on satisfaction improved the model further, but modifying the analysis of Global Self-Worth as a mediator for femininity and satisfaction with body parts resulted in the best fit for the model. The results showed that the EGIM was effective in explaining 90 percent of the variation between girls and boys. The most influential chain began with satisfaction with body parts, moved to Global Self-Worth, and ended with Global Physical Appearance. The second influential chain began with femininity influences of the three factors above, but also has a direct effect on depressed mood. Pubertal timing has some effect on increasing BMI, thus influencing dissatisfaction with appearance.
In summary, the results show adolescent girls consistently reported higher levels of depressed mood at age 13 and above. Body dissatisfaction surfaced as the most highly correlated factor with depressed mood in the final model. While body weight was hypothesized to be the most influential factor, the perceived lack of thinness was correlated with dissatisfaction toward specific body parts and initial pubertal timing to contribute to depressed mood.
Reference
Wichstrom, L. (1999). The emergence of gender difference in depressed mood during adolescence: The role of intensified gender socialization. Developmental Psychology, 35, 232-–245.
STUDENT RESEARCH PROJECTS
RESEARCH PROJECT 6.1—THE ROLE OF GENDER IN THE CORPORATE WORLD
Objective. Students will be able to describe the roles of male and female members of major corporations and formulate conclusions about the impact of gender role expectations.
Type/Length of Activity. outOut-of-class activity; variable.
Directions. This semester project has three phases. First, students should identify companies that have governing boards. Three types of influential companies include Fortune 500 companies, publishing companies, and local companies. In the category of Fortune 500 companies, be sure to choose a diversity that represents technology, consumer staples, consumer cycles, energy, financial services, health care, utilities, communication services, transportation, and basic materials. Identify as many companies as possible, up to 50 percent, that provide products or services primarily for females (e.g., Estée Lauder). In the area of publishing, identify the board of directors or editorial board of popular press magazines. Again, be sure to compare categories of magazines such as weekly news, sports, parenting, fashion, health, hobbies, politics, technology, home improvement, and travel. Balance the gender focus by getting two magazines from each category, with one of each oriented toward female and male audiences. Finally, identify local businesses in the city or state that have boards of directors including the chamber of commerce, local foundations, churches, utilities, manufacturing companies, services, hospitals, and a telephone company.
Second, conduct interviews of two board members, one female and one male, from each type of company, Fortune 500, magazine publishers, and local concerns. Ask board members to explain their duties, including details about the frequency and duration of meetings, fiscal management responsibilities, and the extent of responsibility in overseeing company philosophy, activity, and productivity.
Third, complete some simple analyses of the composition of boards and the roles that board members fill. Draw some conclusions about gender roles, gender stereotypes and, possibly, sexism, that take place in American businesses. Students should write a group paper describing their findings.
Wrap-Up. Students may work independently or in small groups to complete a final report describing the methods, results, and conclusions of their investigations. Follow the writing guidelines in the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association (5th ed.) (2001). In your report, explain what you learned about modern sexism. Discuss the implications of these findings in relation to issues of personal decision-making about gender appropriate behavior. Be prepared to present your results to the class.
Research Project 6.2—Gender Role Stereotyping on Television
Objective. Students will be able to assess the power of the media to influence gender roles and sexism in industrialized countries.
Type/Length of Activity. outOut-of-class activity; 3 to 4 hours.
Directions. In this project, you will be required to evaluate three prime-time television shows for gender role stereotyping. Pick three shows between 8:00 p.m. and 9:00 p.m. EST that children might watch. For each show record the following information: (1) number of male and female main characters; (2) occupations of main male and female characters; (3) thematic connections between males and females (e.g., female in distress and male as rescuer); (4) personality characteristics of one male and one female from the show (use the Bem androgyny scale to determine masculinity, femininity, or androgyny). Use the data sheet in “Student Handouts” to record the following information. Then answer the questions that follow.
Program ___________________ Male_____ Female_____
Number of male and female characters
_____________________________________________________
Occupations of male and female characters
__________________________________________________
Connections between males and females
____________________________________________________
Gender Classifications of males and females
________________________________________________
1. In the shows you watched, did males or females take more main roles? What kinds of occupations did the males have? What kinds of occupations did the females have? Were there status differences in the occupations of the males and females? What were they?
2. What kinds of themes connected the males and females in the television programs you watched? Were the themes stereotyped for male-female relationships?
3. What were the sex-typed categories of the males portrayed on television (masculine, cross-sexed, androgynous)?
4. What were the sex-typed categories of the females portrayed on television?
5. What do you think these models are teaching adolescents about being a male or a female in our society? Are they fair representations of the way women and men act in the real world?
Examine the data overall, looking at: (1) the relative number of males and females in primary roles; (2) the relative status of the males’ and females’ occupations; (3) the thematic relationships presented between males and females, and the extent to which these tie into sex stereotyping; and (4) the relative presentation of androgynous, cross-sexed, and sex-stereotyped males and females on television. Examine specific programs for differences.
Wrap-Up. Present your information from the research project to the class.
To the Instructor. You may want to discuss the following questions:
1. Are some shows more stereotyped than others?
2. In the stereotyped programs, is one sex portrayed as more advantageous than the other?
3. How do the class data relate to the data on stereotypes presented in the text?
4. If the programs generally support gender-role stereotypes, how does this affect the developing child?
5. If males are presented as the more interesting and preferred sex, could this account for the tomboyish behavior of girls? How?
ESSAY QUESTIONS
PROVIDE STUDENTS WITH THE GUIDELINES FOR “ANSWERING ESSAY QUESTIONS” BEFORE THEY RESPOND TO THESE QUESTIONS. ANSWERS TO THESE KINDS TYPES OF QUESTIONS DEMONSTRATE AN ABILITY TO COMPREHEND AND APPLY IDEAS DISCUSSED IN THIS CHAPTER.
1. What evidence supports the conclusion that both nature and nurture influence gender roles? Discuss and evaluate the evidence presented in Adolescence.
2. Explain how the attitudes and behavior of educators influence the gender roles demonstrated by female students.
3. Do the mass media influence gender roles? Provide specific examples that support the conclusion for a causal influence.
4. Compare and contrast the cognitive developmental and the gender schema theories of gender typing.
5. Define the concept of gender-role stereotype and discuss whether stereotypes influence the development of gender roles among adolescence.
6. Discuss warnings about the nature and significance of gender differences, and indicate the nature and causes of gender differences, as they are understood today.
7. Define androgyny and gender role transcendence, and explain why some researchers prefer one or the other concept.
8. Does the traditional masculine role promote problem behavior among adolescent males? Cite and evaluate the evidence.
9. Explain why Carol Gilligan and others have developed a distinct feminist perspective on female gender role development.
10. Compare and contrast women and men’s gender issues.
References
Butler, J. P. (1999). Gender Trouble: Feminism and the subversion of identity. New York: Routledge.
Kindlon, D. J. (2000). Raising Cain: Protecting the emotional life of boys. New York: Ballantine Publishing Group.
VIDEO
GIRLS AND BODY IMAGE (VAD)
Overview
As females and males experience the many physical and social changes of early adolescence, they come to terms with new definitions of their gender roles. Some theorists and researchers have proposed that, with the onset of puberty, girls and boys experience an intensification in gender-related expectations, and that this intensification decreases in mid- to late adolescence. The gender intensification hypothesis states that psychological and behavioral differences between boys and girls become greater during early adolescence because of increased socialization pressures to conform to traditional masculine and feminine gender roles. Puberty may signal to parents, peers, and teachers that an adolescent is approaching adulthood and should begin to act in stereotypical male or female ways. However, not every female and male shows gender intensification during puberty, and the family context influences how strongly gender intensification occurs. Some experts argue that the jury is still out as to whether the gender intensification hypothesis is valid. In this segment, two 14-year-old girls comment on the behavior of some of the girls they know.
Pre-Test
1. According to the gender intensification hypothesis,
a. psychological and behavioral differences between boys and girls become greater during late adolescence.
Incorrect. These differences become greater during early adolescence.
b. all adolescents show an increase in conformity to stereotypical gender roles.
Incorrect. Not every boy or girl shows gender intensification at this stage of development.
c. girls become more feminine and boys more masculine during puberty and early adolescence.
Correct. The gender intensification hypothesis proposes that male and female roles are emphasized at this stage of development.
d. girls become more “tomboyish” at puberty and gradually become more feminine in mid- to late adolescence.
Incorrect. The hypothesis holds that girls become more feminine and boys more masculine during puberty and early adolescence.
Post-Test
1. The 14-year-old girls in the video described other girls as being overly concerned with their appearance and not wanting to answer questions in class because they would look “nerdy.” Assuming that the girls interviewed do not engage in these behaviors, we might expect that they are
a. involved in gender intensification.
Incorrect. These girls do not exhibit gender intensification, and appear to look down on peers who do.
b. among those adolescents who do not exhibit gender intensification.
Correct. These girls do not exhibit gender intensification, and appear to look down on peers who do.
c. well past puberty.
Incorrect. Being past puberty would not necessarily determine how an adolescent would behave in this domain.
d. lesbians.
Incorrect. The video and textbook do not mention any connection between lesbianism and the presence or absence of gender intensification in early adolescence.
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