Mrs. Loux's English Class



Name: ____________________________Date: ____________________Period: _______Directions: Follow the steps below with your small group. Be prepared to share this information with the class.Read your assigned literary criticism. Highlight and take close reading notes in the margins to decode the text.Read the sample excerpt from a scholarly journal/book that discusses Death of a Salesman through the lens of your assigned criticism. Highlight and take close reading notes in the margins to explain how your literary theory is being revealed in this critical text about Death of a Salesman. (Consider which question(s) the author is answering).Synthesize the information. Summarize your literary theory in FIVE statements/bullets. This should only be relevant information. (Consider how you would explain this literary theory to a room of middle school students.) Be direct, concise and clear. These statements/bullets will be shared with the class.Provide one statement exploring how a critic in your assigned theory would view William Carlos William’s short story “The Use of Force”. Consider one alternate perspective about how to view Death of a Salesman through the lens of your literary criticism. Record all of the information in your “Literary Theories and Criticism” chart. BE PREPARED TO CLEARLY EXPLAIN ALL OF THIS TO YOUR CLASSMATES. Marxist Criticism (1930s-present)Based on the theories of Karl Marx (and so influenced by philosopher Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel), this school concerns itself with class differences, economic and otherwise, as well as the implications and complications of the capitalist system: "Marxism attempts to reveal the ways in which our socioeconomic system is the ultimate source of our experience" (Tyson 277).Theorists working in the Marxist tradition, therefore, are interested in answering the overarching question, whom does it [the work, the effort, the policy, the road, etc.] benefit? The elite? The middle class? And Marxists critics are also interested in how the lower or working classes are oppressed - in everyday life and in literature.The Material DialecticThe Marxist school follows a process of thinking called the material dialectic. This belief system maintains that "...what drives historical change are the material realities of the economic base of society, rather than the ideological superstructure of politics, law, philosophy, religion, and art that is built upon that economic base" (Richter 1088).Marx asserts that "...stable societies develop sites of resistance: contradictions build into the social system that ultimately lead to social revolution and the development of a new society upon the old" (1088). This cycle of contradiction, tension, and revolution must continue: there will always be conflict between the upper, middle, and lower (working) classes and this conflict will be reflected in literature and other forms of expression - art, music, movies, etc.The RevolutionThe continuing conflict between the classes will lead to upheaval and revolution by oppressed peoples and form the groundwork for a new order of society and economics where capitalism is abolished. According to Marx, the revolution will be led by the working class (others think peasants will lead the uprising) under the guidance of intellectuals. Once the elite and middle class are overthrown, the intellectuals will compose an equal society where everyone owns everything (socialism - not to be confused with Soviet or Maoist Communism).Though a staggering number of different nuances exist within this school of literary theory, Marxist critics generally work in areas covered by the following questions.Typical questions:Whom does it benefit if the work or effort is accepted/successful/believed, etc.?What is the social class of the author?Which class does the work claim to represent?What values does it reinforce?What values does it subvert?What conflict can be seen between the values the work champions and those it portrays?What social classes do the characters represent?How do characters from different classes interact or conflict?MARXISM SAMPLEthe age of seventeen and came out rich at twenty-one, a powerful entrepreneur. Why Willy fails to realize is that only a very few can hope to be that successful. His greatest illusion is his belief in the capitalist myth that every man can succeed in business if he only uses his opportunities. Willy is also haunted by the equally sueerhuman success ideal embodied in his father, a herioc poioneer figure who drove across America with his family, supporting them all by selling flutes that he made himself.Psychoanalytic Criticism (1930s-present)Sigmund FreudPsychoanalytic criticism builds on Freudian theories of psychology. While we don't have the room here to discuss all of Freud's work, a general overview is necessary to explain psychoanalytic literary criticism.The Unconscious, the Desires, and the DefensesFreud began his psychoanalytic work in the 1880s while attempting to treat behavioral disorders in his Viennese patients. He dubbed the disorders 'hysteria' and began treating them by listening to his patients talk through their problems. Based on this work, Freud asserted that people's behavior is affected by their unconscious: "...the notion that human beings are motivated, even driven, by desires, fears, needs, and conflicts of which they are unaware..." (Tyson 14-15).Freud believed that our unconscious was influenced by childhood events. Freud organized these events into developmental stages involving relationships with parents and drives of desire and pleasure where children focus "...on different parts of the body...starting with the mouth...shifting to the oral, anal, and phallic phases..." (Richter 1015). These stages reflect base levels of desire, but they also involve fear of loss (loss of genitals, loss of affection from parents, loss of life) and repression: "...the expunging from consciousness of these unhappy psychological events" (Tyson 15). Tyson reminds us, however, that "...repression doesn't eliminate our painful experiences and emotions...we unconsciously behave in ways that will allow us to 'play out'...our conflicted feelings about the painful experiences and emotions we repress" (15). To keep all of this conflict buried in our unconscious, Freud argued that we develop defenses: selective perception, selective memory, denial, displacement, projection, regression, fear of intimacy, and fear of death, among others.Id, Ego, and SuperegoFreud maintained that our desires and our unconscious conflicts give rise to three areas of the mind that wrestle for dominance as we grow from infancy, to childhood, to adulthood:id - "...the location of the drives" or libidoego - "...one of the major defenses against the power of the drives..." and home of the defenses listed abovesuperego - the area of the unconscious that houses judgement (of self and others) and "...which begins to form during childhood as a result of the Oedipus complex" (Richter 1015-1016)Oedipus ComplexFreud believed that the Oedipus complex was "...one of the most powerfully determinative elements in the growth of the child" (Richter 1016). Essentially, the Oedipus complex involves children's need for their parents and the conflict that arises as children mature and realize they are not the absolute focus of their mother's attention: "the Oedipus complex begins in a late phase of infantile sexuality, between the child's third and sixth year, and it takes a different form in males than it does in females" (Richter 1016). Freud argued that both boys and girls wish to possess their mothers, but as they grow older "...they begin to sense that their claim to exclusive attention is thwarted by the mother's attention to the father..." (1016). Children, Freud maintained, connect this conflict of attention to the intimate relations between mother and father, relations from which the children are excluded. Freud believed that "the result is a murderous rage against the father...and a desire to possess the mother" (1016).Freud pointed out, however, that "...the Oedipus complex differs in boys and girls...the functioning of the related castration complex" (1016). In short, Freud thought that "...during the Oedipal rivalry [between boys and their fathers], boys fantasized that punishment for their rage will take the form of..." castration (1016). When boys effectively work through this anxiety, Freud argued, "...the boy learns to identify with the father in the hope of someday possessing a woman like his mother. In girls, the castration complex does not take the form of anxiety...the result is a frustrated rage in which the girl shifts her sexual desire from the mother to the father" (1016).Freud believed that eventually, the girl's spurned advanced toward the father give way to a desire to possess a man like her father later in life. Freud believed that the impact of the unconscious, id, ego, superego, the defenses, and the Oedipus complexes was inescapable and that these elements of the mind influence all our behavior (and even our dreams) as adults - of course this behavior involves what we write.Freud and LiteratureSo what does all of this psychological business have to do with literature and the study of literature? Put simply, some critics believe that we can "...read psychoanalytically...to see which concepts are operating in the text in such a way as to enrich our understanding of the work and, if we plan to write a paper about it, to yield a meaningful, coherent psychoanalytic interpretation" (Tyson 29). Tyson provides some insightful and applicable questions to help guide our understanding of psychoanalytic criticism.Typical questions:How do the operations of repression structure or inform the work?Are there any Oedipal dynamics - or any other family dynamics - are work here?How can characters' behavior, narrative events, and/or images be explained in terms of psychoanalytic concepts of any kind (for example...fear or fascination with death, sexuality - which includes love and romance as well as sexual behavior - as a primary indicator of psychological identity or the operations of ego-id-superego)?What does the work suggest about the psychological being of its author?What might a given interpretation of a literary work suggest about the psychological motives of the reader?Are there prominent words in the piece that could have different or hidden meanings? Could there be a subconscious reason for the author using these "problem words"?What connections can you make between your knowledge of an author’s life and the behavior and motivations or characters in his or her work?How does your understanding of the characters, their relationships, their actions, and their motivations in a literary work help you better understand the mental world and imaginative life, or the actions and motivations, of the author?How does a particular literary work—its images, metaphors, and other linguistic elements—reveal the psychological motivation of its characters or the psychological mindset of its author?What kind of literary works and what types of literary characters seem best suited to a critical approach that employs a psychological or psychoanalytical perspective? Why?How can a psychological or psychoanalytic approach to a particular work be combined with an approach from another critical perspective?The Purdue OWL. Purdue U Writing Lab, 2010. Web. 3 March 2013.PSYCHOANALYTIC SAMPLE“Of course, Happy's sexual pattem has strong Oedipal overtones as well. Raised within a family dynamic in which Dad's attention was focused on Biff, who was an authority figure for the younger child, it is no wonder that Happy's struggle for identity and recognition early took the form of masculine competitiveness. "I lost weight. Pop, you notice?" (44; Act I) is this character's pathetic boyhood refrain as he undertakes the impossible task of competing with his brother-the-football-hero for paternal esteem. While Willy frequently embraces Biff, in flashback as in the present, he never touches Happy. And the younger brother must listen to Dad's continual boasting about Biff without ever himself being the object of his father's pride. Happy is, thus, the perpetual benchwarmer, the onlooker at the lives of his father and brother, just as Willy had been before him. Mother's neglect of the younger brother adds insult to injury and fans the flame of an already unhealthy Oedipal situation. While Linda frequently addresses Biff using the same language and tone she uses to address Willy—"I know dear" (47; Act I), "Please, dear" (59; Act I), "Thanks, darling" (69; Act II)—she uses such terms for Happy only to express contempt: "You never asked, my dear!" she responds angrily to Happy's remark that he was unaware of his father's demotion to straight commission work (50; Act I). Indeed, Happy barely exists for his mother. She frequently acts as if he were not there, as we see when the brothers return home after the restaurant scene. Although Happy does all of the talking as he and Biff enter the house, Linda ignores him to vent her emotion on Biff: ''Linda, cutting Happy off violently to Biff 'Don't you care whether he lives or dies?'" (116; Act II). Only Biff's feelings matter. Only Biff's behavior can change anything. "I'm gonna get married. Mom" (61 ; Act I) is Happy's new hopeless bid for attention and approval. And it is in his attitude toward marriage and women that we find his Oedipal symptomology most clearly revealed. Happy's compulsion to seduce the fiancés of executives he works with is a rather obvious enactment of his Oedipal desire: he wants to compete with his father and brother and, especially, punish his mother for ignoring him. For Happy is a psychologically castrated man who has to use his penis to assert his existence and value. The executives he works with are, like his father and brother, authority figures. They're wealthier and more successful than he is and each has won the (symbolically) exclusive attention of a woman. He can't compete with these men in the marketplace any more than he has been able to compete with Biff and Willy in the home. So he punishes them by "ruining" heir fiancés. Happy can't find a girl "with resistance," a girl "like Mom" (19; Act I) that he could marry, because he doesn't want to. By sticking to his pattern of one "easy" woman after another, he can continue simultaneously to fulfill two conflicting Oedipal needs: he can continue, symbolically, to preserve his mother (no woman can take her place), and he can continue, symbolically, to soil her (to seduce a woman is to seduce his mother).”Tyson, Lois. “The Psychological Politics of the American Dream: Death of a Salesman and the Case for an Existential Dialectics.” Essays in Literature. 19. 2 (1992): 213-240. Web. 3 Mar. 2013.Feminist Criticism (1960s-present)Feminist criticism is concerned with "...the ways in which literature (and other cultural productions) reinforce or undermine the economic, political, social, and psychological oppression of women" (Tyson). This school of theory looks at how aspects of our culture are inherently patriarchal (male dominated) and "...this critique strives to expose the explicit and implicit misogyny in male writing about women" (Richter 1346). This misogyny, Tyson reminds us, can extend into diverse areas of our culture: "Perhaps the most chilling example...is found in the world of modern medicine, where drugs prescribed for both sexes often have been tested on male subjects only" (83).Feminist criticism is also concerned with less obvious forms of marginalization such as the exclusion of women writers from the traditional literary canon: "...unless the critical or historical point of view is feminist, there is a tendency to under-represent the contribution of women writers" (Tyson 82-83).Common Space in Feminist TheoriesThough a number of different approaches exist in feminist criticism, there exist some areas of commonality. This list is excerpted from Tyson:Women are oppressed by patriarchy economically, politically, socially, and psychologically; patriarchal ideology is the primary means by which they are kept soIn every domain where patriarchy reigns, woman is other: she is marginalized, defined only by her difference from male norms and valuesAll of western (Anglo-European) civilization is deeply rooted in patriarchal ideology, for example, in the biblical portrayal of Eve as the origin of sin and death in the worldWhile biology determines our sex (male or female), culture determines our gender (masculine or feminine)All feminist activity, including feminist theory and literary criticism, has as its ultimate goal to change the world by prompting gender equalityGender issues play a part in every aspect of human production and experience, including the production and experience of literature, whether we are consciously aware of these issues or not (91).Feminist criticism has, in many ways, followed what some theorists call the three waves of feminism:First Wave Feminism - late 1700s-early 1900's: writers like Mary Wollstonecraft (A Vindication of the Rights of Women, 1792) highlight the inequalities between the sexes. Activists like Susan B. Anthony and Victoria Woodhull contribute to the women's suffrage movement, which leads to National Universal Suffrage in 1920 with the passing of the Nineteenth AmendmentSecond Wave Feminism - early 1960s-late 1970s: building on more equal working conditions necessary in America during World War II, movements such as the National Organization for Women (NOW), formed in 1966, cohere feminist political activism. Writers like Simone de Beauvoir (Le deuxième sexe, 1972) and Elaine Showalter established the groundwork for the dissemination of feminist theories dove-tailed with the American Civil Rights movementThird Wave Feminism - early 1990s-present: resisting the perceived essentialist (over generalized, over simplified) ideologies and a white, heterosexual, middle class focus of second wave feminism, third wave feminism borrows from post-structural and contemporary gender and race theories (see below) to expand on marginalized populations' experiences. Writers like Alice Walker work to "...reconcile it [feminism] with the concerns of the black community...[and] the survival and wholeness of her people, men and women both, and for the promotion of dialog and community as well as for the valorization of women and of all the varieties of work women perform" (Tyson 97).Typical questions:How is the relationship between men and women portrayed?What are the power relationships between men and women (or characters assuming male/female roles)?How are male and female roles defined?What constitutes masculinity and femininity?How do characters embody these traits?Do characters take on traits from opposite genders? How so? How does this change others’ reactions to them?What does the work reveal about the operations (economically, politically, socially, or psychologically) of patriarchy?What does the work imply about the possibilities of sisterhood as a mode of resisting patriarchy?What does the work say about women's creativity?What does the history of the work's reception by the public and by the critics tell us about the operation of patriarchy?What role the work play in terms of women's literary history and literary tradition? (Tyson)To what extent does the representation of women (and men) in the work reflect the place and time in which the work was written?How are the relations between men and women, or those between the members of the same sex, presented in the work? What roles do men and women assume and perform and with what consequences?Does the author present the work from within a predominately male or female sensibility? Why might this have been done and with what effects?How do the facts of the author’s life relate to the presentation of men and women in the work? To their relative degrees of power?How do other works by the author correspond to this one in their depiction of the power relationships between men and women?The Purdue OWL. Purdue U Writing Lab, 2010. Web. 3 March 2013.FEMINIST SAMPLE“Just as The Woman was the scapegoat for Willy's desertion and failure of the family, so Miss Forsythe and Letta are the scapegoats for his sons' desertion and failure of him. But as masculine failure had been the means of bringing The Woman out of the bathroom of the Business World, so it brings Linda out of her limited position of foundation and support in the Home. Significantly, Linda is at her most assertive and ominous after the incident with The Woman. She fiings down the boys' proffered bribe of flowers, presented by Happy as he displaced blame onto women for his and Biff's desertion of their father. But in herwrath, Linda is a superior match for both boys. They cannot cover up or smooth over the truth in her presence, although they sheepishly continue to try. Linda can be threatening not in her own right, but for Willy. Her reaction in this scene is perhaps what could be expected from a woman whose husband had been unfaithful. Yet her devotion to Willy is such that we believe she would not have come at him that way. Although Linda has bought into the system enough to condemn the women as "lousy rotten whores!" (124), she blames her sons more for going to them. She attempts to throw the boys out of the house and stops herself from picking up the scattered flowers, ordering them, for once: "Pick up this stuff, I'm not your maid any more." Linda finally declares her independence from her role, recognizing that she is better than they are” For both Linda and The Woman, male failures have provoked female sense of injustice and realization of victimization. Happy turns his back on Linda's order, refusing to acquiesce to feminine dominance, but Biff gets on his knees and picks up the flowers, as he understands that he is a failure as a man. Willy has been put into the position of the humiliated and abandoned one, like The Woman, the football kicked around in the competition. Linda achieves this position through empathy with him but rises above it into female control, short-lived as it is: women can take charge when the men are defeated by one another. When Linda accuses Biff, "You! You didn't even go in to see if he was all right!" (124), she is condemning him partly for shunning all of her influence, the nurturing and tending, the human compassion. But Biff insists on seeing Willy now, over Linda's objections. Because he has become as bad as Willy in betraying Linda, he and Willy can understand each other.” Stanton, Kay. “Women and the American Dream of Death of a Salesman.” Feminist Rereadings of Modern American Drama. Ed. June Sehlueter. Madison, NJ: Fairleigh Dickinson University Press, 1989. 120-154. Web.New Historicism (1980s-present)This school, influenced by structuralist and post-structuralist theories, seeks to reconnect a work with the time period in which it was produced and identify it with the cultural and political movements of the time (Michel Foucault's concept of épistème). New Historicism assumes that every work is a product of the historic moment that created it. Specifically, New Historicism is "...a practice that has developed out of contemporary theory, particularly the structuralist realization that all human systems are symbolic and subject to the rules of language, and the deconstructive realization that there is no way of positioning oneself as an observer outside the closed circle of textuality" (Richter 1205).A helpful way of considering New Historical theory, Tyson explains, is to think about the retelling of history itself: "...questions asked by traditional historians and by new historicists are quite different...traditional historians ask, 'What happened?' and 'What does the event tell us about history?' In contrast, new historicists ask, 'How has the event been interpreted?' and 'What do the interpretations tell us about the interpreters?'" (278). So New Historicism resists the notion that "...history is a series of events that have a linear, causal relationship: event A caused event B; event B caused event C; and so on" (Tyson 278).New historicists do not believe that we can look at history objectively, but rather that we interpret events as products of our time and culture and that "...we don't have clear access to any but the most basic facts of history...our understanding of what such facts mean...is...strictly a matter of interpretation, not fact" (279). Moreover, New Historicism holds that we are hopelessly subjective interpreters of what we observe.Typical questions:What language/characters/events present in the work reflect the current events of the author’s day?Are there words in the text that have changed their meaning from the time of the writing?How are such events interpreted and presented?How are events' interpretation and presentation a product of the culture of the author?Does the work's presentation support or condemn the event?Can it be seen to do both?How does this portrayal criticize the leading political figures or movements of the day?How does the literary text function as part of a continuum with other historical/cultural texts from the same period?How can we use a literary work to "map" the interplay of both traditional and subversive discourses circulating in the culture in which that work emerged and/or the cultures in which the work has been interpreted?How does the work consider traditionally marginalized populations?When was the work written and published? How did the critics perceive it?What social attitudes and cultural practices related to the action of the work were prevalent during the time the work was written?What kinds of power relations does the work describe, reflect, and embody?To what extent can we understand the past as it is reflected in the literary work? To what extent does the work reflect differences from the ideas and values of its time?The Purdue OWL. Purdue U Writing Lab, 2010. Web. 3 March 2013.SAMPLE NEW HISTORICISM“Much of the scholarly criticism, both past and current, focuses on whether or not Death of a Salesman functions as a "true" tragedy. Miller provided much of the impetus for this debate with his well known essay "Tragedy and the Common Man," which upset many of the central assumptions about the genre that Aristotle had described some two thousand years before, and started off a heated debate among critics. Traditional classical tragedy, as in Greek theatre or Shakespeare, depicts a hero who is often upper-class and who challenges, because of some personal flaw in his nature, the moral values of his society; for example, Oedipus is considered a classic Greek tragedy. The hero suffers, while society and its sacred values remain unbreakable, and in the end, the hero experiences an epiphany or self-realization.Willy Loman is not a typical tragic hero. He belongs to a lower economic class and is not particularly smart. Furthermore, the society in which he lives is an amoral, capitalistic big-business society. In "Tragedy and the Common Man," Miller argues, "the common man is as apt a subject for tragedy in its highest sense as kings were." He argues that tragic heroes are defined by their willingness to sacrifice everything in order to maintain their personal dignity. Loman is flawed in his skewed idea of what makes a person successful, but he refuses to give up that popular vision. Miller viewed Willy Loman as a believer in the American Dream, who in the end chooses not to suffer the loss of dignity. The essay was reprinted many times, and now is a popular reading assignment for high school and college students. When it appeared in The New York Times, some influential critics, including George Jean Nathan, Eleanor Clark, and Eric Bentley, saw the essay as a challenge, and it became a starting point for astute critical discussions about dramatic tragedy.”Sickels, Amy. “Arthur Miller’s Death of a Salesman History of Criticism.” Critical Insights. (2010): 76-91. Web. 3 Mar. 2013. ................
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