Australian Society of Zoo Keeping - Professional ...
Husbandry Guidelines
for
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RED FOX
Vulpes vulpes
Mammalia : Canidae
Author: Tracey Dierikx
Date of Preparation: 2015
Western Sydney Institute of TAFE, Richmond
Course Name and Number: Cert 3 Captive Animals 18913
Lecturer: Graeme Phipps, Jacki Salkeld, Brad Walker
DISCLAIMER
Although the author has made every effort to ensure that the information in this manual was correct at press time, the author does not assume and hereby disclaims any liability to any party for any loss, damage, or disruption caused by errors or omissions, whether such errors or omissions result from negligence, accident, or any other cause.
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OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH AND SAFETY RISKS
WHS Introduction
Working with the captive Red Fox can be a rewarding experience, but does come with its own specific risks. These include, but are not limited to:
• Exposure to adverse weather conditions
• Exposure to bites and scratches
• Exposure to zoonotic diseases and parasites
• Exposure to hazardous materials (cleaning agents, animal waste, etc)
• Trips and falls, general safety in manouevering about the enclosure/facility
• Manual handling and animal handling injuries (back strains, etc)
(GFAS 2013)
Keeping these in mind, staff training should be provided that covers all of the above hazards and how to minimize risk factors during the daily care and maintenance of the Red Fox.
HM Species Risk Category
Low Risk = Innocuous
The Red Fox, being a relatively small animal, is unlikely to severely or fatally damage an adult human. They do, however, have very sharp teeth and claws, and may inflict serious bites or scratches that require immediate attention to reduce the risk of infection or chance of transmissible zoonotic diseases entering the system.
Human children may suffer greater damage from fox bites or scratches due to their small size and softer skin – and babies would definitely be at more risk of severe or fatal injuries if attacked.
In Australia, Red Foxes do not carry Rabies – but they can be carriers in other countries.
Workplace Risk Types
Biological
Possible exposure to a whole range of zoonotic diseases and parasites accompanies the care of the Red Fox. These include:
• Tapeworm
• Roundworm – toxocariasis
• Ringworm
• Sarcoptic Mange
• Toxoplasmosis
• Giardia
• Leptospirosis
• Cryptosporidium
• Salmonella
• Campylobacter
• Tetanus
• Parvovirus – mainly carrying to other animals
• Distemper – mainly carrying to other animals
• Rabies – not in Australia
Vaccinations for tetanus (and/or Rabies if necessary) should be a requirement before working with Red Foxes. Attention to good hygiene practices will reduce the risks associated with other diseases listed.
(Refs: NFWS, Massam et al. 2008)
Chemical
Chemical hazards would most likely come from working with cleaning agents – bleach, detergents, and the like. Some forms of pest control, such as flea powders, topical flea/tick medications, rodent control chemicals/baits etc, may also be used in your workplace.
Chemicals in the workplace should be stored within guidelines listed on their MSDS, and instructions for their use (and misuse) clearly displayed on or near where they are to be stored or used.
Environmental
Working with Red Foxes will see you outside and exposed to the elements on a regular basis. With that in mind, you will need protection from said elements:
• Closed shoes/boots – preferably waterproofed
• Long trousers and long sleeved shirts – to protect from the sun
• Wide brimmed hat – to protect from sun or rain
• Sunscreen – for any exposed skin on sunny days
• Sunglasses (optional) – eye protection from UV glare
• Wet weather gear – for rainy days
• Warm jacket – for cold days
Ergonomic
Ergonomic hazards encountered in the care of animals are primarily related to repetitive actions, such as raking, sweeping, bending, and other similar procedural actions. Poorly designed airlock entries to enclosures can also pose an ergonomic risk when having to manouever equipment or animals into and out of enclosures.
Physical
Physical hazards are many and varied when working in the animal care industry. They include risks from not only the animals in care, but also the environment in which you are working. Some of these risks are:
• Manual handling – lifting heavy objects/animals, raking, sweeping, cleaning, etc.
• Enclosure structures – furniture, low doorways, fencing materials, electric fences, foliage/trees, etc.
• Bites and scratches
• Trips, slips and falls
• Burns
Staff initial training in manual handling techniques and handling of animals, and refresher training at regular intervals if necessary, should be conducted for all staff. Each facility will have slightly different procedures for these tasks, so it should not be assumed that an experienced keeper from another facility will be au fait with your facility’s processes.
.
Psychological
Psychological hazards relating primarily to the animal care industry include:
• Death of an animal in your care
• Death of another keeper in a workplace incident
• Death of an iconic animal in the zoo/facility
Most zoos have access to counselling services specifically to deal with psychological issues relating to the above.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
1 Introduction 9
2 Taxonomy 10
2.1 Nomenclature 10
2.2 Subspecies 10
2.3 Recent Synonyms 11
2.4 Other Common Names 11
3 Natural History 12
3.1 Morphometrics 15
3.1.1 Mass And Basic Body Measurements 15
3.1.2 Sexual Dimorphism 15
3.1.3 Distinguishing Features 16
3.2 Distribution and Habitat 17
3.3 Conservation Status 21
3.4 Longevity 22
3.4.1 In the Wild 22
3.4.2 In Captivity 23
3.4.3 Techniques Used to Determine Age in Adults 23
4 Housing Requirements 24
4.1 Exhibit/Enclosure Design 24
4.2 Holding Area Design 25
4.3 Spatial Requirements 26
4.4 Position of Enclosures 26
4.5 Weather Protection 27
4.6 Temperature Requirements 27
4.7 Substrate 27
4.8 Nestboxes and/or Bedding Material 27
4.9 Enclosure Furnishings 28
4.10 Sustainability considerations for Housing 28
5 General Husbandry 29
5.1 Hygiene and Cleaning 29
5.2 Record Keeping 30
5.3 Methods of Identification 31
5.4 Routine Data Collection 31
6 Feeding Requirements 32
6.1 Diet in the Wild 32
6.2 Captive Diet 32
6.3 Supplements 33
6.4 Presentation of Food 33
6.5 Sustainability aspects of feeding including food security considerations 34
7 Handling and Transport 35
7.1 Timing of Capture and Handling 35
7.2 Catching Bags 35
7.3 Capture and Restraint Techniques 35
7.4 Weighing and Examination 36
7.5 Release 36
7.6 Transport Requirements 37
7.6.1 Box Design 37
7.6.2 Furnishings 39
7.6.3 Water and Food 39
7.6.4 Animals per Box 39
7.6.5 Timing of Transportation 40
7.6.6 Release from Box 40
7.7 Sustainability aspects of animal transportation 40
8 Health Requirements 41
8.1 Daily Health Checks 41
8.2 Detailed Physical Examination 41
8.2.1 Chemical Restraint 42
8.2.2 Physical Examination 42
8.3 Routine Treatments 42
8.4 Known Health Problems 43
8.5 Quarantine Requirements 47
9 Behaviour 48
9.1 Activity 48
9.2 Social Behaviour 48
9.3 Reproductive Behaviour 48
9.4 Bathing 49
9.5 Behavioural Problems 49
9.6 Signs of Stress 49
9.7 Behavioural Enrichment 50
9.8 Introductions and Removals 53
9.9 Intraspecific Compatibility 55
9.10 Interspecific Compatibility 55
9.11 Suitability to Captivity 55
10 Breeding 56
10.1 Mating System 56
10.2 Ease of Breeding 56
10.3 Reproductive Condition 56
10.3.1 Females 56
10.3.2 Males 56
10.4 Techniques Used to Control Breeding 57
10.5 Occurrence of Hybrids 57
10.6 Timing of Breeding 57
10.7 Age at First Breeding and Last Breeding 57
10.8 Ability to Breed Every Year 57
10.9 Ability to Breed More than Once Per Year 58
10.10 Nesting, Hollow or Other Requirements 58
10.11 Breeding Diet 59
10.12 Oestrous Cycle and Gestation Period 59
10.13 Litter Size 59
10.14 Age at Weaning 59
10.15 Age of Removal from Parents 60
10.16 Growth and Development 60
11 Artificial Rearing 62
11.1 Housing 62
11.2 Temperature Requirements 62
11.3 Diet and Feeding Routine 62
11.4 Specific Requirements 63
11.5 Data Recording 63
11.6 Identification Methods 63
11.7 Hygiene 64
11.8 Behavioural Considerations 64
11.9 Use of Foster Species 64
11.10 Weaning 64
11.11 Rehabilitation and Release Procedures 65
12 Collection Management 65
12.1 Current Collection Census and Plan holdings 65
12.2 IUCN Category 66
12.3 C.I.T.E.S. Appendix 66
12.4 National Category 66
12.5 State or Territory Categories 66
12.6 Wild Population Management 67
12.7 ASMP Category of management 68
12.8 Key Personnel 68
12.9 Captive Management details 68
12.10 Population Viability Assessment 68
13 Acknowledgements 69
14 References 70
15 Bibliography 75
16 Appendices 80
16.1 Food Suppliers 80
16.2 Medications (non-veterinarian) 80
16.3 Cleaning Supplies 80
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Photo by Jeff Manser – Wild Photography (Flickr)
Introduction
Foxes are fascinating creatures, and I believe that they have a place in our zoos and wildlife parks – even though that is not a view held by many in the industry, the general public, or the media in this country (Australia).
I have written these guidelines in the hope that they may serve to encourage a greater take-up of red foxes into our zoos and wildlife parks, for the purposes of education and study. Education of the public as to the impact of these creatures in our country, and study of their habits to possibly give us more insight into effective control measures of their numbers in the wild – as obviously the current favourite method of baiting is not very effective, and has the risk of poisoning native carnivores as well, both by direct ingestion of the baits, and by eating fox corpses.
I currently have 2 pet foxes of my own that have given me invaluable insights into many aspects of fox husbandry. Exasperating at times, they never cease to impress me with their intelligence and dexterity – but they could stop the middle of the night playtimes!
Much of the information in this document has been sourced from overseas websites, mainly from the UK (Wildlife Online website, Twycross Zoo website, various wildlife rehabilitation websites) – although working closely with Sydney Fox Rescue has given me much more personal hands-on experience with foxes, and I have factored a lot of that experience into this manual also.
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Photo by Jeff Manser – Wild Photography (Flickr)
Taxonomy
1 Nomenclature
Class: Mammalia
Order: Carnivora
Family: Canidae
Genus: Vulpes
Species: vulpes
2 Subspecies
The Red Fox has a wide distribution worldwide, and as such has evolved a number of subspecies. Below is a list of these subspecies:
• Scandinavian red fox (V. v. vulpes)
• British Columbian fox (V. v. abietorum)
• Northern Alaskan fox (V. v. alascensis)
• Eastern trans-Caucasian fox (V. v. alpherakyi)
• Anatolian fox (V. v. anatolica)
• Arabian fox (V. v. arabica)
• Atlas fox (V. v. atlantica)
• Labrador fox (V. v. bangsi)
• Anadyr fox (V. v. beringiana)
• Cascade Mountain fox (V. v. cascadensis)
• North Caucasian fox (V. v. caucasica)
• European fox (V. v. crucigera)
• Trans-Baikal fox (V. v. daurica)
• Newfoundland fox (V. v. deletrix)
• Ussuri fox (V. v. dolichocrania)
• (V. v. dorsalis)
• Turkmenian fox (V. v. flavescens)
• American red fox (V. v. fulvus)
• Afghan red fox (V. v. griffithi)
• Kodiak fox (V. v. harrimani)
• Southern Chinese fox (V. v. hoole)
• Sardinian fox (V. v. ichnusae)
• Cyprus fox (V. v. indutus)
• Yakutsk fox (V. v. jakutensis)
• Japanese fox (V. v. japonica)
• Karaganka fox (V. v. karagan)
• Kenai Peninsula fox (V. v. kenaiensis)
• Trans-Caucasian montane fox (V. v. kurdistanica)
• Wasatch Mountain fox (V. v. macroura)
• Hill fox (V. v. montana)
• Sierra Nevada red fox or High Sierra fox (V. v. necator)
• Nile fox (V. v. niloticus)
• Turkestan fox (V. v. ochroxantha)
• Palestinian fox (V. v. palaestina)
• Korean fox (V. v. peculiosa)
• White-footed fox (V. v. pusilla)
• Northern plains fox (V. v. regalis)
• Nova Scotia fox (V. v. rubricosa)
• Sakhalin fox (V. v. schrencki)
• Iberian fox (V. v. silacea)
• Kurile Island fox (V. v. splendidissima)
• Steppe fox (V. v. stepensis)
• Tobol'sk fox (V. v. tobolica)
• Northern Chinese fox (V. v. tschiliensis)
(Wolfologist 2014)
3 Recent Synonyms
Canis vulpes (Linnaeus 1758)
4 Other Common Names
|English |– |Red Fox, Silver Fox, Cross Fox |
|French |– |Renard, Renard Roux |
|Spanish |– |Zorro, Zorro Rojo |
(IUCN Red List 2015.2)
3 Natural History
Evolution and Early Distribution:
“Dogs and cats are Carnivorans, that is, they’re members of the taxonomic order Carnivora (note this is different to simply being a carnivore, or meat-eater, which is not a taxonomic grouping), which is one of 29 orders within the class Mammalia. The evolution of carnivorans appears to have been a gradual process that happened in both North America and Eurasia, making it difficult to infer when it all started. Nonetheless, taxonomists (those who study how species are related to each other) currently think that the carnivorans evolved from animals called miacids, which were small tree-living mammals that looked similar to modern-day civets. At some point - by current thinking, around 42 million years ago (mya), during the mid-Eocene - it appears that the carnivorans split into the two groups, or suborders, that we recognise as cat-like (Feliformia) and dog-like (Caniformia). If, at this point, you’re wondering where mammals like mustelids, seals, bears, etc. fit in: they’re all dog-like carnivorans.
The evolutionary history of the dog family is still not completely resolved (and may never be, as new fossil finds and molecular techniques offer new insights), but the following is a generally accepted hypothesis. Readers interested in a more detailed appraisal of dog evolution are directed to Xiaoming Wang and Richard Tedford’s authoritative account in their 2008 book Dogs: Their Fossil Relatives and Evolutionary History and I recommend the reader visits WikiPedia and The Searching Wolf. Briefly, the creature that taxonomists currently think gave rise to modern-day dogs was a medium-sized (about the size of a coyote) grassland predator of North America called Prohesperocyon wilsoni that appeared during the late Eocene, some 36 mya. The caniforms subsequently diverged into three lineages (which we call subfamilies): the Hesperocyoninae (‘western dogs’); the Borophaginae (‘bone-crushing dogs’); and the only one still around, the Caninae, which includes the dogs, wolves, foxes, etc. and is thought to stem from the now extinct small fox-like Leptocyon, which lived in North America. During the late Miocene, around 10 mya, something important happened: the third, and for our purposes most important, canid radiation began. This radiation was probably in response to a vacant niche opening up as the borophagines started to die-out, and not only marked the birth of all the dog species we know today but also heralded the appearance of three modern-day genera in the south-western USA: Canis (dogs, wolves, dingoes, etc.); Urocyon (Gray foxes); and Vulpes (true foxes). In essence, it was around 10 mya that the fox lineage split from the wolf-dog lineage. A couple of million years later the dogs started arriving in Eurasia, and the Pliocene (4-5 mya) saw the dogs spread into Africa and South America. Around six mya, the first wolf-like dog arrived in western Europe.
According to Wang and Tedford, the first true foxes appeared in North America late in the Miocene (around 9 mya) and were represented by a small Californian species known as Vulpes kernensis, and a larger species (V. stenognathus) that was found throughout the continent. Foxes spread out from North America, presumably via the Bering land bridge, and colonised Europe. The oldest Old World fox specimen so far identified is
V. riffautae, which was found in the Central African country of Chad and dates to the late Miocene (some 7 mya). Recent work by Louis de Bonis and colleagues at the Université de Poitiers in France has suggested that the foxes and other canids first spread throughout Africa, before invading Europe via a trans-Mediterranean route towards the end of the Miocene. There is then something of a hiatus in the vulpine fossil record until the early Pliocene (about 4 mya), with foxes from China and Turkey among the earliest Eurasian specimens. The origins of our modern-day Red fox (V. vulpes) is equivocal, although most authors agree that it is descended from the Eurasian red fox Vulpes alopecoides, which lived in southern Europe at the end of the Pliocene, around 2.6 mya – this species was first discovered in deposits from Italy in the late 1800s, but remains were subsequently found in France, Spain and Greece.
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Photo by Jeff Manser – Wild Photography (Flickr)
In their 1982 comparison of Red and Arctic (V. lagopus) fox ecology, Pall Hersteinsson and David Macdonald note that both species are descendents of V. alopecoides and that the two species diverged during the Pleistocene. Indeed, the earliest fossil evidence for V. vulpes comes from the Old World and dates to the early Pleistocene (between 1.8 and 1 mya) of Hungary and, in her 2008 study of Red fox dentition, Polish Academy of Sciences mammalogist Elwira Szuma suggested that the current V. vulpes line evolved either in Asia Minor or North Africa around this time. As fox populations rose in Eurasia, those in North America appear to have dwindled. Previously it was believed that the first modern Red foxes (i.e. V. vulpes) to appear on the continent migrated (again, presumably across the Bering land bridge) from Europe at the end of the Pleistocene (around 1 mya) and, from here, Red and Arctic foxes colonised much of North America. Recent genetic work by Keith Aubry and his colleagues at the Pacific Northwest Research Station in Washington, however, has revealed new information on the spread of the Red fox in North America. Aubry’s data suggest that this species first reached North America during the Illinoian glaciation that lasted from roughly 300,000 to 130,000 years ago; during the next 30,000 years (the Sangamon interglacial period) the foxes spread south from Alaska, across what is now the contiguous USA. The large ice sheet that covered most of Canada and the northern fringes of the USA from around 100,000 to 10,000 years ago (during the Wisconsin glaciation) kept the Red foxes in Alaska (the population of which was added to by a second wave of colonisation from Eurasia) separate from those in the southern USA. So, the result was two isolated populations (or clades): one in Alaska (Holarctic clade) and one in the south (Nearctic clade). When the ice melted the Holarctic clade spread south and east, while the Nearctic clade spread north, the two meeting in central Canada. Aubry’s data reveal more than just the distribution of foxes in pre-history, it also elucidates the relatedness of the animals currently inhabiting North America.
Whenever and wherever this species first appeared, fossil evidence suggests that the modern Red fox has been in North Africa for the last 700,000 years and Europe for at least the last 400,000 years. In Britain, remains of the Red fox have been found in Wolstonian Glacial sediments from Warwickshire, suggesting that they were around between 330,000 and 135,000 years ago. Following the retreat of ice from the last ice age (the Late Glacial) some 15,000 years ago, many of the larger mammal species began to re-appear and extend their range northwards. According to Derek Yalden’s fascinating book, The History of British Mammals, post-glacial remains of the Red fox have been found at several sites around Britain and suggest that this species re-appeared ‘naturally’ (i.e. without any obvious assistance from humans) around 10,000 years ago. Indeed, other fossil data imply that the ice forced foxes into the warmer southern regions of Europe (e.g. Iberia, Italy, southern France, etc.) for only a (geologically) brief period, after which they quickly returned to central Europe and Britain; at the time, the UK was connected to the European continent. The flooding of the Doggerland ‘bridge’ around 6,500 years ago isolated Britain’s foxes from those in Europe, putting an end to any natural mixing of the populations.” (Baldwin 2015)
Original distribution:
Native to Europe, Asia, North Africa and boreal regions of North America, the red fox has been introduced into Australia and temperate regions of North America. They are now the most widely distributed carnivore in the world. (PestSmart Factsheet 2011)
Current Australian distribution:
Red foxes were introduced into Australia in the 1850s and have spread across 76% of the continent, except the far tropical north. The fox has recently been introduced to Tasmania. (PestSmart Factsheet 2011)
Spread pathways:
The colonisation of the red fox began in Victoria, and then spread north and west. Evidence suggests that the fox spread most rapidly across the inland saltbush and mallee country, and more slowly in the forested ranges near the coast. The rapid spread of foxes in Australia was linked to the spread of the European rabbit, and assisted by deliberate human introductions to new areas. (PestSmart Factsheet 2011)
Biological & behavioural weaknesses:
Red foxes have few natural predators in Australia, with most mortality occurring because of human activities or drought. Cubs can be vulnerable to birds of prey and dogs, and there is some evidence that local populations can be suppressed by predation from dingoes. (PestSmart Factsheet 2011)
3.1 Morphometrics
3.1.1 Mass And Basic Body Measurements
Red foxes are the largest species of the genus Vulpes. However, relative to dimensions, red foxes are much lighter than similarly sized dogs of the genus Canis. Their limb bones, for example, weigh 30% less per unit area of bone than expected for similarly sized dogs. They display significant individual, sexual, age and geographical variation in size. On average, adults measure 35–50 cm (14–20 in) high at the shoulder and 45 to 90 cm (18 to 35 in) in body length with tails measuring 30 to 55.5 cm (11.8 to 21.9 in). Weights range from 2.2 to 14 kg (4.9 to 30.9 lb), with vixens typically weighing 15–20% less than males. Adult red foxes have skulls measuring 129–167 mm (5.1–6.6 in), while those of vixens measure 128–159 mm (5.0–6.3 in). (Wikipedia – Red Fox 2015)
3.1.2 Sexual Dimorphism
Females are generally slightly smaller in overall size and weight. Genitalia is external.
The following chart (Cavallini 1995) shows average body masses, head/body lengths, tail lengths, and dimorphism percentages of same between males and females from various countries:
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3.1.3 Distinguishing Features
There are three main colour morphs; red, silver/black and cross. In the typical red morph, their coats are generally bright reddish-rusty with yellowish tints. A stripe of weak, diffuse patterns of many brown-reddish-chestnut hairs occurs along the spine. Two additional stripes pass down the shoulder blades which, together with the spinal stripe, form a cross. The lower back is often a mottled silvery colour. The flanks are lighter coloured than the back, while the chin, lower lips, throat and front of the chest are white. The remaining lower surface of the body is dark, brown or reddish. During lactation, the belly fur of vixens may turn brick red. The upper parts of the limbs are rusty reddish, while the paws are black. The frontal part of the face and upper neck is bright brownish-rusty red, while the upper lips are white. The backs of the ears are black or brownish-reddish, while the inner surface is whitish. The top of the tail is brownish-reddish, but lighter in colour than the back and flanks. The underside of the tail is pale grey with a straw-coloured tint. A black spot, the location of the supracaudal gland, is usually present at the base of the tail. The tip of the tail is white.
The following image shows the various colour morphs of the European Red Fox (Urban-Mongoose 2014)
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3.2 Distribution and Habitat
Worldwide Distribution:
“The Red fox is the most widespread of all wild canids and has the largest natural distribution of any non-human land mammal. The distribution of the fox covers an estimated 70 million sq-km (~27 million sq-mi) and includes a diverse array of habitats from deserts to Arctic tundra. The distribution of the Red fox can be summarised as being Holarctic, Oriental, Australasian, Northern Neotropical and African. In other words, these foxes are found throughout the UK and Europe east through Russia, Kazakstan, Iraq, Iran, Pakistan into northern India, China and Thailand to Japan. To the west, Red foxes are found in the northern and eastern USA, north through Canada and Alaska to Baffin Island; they’re conspicuously absent from many of the Arctic islands including Greenland and Iceland. Within Eurasia, it appears that the severity of the winter (i.e. the lowest temperature) limits the northern range of the Red fox. This species doesn’t appear to have spread far into the African continent, although it is found on the northern fringes (north Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia) and down through eastern Libya, western Egypt into northern and central Sudan, roughly following the course of the River Nile. They are also absent from much of the southern and western USA, Mexico and most of the Southern Hemisphere. Where Red foxes are absent they are typically replaced by other fox species, including the Fennec (Vulpes zerda) and Cape fox (Vulpes chama) in Africa, the Gray fox (Urocyon cinereoargenteus) in most of southern North America and six species of ‘Zorro’ foxes (Lycalopex spp.) in South America.” (Baldwin 2015)
Below is a worldwide distribution map for the Red Fox (Wikimedia 2014)
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Legend: green = native, blue = introduced, orange = presence uncertain
“Australia has also seen its share of Red fox introductions, with animals released to provide sport (rather than rabbit control) by home-sick expatriates who formed the Acclimatisation Society of Victoria; they have arguably caused more serious ecological problems here than anywhere else. In his 1987 book, Macdonald notes that the first confirmed importation of foxes to Australia was the English animals released by T.H. Pike onto his property near Keilor in Melbourne, Victoria (on the south-eastern tip of the island) during 1845. According to Macdonald, two males were subsequently released near Sydney in 1855 and, in 1864, a male and two females arrived on a ship from Suffolk and were released by the Melbourne Hunt Club. It appears, however, that most of these initial releases failed to ‘take’ and it wasn’t until almost a decade later that introductions began seeing success. It is now widely considered that the present Australian fox population was founded by two shipments liberated in Victoria: one consisted of two foxes released by Dr King near Ballarat in 1871; the second was about five animals released on Point Cook, in the Werribee-Geelong district of southern Victoria, by Mr T. Chirnside in the early 1870s. By 1880 the species was widespread in Victoria (especially between Geelong and Melbourne), but hadn’t moved far outside the region; it was at this point that the colonization gained momentum. In a paper to the journal Mammal Review during 2010, Glen Saunders -- at the New South Wales Department of Industry’s Vertebrate Pest and Weed Unit -- and two colleagues told the story of how the Red fox spread across Australia. The species crossed the south Australian border in 1888, reached New South Wales (NSW) in 1893, and Queensland and Western Australia early in the twentieth century. The rate of movement was particularly rapid (up to 160km/108mi per year) in the inland saltbush and mallee country, and there is some evidence that the spread was actively assisted by humans. Foxes now occupy all of continental Australia except for the northern arid and tropical regions, at least 18 offshore islands, and even penetrate into the hot deserts of the interior when seasonal conditions permit. Foxes were illegally released on to Tasmania during the late 1990s, although the population didn’t become established until 11 animals were deliberately released in three areas of the island in late 1999; carcasses have been found here since 2001. There is currently no evidence of foxes in New Zealand and it has been illegal to import them there since 1867.” (Baldwin 2015)
Below is the national distribution map of the Red Fox in Australia (PestSmart 2007)
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Just for the sake of interest and comparison – below is the Australian national distribution map for the European Rabbit – a natural food source for the Red Fox (PestSmart 2007)
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Habitat:
“Red foxes thrive in almost all habitats because they are relatively unspecialised in their way of life. Consequently, foxes have been found at most altitudes, from sea level up to 3000m (almost 10,000 ft) and in most terrestrial environments on Earth; their distribution and abundance is a result of the availability of food and suitable breeding sites. Red foxes are generally a species of, and do best in, mixed landscapes consisting of scrub, woodland and farmland. Red foxes are found in dense woodland and plantations, on moorland, coastal dunes and above the tree-line in mountain ranges, but the reduction in (or high seasonality of) food supply in such places tends to mean they are less abundant in such habitats. Indeed, it is widely held that the clearance of woodland to make way for agricultural land created very favourable conditions for Red foxes and, in conjunction with the introduction of game species (e.g. brown hare, rabbits, pheasant, domestic fowl, etc.) to these habitats, is largely responsible for the rapid colonization of Eurasia and North America by this species.” (Baldwin 2015)
3.3 Conservation Status
Threat Category:
The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species lists the Red Fox (Vulpes vulpes) as Least Concern – see ranking below (IUCN Red List 2015.2)
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Conservation Actions:
“Not listed in CITES Appendices at species level. V. v. necator in the Sierra Nevada, California, USA, is rare, possibly declining (Nowak 1991). The subspecies griffithi, montana and pusilla (=leucopus) are listed as CITES – Appendix III (India).
Present in most temperate-subarctic conservation areas with the exception of some inaccessible islands in the Old World and South America. Widely regarded as a pest and unprotected. Most countries and/or states where trapping or hunting occurs have regulated closed versus open seasons and restrictions on methods of capture. In the European Union, Canada, and the Russian Federation, trapping methods are regulated under an agreement on international trapping standards between these countries, which was signed in 1997. Other countries are signatories to ISO/DIS 10990-5.2 animal (mammal) traps, which specifies standards for trap testing.
Foxes are highly persecuted and heavily hunted in Afghanistan, however, it is an adaptable species that produces large litters. Therefore the Government of Afghanistan has listed V. vulpes as a harvestable species (with regular monitoring of populations to ensure hunting does not qualify the fox for a protected status in the future).
In Europe and North America, hunting traditions and/or legislation impose closed seasons on fox hunting. In the UK and a few other European countries, derogation from these provisions allows breeding season culling for pest-control purposes. Here, traditional hunting ethics encouraging restrained "use" may be at odds with harder hitting pest-control ambitions. This apparent conflict between different interest groups is particularly evident in the UK, where fox control patterns are highly regionally variable (Macdonald et al. 2003). In some regions, principal lowland areas where classical mounted hunting operates, limited economic analyses suggest that the principal motive for these communal fox hunts is as a sport – the number killed is small compared with the cost of the hunting. In these regions, most anthropogenic mortality is by individual farmers shooting foxes. The mounted communal hunts do exhibit restraint – hunting takes place for a limited season, and for a prescribed number of days per week. Elsewhere, in upland regions, communal hunting by foot with guns and dogs may make economic sense, depending on the number of lambs lost to foxes (data on this is poor), and also on the current value of lost lambs. This type of fox hunting may also be perceived as a sport by its participants.
An individual deciding whether or not to control foxes, and by what means, has a complex set of factors to consider, including other interest groups, practicality and economics. For some farmers, there is evidence that a decision to control foxes may be economically perverse. Macdonald et al. (2003) modelled the interactions between foxes, rabbits, and rabbit-induced crop damage. For some farmers at least, a decision to kill a fox may, in some circumstances, cost that farmer a significant amount of crop loss to the rabbits that the fox and its descendants would have killed.
In addition to fur farms, Red Foxes are widely kept in small wildlife parks and zoos, but there appears to be no systematic data on their breeding success. Being extremely shy they are often poor exhibits.” (IUCN Red List 2015.2)
3.4 Longevity
3.4.1 In the Wild
There have been accounts of wild Red Foxes reaching ages up to 15 years.
“A reader in Colorado (USA) informs me that one of her resident males lived to 12 years old and a vixen still visiting her garden (whom she has known and photographed from a cub) is going strong despite having reached 15 years old in May 2015.” (Baldwin 2015)
The average lifespan of the wild Red Fox is generally between 2 and 6 years.
“David Macdonald noted that only about 5% of foxes live past their fourth birthday and, in Oxford city, he and Patrick Doncaster found that 63% died during their first year; the average life expectancy was estimated at 19 months (only about 12% saw their second birthday). In Macdonald’s undisturbed/un-persecuted study group on Boar Hill in Oxford life expectancy was higher, with 23% living to five years old. Similar figures have been presented for foxes living in other cities. The average life expectancy can also be associated with dominance and Phil Baker at Bristol University found fox longevity to be related to social status, calculating that the average age for a dominant fox was about 4.5 years, while subordinates only lived for an average of just over two years.” (Baldwin 2015)
3.4.2 In Captivity
Captive Red Foxes can live to around 15 years of age on average.
Exceptions to this have been recorded:
“In his 2005 compendium, Longevity of Mammals in Captivity, Richard Weigl lists the oldest Red fox on record as being a mountain subspecies (Vulpes vulpes macroura) caught, in Utah, that arrived at Zoo Boise in Idaho during August 1985 at an estimated age of two years and four months; she was still alive in July 2004, when records were collected for the book, making it just over 21 years old. Zoo Boise’s registrar, Corinne Shaw, tells me that this vixen survived until January 2007, when she was euthanized by the vet because of age-related illness; she was thus estimated to have died at the age of 23 years and seven months. The oldest recorded European animal (listed as Vulpes vulpes crucigera) was a specimen that arrived at Giardino Zoologico di Roma in Italy during March 1980 -- estimated at two years old -- and died there in January 1997, just shy of its 19th birthday.” (Baldwin 2015)
3.4.3 Techniques Used to Determine Age in Adults
“Over the years, various methods have been used to try and estimate fox age, including the weight of the eye lens, general dental development (i.e. tooth eruption), tooth wear, baculum (penis bone) development, cranial measurements and tooth sectioning. In a 1978 paper to the Journal of Zoology, Bristol University biologist Stephen Harris (at the time based at Royal Holloway College in Surrey) compared the effectiveness of various different techniques on a sample of 336 foxes killed in London between 1971 and 1973. Harris found that visual inspection of the baculum could separate juvenile and adult males (obviously of no use for females), but no separation of year classes was possible. Similarly, the weight of the eye lens -- which grows throughout life but experiences very little wear -- could separate yearlings from adults (91% with lenses weighing less than 210mg were less than a year old), but thereafter there was too much overlap between age classes to be reliable. Harris also found that tooth attrition (wear) could be used effectively in some populations (93% of the sample up to four years old were correctly aged this way), but was a highly variable character -- it’s heavily related to the diet of the animal in question, and tooth wear is slower in old age -- and was thus not a reliable method of assessing absolute age. Overall, Harris concluded that:
“None of the measurements of growth (baculum weight, eye-lens weight, skull and skeletal measurements) proved of any absolute value for age determination in the present study…”
Harris found that the most effective method of ageing foxes was to use incremental lines of cementum. Cementum is a bone-like connective tissue that covers the root of a tooth, providing protection, support and a connective surface for fibres that attach the tooth to the jaw bone; it’s laid down throughout the animal’s life with heavily mineralized layers (incremental bands) alternating with those less mineralized (incremental lines). The result is that, if you cut the tooth into sections and dye it, the tooth has a ‘banded’ appearance, with incremental lines showing up as light strips. Exactly why mammals deposit these light and dark bands is unknown, although there are several theories, including that lack of food and a harsh climate cause compacted (dark) layers of cementum to form (the “environmental effect”), and that they’re associated with physiological changes during the breeding cycle (the “endogenous effect”). Either way, the idea is that you can count the tooth rings, like you would the rings of a tree, to determine its age.
So, sectioning and staining a tooth seems to be the most reliable way of estimating the age of a dead fox, while the degree of wear of the incisors can give a fairly accurate estimate of live animals. Some authors have suggested that canine teeth are best to section, while others have found better results with incisors – in a recent (2007) paper to Folia Zoologica, however, Czech biologists Jana Roulichova and Milos Andera report that, although canines are best for the task, age can be estimated from any of the premolars. Whichever tooth type is chosen, it is often advisable to take multiple samples from the same animal. Harris, in his 1978 paper, found that:
“For an accurate assessment of an animal’s age it is important to section more than one tooth because different teeth from the same animal may yield slightly different counts ... and so the determined age should be based on sections of at least two teeth.”
(Baldwin 2015)
4 Housing Requirements
4.1 Exhibit/Enclosure Design
As you will note (in section 4.3), in Australia, the Red Fox exhibit must be fully enclosed, including a roof. Blue Hills Reservation Trailside Nature Center in Milton Massachusetts (USA) Master Plan has a concept design that is more than adequate – see diagram below.
[pic]
Things to note are that foxes can dig, climb, and chew through most substances, so steel mesh must be used predominately for all sides – and also underneath the substrate. How far this underground mesh is buried will depend on whether you wish the foxes to dig dens themselves, or whether you will provide an alternative for them.
As the enclosure must have a roof, consideration must be given to the types of plants one will use inside the exhibit – anything that grows to lofty heights will probably not be suitable.
Care should also be taken to not include anything in the enclosure that could cause injury – sharp edges, anything that has protruding solid pieces, should be assessed for injury potential prior to housing foxes in the enclosure.
4.2 Holding Area Design
Blue Hills Reservation Trailside Nature Center in Milton Massachusetts (USA) Master Plan has an amazing exhibit design for the Red Fox – including the holding area (see image below) – area is for 2 adult foxes.
[pic]
(pp10 Appendix C. Trailside Master Plan 2008)
However, in NSW (Australia) a floor space of 25m2 is required as per the Standards for Exhibiting Carnivores in New South Wales - Exhibited Animals Protection Act 1986. With that in mind, I have modified the above design sizes – see image below.
[pic]
(Image created by Tracey Dierikx, 2015)
The above is the required space for 2 adult foxes – the EAPA Standards also state that an extra floor space of 7m2 is required for each additional animal – so one could modify the above design to allow for extra dens or larger dens to accommodate any additional animals.
4.3 Spatial Requirements
As Red Foxes are not necessarily solitary animals – they do best in captivity in pairs or family groups – enclosures need to be designed to house more than one animal… and the EAPA Standards allow a minimum of 2 animals to be housed in an enclosure of the following dimensions:
Floor area: 100m2
Additional area per extra animal: 10m2
Mesh Fence height: 2.4m
Mesh diameter: 3mm
Mesh spacing: 50mm x 50mm
Roof: must have a fully enclosed roof
4.4 Position of Enclosures
Red Foxes are highly adaptable to most weather conditions, but common sense would allow for the placement of shade trees/bushes, shelter areas like hollow logs, and covered areas to protect from the worst of the elements. Ponds or water access placement should also be out of direct sunlight to avoid the water heating up and making it undrinkable.
Positioning to allow for both sun and shade in all seasons would be preferred.
4.5 Weather Protection
As fox enclosures in Australia are required to be roofed, it may be appropriate to combine fully enclosed roofing material and mesh roofing – thus allowing for appropriate shade/shelter from the sun or rain at all times. If the area is prone to wind, then wind breaks of appropriate materials could be set up on the non-viewing sides of the enclosure – these could be a row of shrubs/bushes either inside or outside the enclosure, rather than solid wall materials to allow for an aesthetically pleasing exhibit.
4.6 Temperature Requirements
As stated previously, Red Foxes are highly adaptable to most weather conditions, including extremes of temperature, so as long as they have shelter to get away from direct sun or rain, they are relatively easy animals to accommodate in this respect.
4.7 Substrate
Preferably a soil base, with grassy areas, shrubs, and rocks. A sand pit area is also advisable – even though the foxes may tend to use it as a toilet – areas to allow digging, climbing, and generally exploring. Mulched areas can also be beneficial, as they tend to harbor insects for the foxes to hunt.
A concrete or mesh barrier under the substrate is required to stop the foxes from tunneling out of the enclosure. This barrier should be at least 30cm below the surface, but the deeper the better if you wish to allow your foxes to dig their own dens. The barrier should also allow for good drainage of the substrate material to avoid bog areas.
Avoid plants such as Oleander, as these are pretty, but highly poisonous to most animals.
4.8 Nestboxes and/or Bedding Material
Foxes, like cats, like small spaces to nest/rest in. Provision of small boxes made from untreated wood is advised – although you may need to replace them at regular intervals if the foxes chew on them.
Any enclosed area for the foxes to climb into and settle in will be sufficient, but the smaller the better according to the fox… a small box about 18 inches square will be heaven. You could even make up a few of these small boxes and link them up to simulate a den type environment. (Adams & Miller, 2007)
Bedding material can be offered – straw will serve well, and can be easily changed when it gets dirty. At Sydney Fox Rescue, the resident adult foxes prefer polar fleece and toweling material in their beds, but one needs to be mindful of the destructive nature of foxes, and they will chew and swallow almost anything!
4.9 Enclosure Furnishings
Foxes love to climb and explore, so provision of branches, logs, large rocks, and climbing structures are a must. Platforms to rest on in high places will allow the foxes to sun themselves and feel relatively secure doing so.
They also like to hide and rest, so bushes, hollow logs, and any enclosed space you can provide for them to hide in will be beneficial.
As mentioned before, a sand pit area to dig in (or use as a toilet), and a mulched area for them to hunt insects in will allow for the display of natural behaviours. Foxes love to dig even more than they like to climb, so make sure there are plenty of opportunities for them to do so.
Ponds or running water “creeks” will also allow for easy access to water – and some foxes like to splash in them on hot days.
4.10 Sustainability considerations for Housing
Some inclusions to exhibit design to offset energy consumption could be as follows:
• Solar panels on the roof of the holding area to provide for energy needs of the daily tasks to be performed, excess energy stored can be fed back into the rest of the park/zoo
• Recycled water source to use for cleaning the holding dens
• Placement of the enclosure and holding area to minimise adverse weather conditions, thus reducing the need for non-natural heating/cooling
• Skylights at regular intervals in the roof to allow more natural light in to covered areas – reduces the need for artificial lighting
• Strategically placed windows in keeper area, again to reduce the need for artificial lighting
• Any artificial lighting to utilise low-wattage globes
• Fully insulated holding area to reduce the need for artificial heating/cooling
Other actions to consider with regards to sustainability:
• Use of recycled or second hand materials to build the enclosure and holding area
• Drainage to run through a filtration system to replenish recycled water supply – could even run to a holding pit that can be used to water/fertilise park gardens
• Composting of used substrate or den sleeping material – possibly creating a worm farm to help break down same naturally
• Use of shredded office paper for den sleeping material
5 General Husbandry
5.1 Hygiene and Cleaning
Let’s get one thing perfectly clear… foxes smell! They have scent glands that exude a fairly unpleasant odour, and it gets onto/into everything they come into contact with. For this reason alone, you are going to want to maintain fairly high standards of odour control if you wish to display Red Foxes at your establishment.
They also have an endearing habit of stashing leftover food in hiding spots so they can go back and eat it later – so checking of their enclosures for these morsels will need to be a daily habit – along with the usual scat cleanup/removal and general sprucing up of the enclosure (raking, replacing bedding in nest/rest boxes).
Good ventilation of the enclosure is the first step to keeping the odour at bay… and it’s free!
As with most zoo enclosures, you will have 2 areas to target for cleaning – the exhibit enclosure itself, and the indoors holding/den area. The holding/den area will need to be cleaned and/or disinfected daily, and the enclosure itself will need general maintenance of the structures and vegetation on a somewhat less regular basis. There will be basic chores to perform in the enclosure on a daily basis (scat removal, bedding replacement, raking).
Daily cleaning tasks:
• Removal/replacement of old bedding material, removal of scat and leftover food caches in enclosure
• Raking and general sprucing up of the enclosure substrate and structures (if necessary)
• Removal of bedding material in dens/holding area, removal of scat
• Thorough scrubbing of den/holding area – Delete disinfectant is a very good odour control cleaning product, and doesn’t need high concentrations for effective use.
• New bedding material placed in the dens/holding area
Weekly cleaning tasks:
• Dens/holding area – treat with F10SC solution after daily clean
• Enclosure nest/rest boxes – treat with F10SC solution
• Check for cobwebs or other debris on enclosure mesh - remove
Monthly cleaning tasks:
• General scrub down of enclosure structures that allow same
• Replace mulch – if you have provided a mulched area in the enclosure
• Replace sand in sand pit – if you have provided one in the enclosure
Annual cleaning tasks:
• All over clean of enclosure mesh and re-paint
• Re-sealing of concrete areas if necessary
Pest control measures:
• Dealing with the natural odours foxes produce will help keep the flies down to a bearable minimum – as will daily removal of scat and food caches
• Daily removal of food caches will reduce the incidence of ants
• Rodents may be fun for the foxes to hunt, but we don’t want them in the enclosure – placement of rat bait stations (using Racumin baits) outside the fox enclosure should keep their numbers down
• Fleas/ticks – can be controlled by using a topical preparation like Revolution, Advocate, Frontline - or oral treatments like Panoramis, Nexguard, Comfortis… and keeping the enclosure clutter free with short grass
5.2 Record Keeping
Records need to be maintained appropriately as required by local, state, and national regulations – in NSW, this legislation is the Exhibited Animals Protection Act 1986.
Currently under review is the “Australian Animal Welfare Standards and Guidelines for Exhibited Animals”, submitted in 2014, which aims to nationalize the standards for exhibiting animals in Australia. (NSW DPI 2015)
The use of a computerised record keeping system (such as ARKS or ZIMS) is advised, and the use of spreadsheets or checklists to gather the data is useful.
Records needing to be kept include, but are not limited to:
• Individual animal records – origin, age, species, gender, microchip number, tattoo, photo, biography, etc.
• Individual veterinary records
• Reproductive history, if known
• Contraception records
• Weight and diet information
• Food consumption and preferred food items
• Enrichment dates, items used, animal response
• Acquisition or transfer documentation
• Current and historic enclosure mates, social groups and partners, introduction responses, etc.
• Welfare assessments – disease prevalence, morbidity and mortality rates, activity levels, etc.
• Animal escape records, complaints, etc.
(GFAS 2013)
5.3 Methods of Identification
Microchips are used for permanent identification of individual animals.
Other methods of individual identification that can be used are:
• Ear tattoos
• Collars
• Ear tags
• Individual coat markings and body language/behaviours
Drawbacks to the listed other identification methods are as follows:
• Ear tattoos – may fade, ear hair may cover
• Collars – may pose a hanging risk if caught on enclosure furniture – can be chewed off by enclosure mates
• Ear tags – may get caught on enclosure furniture – can be ripped out during play/fights with enclosure mates
• Individual coat markings – many foxes are extremely similar in markings/patterns
Microchips remain the only permanent and effective identification method.
5.4 Routine Data Collection
The following collectible data could be used for research purposes, updating of husbandry practices, and the like:
• Animal weights and diet information
• Reproduction cycles, frequency, number of live young, etc.
• Enrichment information – what makes the animal tick, and how to stimulate natural behaviours in a captive environment
• Disease rates, vaccinations, pest control efforts
• Development of young from birth to adulthood – mother-raised, or hand raised
[pic]
Photo by Jeff Manser – Wild Photography (Flickr)
6 Feeding Requirements
6.1 Diet in the Wild
“Essentially, foxes are small and medium-sized mammal (particularly rodents and lagomorphs) specialists; that is, they evolved to feed primarily on mice, rats, voles, rabbits, etc. This does not, however, mean that foxes only eat rodents – nothing could be further from the truth. Indeed, the problem when it comes to describing what’s on the menu is that the Red fox, as a species, has an almost unimaginably catholic diet. As a general rule of thumb, foxes are local opportunists – in other words, they take whatever prey is abundant (locally and seasonally) at the time. A consequence of this unspecialised selection is that foxes can live almost anywhere and eat almost anything, switching prey as necessary; at the same time, however, it means that the diet varies with habitat, season, and individual preference, which makes it extraordinarily difficult to generalise.
One study of foxes in Missouri, for example, recorded 34 different mammal species, 14 species of bird, 15 families of insects and 21 species of plants in the diet.
A study in the Snowy Mountains of New South Wales (NSW) found that foxes were dependent upon small mammals during the winter, changing to insects during the snow-free summer months. Similarly, even if small mammals are still about, other prey species may be taken more frequently if they are in particular bounty (fruits during autumn, for example). In a study of 99 fox stomachs from the Kinchega National Park in NSW, G.E. Ryan and J. David Croft found that mammals (mainly rabbits) dominated the diet for most of the year, with a switch to feeding on insects during the autumn. The authors don’t speculate as to the cause of the shift – there is no indication rabbits were less abundant during this season, but insects were probably easier to catch.” (Baldwin 2015)
As above shows, Red Foxes are highly adaptable to finding food in virtually any environment – they will literally eat almost anything.
6.2 Captive Diet
At Sydney Fox Rescue, the resident adult foxes are fed primarily raw chicken (wings, necks, legs) combined with seasonally available fruit and vegetables (such as apples, pears, carrots, squash, rockmelon, berries) and a small amount of dog or cat kibble to round out a formula that appears to work well to keep them healthy and active. Each adult fox receives approximately one full chicken wing/leg (or 3 necks), half an apple, half a pear, some berries, about a tablespoon of carrot, and a handful of kibble (half a cup)… twice a day. This amount appears to be working to keep the foxes within a healthy weight range all year around – and there are rarely any leftovers. As a treat, they are given a whole raw egg instead of the raw chicken – approximately once every 2 weeks.
Sometimes kangaroo mince will be substituted for the chicken, but the foxes aren’t overly fussed on it.
At Wolf Park in Illinois (USA) – Addams and Miller 2007 – it is noted that their foxes are fed ½ to 1 pound (1/4 to ½ kg) of raw meat every 1-2 days. Whole rabbits, mice, rats, road killed deer, and squirrel is offered. Road killed meat is checked for parasites prior to feeding out. Small animals are fed out whole, with skin intact. When whole carcasses are not available, Wolf Park will supplement with Nebraska Brand Carnivore Chow – a commercial carnivore food. Either the cat or dog variety is fine for foxes to eat.
Cat or dog kibble is fine as a base diet, but must be supplemented with raw meat at least twice a week – as raw meat contains taurine which is essential to fox health. Fruits and vegetables are also recommended on a regular basis.
Some pet fox owners also offer their foxes mealworms and live crickets as treats.
Pregnant females during their last trimester need approximately ¼ more than the recommended daily intake – and lactating vixens will need approximately twice the regular daily intake.
The best time to feed your fox is during the dawn or dusk hours, as this is when they are naturally more active – try to avoid feeding in the middle of the day when they are more likely to be resting and the food may spoil.
6.3 Supplements
If fed raw meat and/or a high quality dog or cat kibble on a regular basis, no supplements are necessary, as the foxes will be getting the taurine needed from their diet.
6.4 Presentation of Food
At Wolf Park, it is stated that they use a combination of scatter feeding or via individual bowls – depending on which enclosure the foxes are in.
At Sydney Fox Rescue, regular daily feeds are usually given in individual bowls for each fox. They also make up frozen Kong toys with soaked kibble, chicken/beef/kangaroo mince, fruit and vegetables at regular intervals to make the foxes work a bit harder to get their feed. Scatter feeding is not done regularly, as some foxes tend to guard all of the food from less dominant enclosure inhabitants.
Other feeding enrichment that I have personally had success with at Sydney Fox Rescue are paper lunch bags containing chicken wings tied just out of reach – to encourage the foxes to jump or climb for their dinner… chicken necks enclosed in used toilet rolls to make the foxes work to get the necks out… and paper lunch bags with chicken wings hidden near each fox’s favourite spot for them to find and tear open. Other volunteers have had success with hiding food in cardboard boxes or old pizza boxes.
6.5 Sustainability aspects of feeding including food security considerations
Even though foxes will happily eat carrion in the wild, it is more practical to feed fresh to those in captivity – this will help to reduce the possibility of the introduction of parasites or other harmful toxins.
Keeping food fresh is not always the easiest task, and requires the use of refrigerators and/or freezers to store in any reasonable quantity. One would normally want to keep about a week’s worth of food on hand for practical reasons.
Unfortunately, refrigeration uses a lot of energy, so one would look to sourcing fridges/freezers with a good energy rating, and keep them maintained so that they do not lose their efficiency. Also, the inclusion of solar power panels may help to offset the energy consumption here.
Buying from local producers and using seasonal fruits and vegetables is advised also, as this will reduce the impact of transportation of feed items on the environment.
Park gardens could be replaced with fruit or vegetable plantings, and then harvested for animal feeding needs – one could even get the local community involved in such endeavours, as an educational exercise for school groups, or to get the public thinking about how they can help the environment themselves by living more sustainably.
[pic]
Photo by Jeff Manser – Wild Photography (Flickr)
Handling and Transport
Foxes don’t really care for being handled by humans.
“They will be nervous and aggressive and can inflict serious injuries with teeth and claws.
Zoonotic risks include hydatidosis, sarcoptic mange, toxoplasmosis, ringworm and sarcosporidiosis. An animal with obvious mange should only be handled while wearing gloves.
Personnel should wear thick, gloves when handling these animals to protect from scratching, however this may interfere with scruffing.” (PestSmart)
1 Timing of Capture and Handling
It is generally easier to capture foxes in a smaller space – so one would preferably do so during times they are in their night dens/holding area during the early morning or evening when it is usually cooler. Chasing a fox around a large enclosure with many obstacles will be an exercise in futility, as they are surprisingly fast and agile.
Foxes can suffer from myopathy, so capture needs to be done quickly and efficiently to avoid any undue stress to the animal. Any procedure that is likely to last longer than a few minutes would best be done with a sedated animal.
2 Catching Bags
The use of catching bags for foxes is not widely advised – rather a sturdy bag or blanket to aid restraint is preferred once caught. Most catching bags are not rugged enough to restrain a fox hell bent on getting away.
3 Capture and Restraint Techniques
Obviously the preferred method of capture is to have a nicely conditioned fox who will happily walk into a box or cage for you – but this is rarely going to be the case.
Equipment you will need to hand BEFORE attempting to capture a fox is as follows:
Blanket, towel, gloves, sack/bag, dog carrier or wire mesh container, long handled nets, soft headed broom, catching pole – and ideally at least 2 people available to perform the capture.
The most effective method of capture of a Red Fox is a catching pole similar to those used by animal control officers for stray dogs.
The process for capture with a catching pole is as follows:
• Slide the catching pole loop end over the fox’s head and one front leg (if viable) and tighten
• Pull/lift the fox into the open
• Pin the fox’s head to the ground with soft brush
• Grasp the scruff of the neck, (the loose skin/fur at the back of the neck), loosen catching pole
• Lift by the scruff of the neck AND by scruffing (grasping the loose skin/fur) the rump, into container (foxes muscles relax in the same way as a cat when scruffed)
Nets are also used to capture foxes – process is as follows (requires 2 people):
• Person 1 ideally hides in fox’s anticipated escape route
• Person 2 herds/attempts capture whilst driving fox in direction of Person 1
• Person 1 ideally slams net to the ground over fox
• Person 2 pins fox’s head to the ground with soft brush
• Person 1 carefully scruffs fox through net and lifts into container
Alternately, one can use a box/cage to capture a fox – method is as follows:
• Container laid on its side on the ground
• Herd fox into box using high rigid boards/fencing
• Throw towel over fox in container
• Pin fox down with soft brush if trying to escape from container
• Quickly close container as you withdraw brush
• Remove towel only if it can be done without fox escaping
Chemical restraint is not advised while capturing foxes, as stress, body mass, and the like are likely to fluctuate and make it difficult to get the correct dosage required, and the fox may be overdosed and die. Sedation may be used once the fox is caught - diazepam 1mg/kg intravenous or intramuscular is effective.
4 Weighing and Examination
The best way to hold a fox for a brief examination (checking general condition, checking feet, to administer medication via injection or topically, drawing blood) is to scruff the neck and rump areas – for a more thorough examination involving checking inside the mouth and other stressful activities, sedation or anaesthesia is advised.
The easiest way to weigh a fox is to place in a sturdy bag and use a hanging scale –the fox will generally relax inside a dark bag and allow you to get an accurate weight.
5 Release
Ideally, the fox will be in a transport crate that can simply be opened and the fox may leave of its own accord. If the release is done after a short removal from the enclosure, the crate can be placed in an open area (away from direct sunlight) at any time, and the fox allowed to leave the crate by itself.
If the release is to be done after a long period away from the enclosure or after travel, it is best to place the crate/box in the holding/den area and allow the fox the time and space to emerge and explore its new surroundings – timing is not essential, but the area will ideally be reasonably cool, quiet, and dark so as to reduce stress to the fox.
In Australia it is illegal to release a fox back to the wild – however, in countries where this is permitted, the best time of day for such a release is at dusk, as the fox’s instinct is to start hunting at that time.
6 Transport Requirements
For short trips by road (eg. taking to vet clinic), foxes can be transported using regular plastic pet carriers of the correct size to allow the fox to stand, lie down, and turn around unimpeded.
For longer trips or air travel (eg. transporting between zoos), stricter guidelines for the travel containers must be followed – as per the IATA Live Animals Regulations.
1 Box Design
IATA General Container Requirements are as follows
“General Container Requirements:
For general purposes animals will only be carried in closed containers; carriage in open stall must be especially arranged with the carriers concerned.
Construction
1. Size of aircraft compartment door and area of aircraft hold limit the acceptability of live animal consignments and must be considered when determining the size of the crate.
2. Container must be suitable to keep the animal inside at all times.
3. There must be adequate ventilation on three sides, with the majority of the ventilation provided on the upper part of the container, but note must be taken that there are exceptions to these usual requirements which are stated for the individual species and crate type. Any labelling must not occlude ventilation openings.
4. Container must protect the animal from unauthorised access i.e. doors must be constructed so that accidental opening cannot occur, either from the inside or the outside, and the ventilation openings must be small enough to prevent the escape of the animal.
5. Container must be able to withstand other freight damaging it or causing the structure to buckle or bend. Joints of a wooden container must be made so that they cannot be damaged but the animal gnawing or clawing the container from the inside.
6. Container must be rigid enough to prevent the animal escaping at the seams or joints.
7. Container must not cause the animal to damage itself, i.e. all inside edges must be smooth or rounded. There must be no sharp projections (such as nails) upon which the animal could hurt itself. The ventilation openings must be small enough to prevent any part of the animal to protrude from the container.
8. Container, in general must allow the animal to stand, turn and lie down in a natural manner. (Exceptions noted in the individual species and crate type information)
9. Container must be clean and, if being reused, it must have been thoroughly disinfected or sterilised.
10. Container must be leak-proof. Absorbent bedding must be provided by the shipper that is suitable for the species. Straw is unacceptable as many countries prohibit its importation.
11. Container must be constructed of non-toxic materials. Chemically impregnated wood may be poisonous, as are soldered tin water containers.
12. Container must be easy for staff to handle. Spacer devices should be incorporated into the design as they will provide handles for moving the container as well as prevent the ventilation openings becoming blocked by other freight.
13. Container must give handlers protection from being clawed or bitten by the animal.
14. If Forklift spacers are required they must be at least 5cm (2 inches) thick. Allowance for the extra height must be made when calculating the dimensions of the container.
15. Food and Water containers must be provided, either fixed inside the container or attached to it, with a means of access provided, in case of undue delays during the journey. These containers must have rounded edges and be made of non-toxic materials suitable for the species.
Labelling and Attachments for Crate Transport:
Labels:
1. Contents: Identify the crate with a sign stating "Live Animals".
2. Direction Marks: Show which part of the crate should be up.
Documentation attached to crate:
1. The container must be correctly labelled and marked with the sender's and the receiver's name, address and telephone number. (Labels must not block ventilation holes, especially on small containers)
2. If tranquillisation/sedatives have been used, the name of the sedative (trade and generic), time of administration and route of administration must be clearly marked on the container.
3. Feeding and Watering Instructions must be affixed to the container and a copy accompany the documents. Any feed or water given must be recorded on the container instructions with the date and time of supply.
4. Copies of necessary permits, CITES licenses, health certificates etc. may need to be attached to the crate in an envelope.
Food:
Must be provided by the shipper in accordance with the species requirements. It must be checked that the food does not contravene any regulations of the country(ies) of transit or importation. In the case of sealed containers, feeding is not possible and the shipper must be aware of this fact. Likewise, products of animal origin, such as meat or food containing meat, should not be accepted inside the container for the same reason.” (Twycross Zoo)
A specific container for small/medium canids can be found in the IATA Live Animals Regulations 39th Edition October 2012 – pp366-367 – diagram of container on next page.
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Diagram of IATA live animal container for small/medium canids
2 Furnishings
No furnishings are required other than absorbent material covering the floor area if not slatted. Sawdust or shredded paper is recommended.
3 Water and Food
Food and water containers must be provided with a means of access from the outside. (IATA LAR 2012)
“The time for which the animal will be transported must be considered.
• Provision of food and water is important for longer journeys although journey times should be minimised.
• Food and water should be provided if there is any chance that the individual (particularly small animals) may remain in the transport container for longer than the normal period between feeds for that species and age of animal.” (Twycross Zoo)
4 Animals per Box
One animal per container is recommended by IATA, unless the animals are young littermates or social groups of young kits.
“When putting more than one animal into a container the potential risks of overcrowding, overheating and insufficient ventilation must be considered.” (Twycross Zoo)
5 Timing of Transportation
As with the transporting of most animals, consideration needs to be given to how long/far the animal will be travelling, and that they are not in the transport container for any longer than necessary.
Capture and containment should be done reasonably close to the travel times arranged with the receiving end of the transaction to ensure that the fox is not subject to adverse conditions whilst in the container – like waiting on a tarmac in the hot Australian summer sun.
That said – capture should be performed during the cooler hours of the day (early morning or late afternoon), so travel arrangements should be planned accordingly.
6 Release from Box
• See section 7.5 Release
7 Sustainability aspects of animal transportation
If transporting an animal within the confines of the park/zoo, consider using electric powered vehicles – and have them charged from power sourced from solar panels around the park itself. If the distance is not all that far, and the animal is small enough, consider walking it from one place to the other (in a carrier) if feasible.
For transporting further distances – by car, for example – consider using hybrid powered cars (Prius and the like), or those powered by LPG instead of petrol or diesel.
For interstate or international transport, it can be more difficult to dictate forms of transport or their propensity for harmful effects on the environment, but if trips can be made in a single step and using the least number of transfers, that may help offset the impact some.
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Photo by Jeff Manser – Wild Photography (Flickr)
Health Requirements
1 Daily Health Checks
A distant examination should be done daily, and performed during either cleaning of the enclosure, or at feeding time(s). The distant examination should note the following observations:
• Coat condition – summer and winter coats differ
• Any discharge from the eyes, ears, nose, mouth, or anus
• Any changes in appetite or feeding behavior
• Faecal consistency and number of same
• General body condition
• Any visible injuries, lameness, or signs of general malaise
• Any changes to normal behaviors for individual foxes
• If the fox will allow, a general feel over for any ticks, signs of fleas, or mites
• Activity levels within normal parameters for individual foxes
Foxes will vary a lot in their behaviours when humans are in close proximity – even hand-raised kits will differ in their acceptance of handling or nearness of humans. This may mean that the distant examination will be highly important in catching any signs of ill health before it progresses to anything serious. Keepers should be well versed in what is ‘normal’ behavior for each individual fox in the enclosure due to the wide variance of same.
Example: Two pet foxes, both hand raised by the same carer at the same time, have developed completely different tolerances for human contact. One is extremely human friendly and solicits physical interaction through patting and stroking – while the other prefers to keep its distance, only coming close to receive food treats, then retreats to eat.
2 Detailed Physical Examination
If the fox is content to be handled by humans, then the preferred method of restraint is being held by an experienced handler. This entails scruffing of the top of the neck (to prevent movement of the head), and supporting the rear end with the other hand. Foxes will ‘relax’ like puppies/kittens when scruffed, which makes handling somewhat easier.
Once held properly, the fox can have vital signs taken (heart rate, respiration, temperature), blood drawn, ears, eyes, and mouth examined, general feel over for any ectoparasites (including skin scrapings), and check for any wounds.
Weights can be taken by securing the fox in a suitable bag, using a hanging scale.
If the fox is not content to be handled, then chemical restraint may need to be used.
1 Chemical Restraint
Sedation can be achieved by administering a dose of medetomidine (Domitor®) at 40µg/kg bodyweight – this may need to be increased for highly agitated or wild foxes, up to 50µg/kg bodyweight. Reversal agent for medetomidine is atipamezole (Antisedan®). Both drugs are generally administered intramuscularly for the purposes of sedation/reversal.
Once sedation is achieved, general anaesthesia can be prolonged by the use of intubated or masked administration of isoflurane in oxygen. Other anaesthetic agents may be used, such as propofol, ketamine, xylazine, zolazepam/tiletamine (Zolatil®), midazolam, and will vary from vet to vet regarding their anaesthesia preferences.
Chemical restraint must only be performed by a qualified veterinarian.
2 Physical Examination
A thorough physical examination should include the following:
• Respiration rate – normal is 11-20/min at rest
• Lung sounds clear
• Pulse rate – normal is 75-185/min
• Temperature (taken rectally) – normal is 38.0-39.0 degrees Centigrade
• Weight – compare to previous weights to ascertain general state of health
• Body condition - muscle palpation, check scapula, temporal fossa, and dorsal pelvis regions for any wastage
• Coat condition – alopecia, fungal infections, ectoparasite activity, check for any signs of trauma
• Eyes – clear and bright, free from discharge, pupil reaction even, corneal reflex
• Ears – clean, free of any dirt or parasite/fungal activity
• Anus – fur around anus clean, check for prolapse or inflammation
• Check for any lumps or bumps over body – lipomas, cysts, arthritic changes to joints in older animals
• X-rays and other scans may be performed
• Blood may be drawn for screening other issues not apparent in general checkup
• Males – check testes for any unwanted lumps, extrude and check penis
3 Routine Treatments
As foxes are canids, they are susceptible to the same diseases and parasites as domestic dogs and dingoes – and the same treatments used for those species are also effective in foxes.
Parasite control is most easily performed by the administration of a topical treatment once a month with a product like Revolution® for Dogs (selamectin). Revolution® comes in single dosage tubes based on animal weight range. Revolution® covers all of the parasites of concern, but as with any repetitive treatment regime, there may be a chance of resistance build up to the effective ingredient, so possibly interchanging monthly treatment with Advocate® for Dogs (imidacloprid/moxidectin) topical, and a Droncit® Canine (praziquantel) tablet will reduce the resistance possibility of the parasites we wish to target – fleas, ear mites, lice, sarcoptic mange, heartworm, roundworm, hookworm, whipworm, tapeworm.
Note that neither of the above treatments covers ticks, so if foxes are housed in a tick prone area, it may be advisable to use Frontline® (fipronil/(S)-methoprene) topical as well as the above parasite control treatments.
Disease control is recommended as the same as for domestic dogs and dingoes, that being an annual preventative vaccination for canine distemper, canine parvovirus, canine viral hepatitis, canine parainfluenza, and Bordetella bronchiseptica – effectively the canine C5 vaccination (Nobivac®, Protech® C3+2i ).
4 Known Health Problems
Common health problems in foxes are generally the same as for other canids, like the domestic dog and dingo. Rabies is not currently an issue in Australia, but the Red Fox is a known vector for the disease elsewhere in the world.
Diseases and parasites to be aware of are as follows:
Fleas
Cause: Ctenocephalides sp and Echidnophaga sp are the most common types found on the Red Fox.
Signs: The most common sign of flea infestation is itching/scratching. Other signs to look for are ‘flea dust’, which are actually the droppings of the fleas, and look like dark red or brown dirt flecks through the coat. Flea allergies are also possible, and may result in bald patches of reddened and scaly or inflamed skin.
Treatment: Topical treatments such as Revolution®, Advocate®, and Frontline® can be applied directly to the fox to control the fleas. Most flea treatments available for domestic dogs appear to work just as effectively on foxes. Treatment of bedding or nesting areas with Frontline® Spray is also advised – as is regular changing of clean bedding materials, and rigorous cleaning of the surrounding areas.
Prevention: Prevention is essentially the same as the treatment – topical treatments applied at regular intervals to prevent fleas, good hygiene surrounding the provision of clean bedding materials and surrounding areas, and keeping grass in the enclosure cut short should all help to prevent any flea problems.
Mites
Cause: Two main types of mites may infect the Red Fox. These are Sarcoptes scabei (Sarcoptic Mange), and Demodex folliculorum (Demodectic Mange). Of the two, Sarcoptic Mange can be fatal in foxes if left untreated.
Signs: Both forms of mange will initially appear as a small bald patch of skin, either on the face, or on one of the extremities (ears, limbs). Itching or scratching may be seen, but not always in the early stages of the disease. Severe infestations may lead to secondary infections due to scratching.
Treatment: As with fleas, topical treatments such as Advocate® can be effective to treat early signs of both forms of mange. Bedding should be changed and the surrounding area thoroughly cleaned at regular intervals. Advanced mange may need to be treated with ivermectin (orally or topically) under veterinarian advice.
Prevention: As for the treatment of mange with Advocate®, we can also prevent infection by applying it at regular intervals.
Ticks
Cause: Generally it is the Ixodes sp that will affect foxes in Australia. Paralysis is caused by neurotoxins in the saliva of the tick when it bites the host animal.
Signs: Paralysis – generally starting from the rear and working forward. First signs are a general ataxia affecting the hind legs, and progressing forward as the neurotoxins work their way through the system.
Treatment: Remove the tick fully with tweezers or a tick removal tool. Depending on the severity of the reaction in the fox, urgent veterinary treatment may be required to administer anti-tick serum and provide supportive care for the affected animal.
Prevention: Topical treatments such as Frontline® used at monthly intervals have proven effective in prevention of ticks in foxes. Spraying of bedding with Frontline® Spray can also be effective. Keeping grassed areas short is also advised.
Tapeworms
Cause: Tapeworms are cestodes. Species include Echinococcus sp, Taenia sp, Spirometra sp, and Diplydium caninum.
Signs: Mild infestations can have little or no outward signs, but more severe infestations can cause general malaise, poor growth, and digestive upsets.
Treatment: Praziquantel (Droncit®) is an effective treatment for tapeworm. Other anthelmintics such as dichlorophen and nitroscanate can also be effective in treating tapeworm.
Prevention: Flea control plus antihelmintics like Droncit® dosed at regular intervals is an effective preventative for tapeworm.
Roundworms, Hookworms, and Whipworms
Cause: These worms are nematodes. Roundworms are generally of the Toxicara canis species. Hookworms are generally of the Uncinaria sp and Ancyclostoma sp. Whipworms include Tricurus vulpis.
Signs: The most obvious sign of a nematode infestation is irritation around the anus, causing the animal to ‘scoot’ or rub it’s anus on the ground. Heavy nematode infestations can cause bloody diarrhea, anaemia, and abdominal pain.
Treatment: Anthelmintics such as ivermectin are effective in treating nematode infestation.
Prevention: Good hygiene practices and regular worming routines are effective preventatives.
Heartworm
Cause: The nematode Dirofilaria immitis is the cause of heartworm in canids. It is spread by mosquites – and affects the right ventrical and pulmonary artery of the heart. It has a high rate of mortality if left untreated.
Signs: Fatigue on exercise, a persistent cough, labored breathing, anaemia, emaciation, and death.
Treatment: Treatment consists of a series of doses of Immiticide® (melarsomine dihydrochloride, glycine USP) injected intramuscularly to the lumbar region – this treatment is only to be performed by a veterinarian in a hospital setting.
Prevention: Monthly dosing with tablets such as Heartgard® (ivermectin), or topical treatments such as Revolution® (selamectin) are effective preventatives for heartworm. Alternately, an annual vaccination of Proheart® (moxidectin) is also available.
Coccidia
Cause: Coccidia is caused by various strains of the Isospora species of prozozoa.
Signs: Diarrhoea, lethargy, death – more likely to affect very young foxes as opposed to adults.
Treatment: Baycox® (toltrazuril) used off label is an effective treatment for coccidosis –usually as a single dose, but may be repeated if the infestation is chronic.
Prevention: Maintaining good hygiene, prophylactic dose of Baycox® may be given to kits if coccidia is suspected.
Bordetella
Cause: Bordetella bronchiseptica is one of the main causes of canine cough.
Signs: Laryngitis, tracheitis, and bronchitis. Persistent hacking cough. Acute respiratory disease. Nasal discharge may be apparent. Fever. Swollen lymph nodes.
Treatment: Antibiotics such as tetracycline or doxycycline are effective in treating canine cough caused by Bordetella.
Prevention: Vaccination with canine C5 vaccine covers Bordetella.
Ringworm
Cause: Fungus such as Microsporan canis – contagious via direct contact.
Signs: Patches of dry crusty skin which may be somewhat round in shape, hair loss. Not known to cause any actual malaise. Diagnosis is done via microscopic evaluation of skin scrapings – some ringworm varieties will fluoresce under a black light.
Treatment: Topical antifungal creams such as Conofite ® (miconazole nitrate), iovone or halamid washes can also help.
Prevention: Contaminated substrates must be thoroughly cleaned and disinfected – and isolation of infected animals is strongly advised.
Canine Distemper
Cause: Distemper is caused by a Paramyxovirus. Spread by direct contact between animals, or via aerosol spread over a short distance.
Signs: Fever, dullness, cough, loss of appetite, light coloured diarrhea, inflammation of the eyes, discharge from eyes and nostrils, enlarged lymph nodes, vomiting, neurological ataxia, mouth ulcers, paralysis of facial muscles, sudden onset of aggressive behaviours, thick and dry skin on the nose, pustules on the skin in the groin/abdomen area.
Treatment: There is no specific treatment to cure distemper easily. Supportive care is given to the affected animal in a hospital setting – which includes hyperimmune serum, vitamins, and antibiotics.
Prevention: Vaccination with canine C5 covers canine distemper
Canine Parainfluenza Virus
Cause: Parainfluenza is made up of a group of viruses, one of which causes infectious tracheobronchitis.
Signs: similar to Bordetella – see reference above
Treatment: Parainfluenza is self limiting, however, antibiotics may be administered to counter secondary infections.
Prevention: Parainfluenza virus is covered by the canine C5 vaccination
Canine Parvovirus
Cause: There are two types of canine parvovirus – parvovirus enteritis, which affects the lining of the intestine, and parvoviral myocarditis, which affects the heart.
Signs: Severe haemorrhagic gastroenteritis evidenced by bloody diarrhoea, dullness, vomiting, dehydration, and death.
Treatment: Treatment for parvovirus enteritis currently consists of supportive care for the animal, consisting of fluid therapy and painkillers. Clinical trials of a new drug, ParvoOne have been positive, and the drug is awaiting USDA approval. There is no treatment for parvoviral myocarditis – it is almost always fatal.
Prevention: Canine C5 vaccination covers parvovirus
Canine Viral Hepatitis
Cause: Canine Viral Hepatitis is cause by one of the 2 types of canine adenovirus (canine cough) – CAV-1. CAV-1 can also cause serious eye, kidney, and liver disease. Mainly transmitted via contaminated urine.
Signs: High fever, swollen lymph nodes, swollen tonsils, and abdominal pain due to liver swelling. It may also exist subclinically – ie no symptoms. Other signs may include acute thirst, behavior changes, convulsions, wasting, anaemia, lethargy, and coma. Vomiting, diarrhea, dullness, and jaundice.
Treatment: Only supportive treatment is available. Antiserum, glucose, vitamin K, and intravenous fluids are recommended.
Prevention: Canine C5 vaccination covers canine infectious hepatitis.
Rabies
Cause: Rabies is a virus of the Lyssavirus type (Rhabdovirus group). It is generally transmitted via the saliva of an infected animal. Currently not found in Australia.
Signs: Depression, light sensitivity, itchiness or irritability, tendency towards hyperactivity and spasms, depressed appetite, pica, lower jaw hanging and dripping saliva, paralysis, and death.
Treatment: There is no treatment for rabies. Euthanasia is recommended, as the animal will be aggressive and a threat to human health also.
Prevention: Vaccines are available that can last for up to 3 years – some are single dose, and others are a schedule of 3 vaccinations over a 3-4 week period, all must be given prior to exposure and regularly boostered annually or tri-annually in order to be effective.
Note: While Rabies is not found in Australia, if it did reach our shores, the Red Fox could be a major vector for its spread.
5 Quarantine Requirements
While it is unlikely that live import of wild caught foxes will ever be allowed to Australia, if it were ever to be approved, a minimum quarantine period of 180 days is recommended. Average incubation period for rabies is up to 12 weeks, but in rare cases has been known to incubate for much longer (>1 year)
Quarantine of imported captive bred foxes with current vaccinations and parasite controls in effect could be as short as 14 days, or as long as 30 days.
Quarantine of translocated foxes between local institutions is dependent upon vaccination and parasite control currency. A veterinarian can make the decision on length of quarantine prior to introduction to other foxes in the collection based on the level of disease prevention administered and taken up prior to moving said animal to another location.
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Photo by Jeff Manser – Wild Photography (Flickr)
Behaviour
1 Activity
Foxes are primarily crepuscular, with a tendency towards being nocturnal. Wild foxes are mostly active from dusk until dawn, and prefer to rest during the day. Captive foxes will display some of their natural activity tendencies – such as playing loudly in the wee hours of the morning (Ghost and Tom, I’m talking about you!) - however, will adapt quite happily to a diurnal routine.
2 Social Behaviour
While foxes will predominately hunt alone, they will live in groups as necessary. Normally in pairs, or family groups consisting of the dominant male and female, and 2 or more subordinate females that are the offspring of the dominant pair. Young adult males are actively encouraged by the dominant male to disperse to find their own territory.
[pic]
Photo by Jeff Manser – Wild Photography (Flickr)
3 Reproductive Behaviour
When the female is cycling, the male will become fixated upon her – even to the point of forgoing food. He will urinate on everything available to establish his territory and ownership of same. He will normally follow her around with his tail upright in a state of high arousal.
The female will only be receptive to the male for a few days during her cycle. Attempts by the male to mate before she is ready will be met with aggression. When she is ready, she will stand for the male and allow him to mate. This is performed by mounting the female from behind in a similar fashion to domestic dogs. Once copulation is achieved, the pair may ‘tie’ (stay locked together) for up to 90 minutes, at which point the male may reposition himself on all fours facing away from the female.
4 Bathing
Foxes generally do not require bathing, as they will groom themselves and others naturally… however, if the fox has a skin issue (allergy or mange), they may need to take medicated baths.
Bathing a fox is not for the faint of heart! I recommend some serious protective attire, and preferably waterproof as well – as you are going to be in for a rough ride! This exercise is actually very similar to bathing a domestic cat, just minus the sharpness of the cat claws.
The easiest way to bathe a fox is to put it into a plastic travel crate with ventilation holes around the sides, and a mesh door. Have a large tub full of the bathing mix ready, and simply lower the travel crate into the bath with the mesh door at the top. Make sure that the head/face has room at the top to breathe – we don’t want to drown the fox. The fox will do the rest for you, trust me!
If rinsing is required, repeat the process in a bath of clean water.
Once done, you can release the fox and let it dry naturally.
5 Behavioural Problems
Foxes have a tendency to taste everything – including keepers. This is normal behavior.
Some foxes do not like interacting with humans on a close personal level, and these are likely to bite, and bite hard. Signs of aggression (usually fear based in captive foxes raised from kits) are flattened body, flattened ears, gaping mouth showing all of those sharp teeth, and a sound like a small cough. It is advised to not approach a fox displaying these behaviours unless it is absolutely necessary.
Conditioning exercises and enrichment items will go some way towards reducing behavioural issues, but foxes can be similar to domestic cats or ferrets with regards to whether or not they wish to participate in any particular activity that you may want them to do.
6 Signs of Stress
The usual sign of stress in a captive fox is pacing. This may be ambulatory or frantic, depending on the level of stress experienced.
Another sign is hiding. Stressed foxes will hide and peek out furtively to see if the stressor has been removed from the vicinity. May escalate to pacing if there is not a usable hiding spot available.
7 Behavioural Enrichment
Behavioural enrichment is basically the formation of a set of activities or sensory stimulating items that encourage natural species specific behaviours. This is used in conjunction with environmental enrichment, such as enclosure design, to reduce or negate unwanted or stereotypical behaviours that may arise from boredom or stress.
Enrichment is usually provided via the following methods:
• Exhibit design and placement
• Mechanical devices
• Social groupings
• Feeding strategies
• Exhibit furnishings
• Human interaction
• Training and/or conditioning
• Sensory stimulation
With the above in mind, the following will apply to the captive red fox:
• Exhibit design and placement – discussed in Section 4 – Housing Requirements.
• Mechanical devices – the use of lure devices can be employed – may attach either food items or simulated prey to enable hunting/catching instincts.
• Social grouping – as mentioned previously in this manual, captive foxes do best in pairs or family groups, however at Sydney Fox Rescue, we have one mixed group of 8 individuals (3 male, 5 female) who are all getting along without incident. If housing more than one male, it is recommended to desex to reduce the incidence of territorial aggression.
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• Feeding strategies – treat balls, Kongs, puzzle feeders, hiding food, suspending food, different types of food, dog chew treats, frozen into iceblocks – all are normally enthusiastically explored and utilized to their fullest… foxes are generally very food driven, so most forms of feeding enrichment will be beneficial.
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• Exhibit furnishings – foxes love to climb, hide, play, and sleep in the sun, so furnishings that allow all of these activities are a must. At Sydney Fox Rescue, one of the favourite activities is sliding down a slippery slide (see photo below), so each enclosure has a slide provided. Raised resting areas (in shade and sunny spots) are also a favourite, as they like to be up high to see everything that is going one. My own foxes love their sandpit, digging and hiding items in it, or just seeing how much of the sand they can kick out of it…
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• Human interaction – some foxes like to interact with their carers, and some actively avoid it. One of my own foxes will actively solicit tummy rubs and ear scratches, whilst the other is much more aloof, preferring to dictate any contact on his own terms. When handling foxes, one needs to remember that they will usually check everything out with their mouths, so expect to be nibbled at the very least. My friendly fox loves when I squat down and lean forward so he can climb onto my back and check out my hair – or nibble on my ears – and he thinks me wearing a hoodie is the best fun ever, and he has to get the hood off my head.
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• Training/conditioning – foxes can be taught all the same “tricks” as a domestic dog, so this can be a fun time for both the fox and the handler. As stated before, some foxes can be more aloof than others, so conditioning certain responses is very useful in order to allow for the performance of tasks like flea/tick/worm treatment application, or having the fox enter a travel crate for transport to another location. I have managed to teach most of the foxes at Sydney Fox Rescue to “bump” – hold out your fist and say “(fox name) - bump”, and each fox will come over and nose the fist as they are named. This allows me to visually inspect the fox at close proximity for any cuts, scratches, bites, skin issues, and the like.
• Sensory stimulation – provision of potted plants such as mint or catnip are a great source of interest. Branches with rough bark and/or twigs and leaves attached are also a great source of fun. I have found that very much like dogs, foxes love cardboard toilet roll inserts – they can throw them around, chew them, tear them, and generally just destroy them… the best toy ever! In fact any cardboard item will be rapturously destroyed…
8 Introductions and Removals
Captive foxes are usually housed in pairs or groups, and introducing new adult foxes is usually as easy as setting up a ‘greeting’ cage in the enclosure with the new fox in it, and allow everyone to become acquainted for a couple of days before releasing the new fox to run with the rest.
[pic]
Photo by Jeff Manser – Wild Photography (Flickr)
Introductions are even easier if the foxes are all very young – simply put them all together, and they will all start to play with each other, as though they were litter mates.
[pic]
Photo by Jeff Manser – Wild Photography (Flickr)
Removal is fairly straightforward – simply catch up the fox to be removed (best done in the holding dens).
9 Intraspecific Compatibility
Foxes are generally compatible with other foxes. The only disclaimer would be housing more than one intact male in the group, as that would lead to fierce competition, and possible injury/death when the female(s) come into season.
Bachelor groups of desexed males will happily cohabit.
10 Interspecific Compatibility
It is not recommended housing foxes with other species, however, short term interactions with even tempered domestic dogs or cats can be enjoyable for all involved.
Prey species (such as rabbits) are definitely NOT to be housed with foxes!
11 Suitability to Captivity
As the red fox is a highly adaptable species, their suitability to captivity is fairly high. There will be the exception to the rule sometimes if kits are sourced from the wild… and wild adults will most likely not cope well with long term captivity.
[pic]
Photo by Jeff Manser – Wild Photography (Flickr)
Breeding
It is important to note that in Australia at this time, it is illegal to breed the Red Fox, as they are categorized as a pest/vermin species in all states… however, it is not necessarily illegal elsewhere in the world – foxes are farmed for their pelts, and a Russian study has been breeding captive foxes with the aim of providing them as a companion animal.
1 Mating System
The Red fox is predominantly monogamous (one male to one female pairing), but polygyny (males having more than one female partner) is also fairly common. Less common is polyandry (females having more than one male partner), and polygamy (males and females both having multiple partners).
Monogamous couplings may last the lifetimes of the pair, both foxes coming together for the breeding season year after year.
2 Ease of Breeding
In the wild, reproductive success depends on a number of factors – availability of food, day length and drop in average temperature (foxes are seasonal breeders), physical condition of the pair, and population density.
In captivity, most of these factors are well controlled, and thus it shouldn’t be difficult to have reproductive success on a regular basis. Unfortunately, there is little actual data available on breeding them in captivity (except that relating to the Domesticated Fox breeding experiment, or for the purpose of fur farming).
3 Reproductive Condition
Both males and females undergo physiological changes in preparation for the breeding season.
1 Females
Two months prior to oestrus, the reproductive organs of vixens change shape and size. By the time they enter their oestrus period, their uterine horns double in size, and their ovaries grow 1.5–2 times larger.
2 Males
Male foxes are infertile from September to March (in Australia) due to the absence of sperm in the testes during this period. Sperm formation in males begins in April – May, with the testicles attaining their greatest weight in June - July.
4 Techniques Used to Control Breeding
Apart from eradication methods used in Australia to attempt to control wild populations, breeding in captivity is controlled (read made impossible) by the use of surgical sterilization – males are castrated (removal of testes), and females are spayed (removal of the uterus)
Other methods that could be used are as follows:
• Separation of sexes, or housing only one sex
• Chemical sterilization
• Vasectomising males
• Tubal ligation in females
• Culling of unwanted offspring
5 Occurrence of Hybrids
Hybridisation is unheard of between foxes and other species
6 Timing of Breeding
Red foxes are seasonal breeders, usually mating during Winter to produce offspring during Spring. In Australia, mating generally begins from mid-June through to August, with young born between late August through early October.
Late or early starts to Winter months may have an impact on late or early starts to the general breeding season.
7 Age at First Breeding and Last Breeding
Both sexes are sexually mature at 10 months of age, and can successfully produce offspring.
There is little to no information on how long a female may be productive for, as in the wild, they don’t normally live past 4-5 years of age, and the only breeding information easily accessed publically is aimed at fur farming (where foxes are killed before they stop being reproductively viable), or the Domestic Pet Fox breeding experiment – neither of which is truly relevant to breeding genetically true red foxes in a captive environment such as a zoo.
8 Ability to Breed Every Year
There is no reason why a healthy red fox in a captive environment would not be able to breed every year.
In the wild, factors such as food availability and the health of the female have the most impact on breeding ability.
9 Ability to Breed More than Once Per Year
Red foxes in the wild only breed once per year, as the determining factors to induce same are seasonal – however, it could be possible to artificially induce the onset of a second cycle if one were of a mind to try it.
10 Nesting, Hollow or Other Requirements
Foxes in the wild will make a burrow/den in which to have their young.
[pic]
Image from Wikipedia.
In captivity, we would want a bit more control over being able to check the young and the vixen, so we would have to provide an artificial den or whelping area amenable to the vixen – along with suitable nesting materials for her to use to make her whelping area to her own liking.
“Nest boxes designed with a passageway for entry create a more solitary nest and promote pup comfort and survival. To allow the female to acclimate to the nest box, it is important to provide the bedded nest box for a period of at least 8 days before whelping. The nest box must be accessible for the entire lactation period since newborn pups have a very limited ability to thermoregulate and rely on the female’s body heat for warmth.” (COP of Farmed Fox 2013)
“Suitable bedding such as straw, hay or shavings (from untreated wood) must be provided for females prior to whelping for the lactation period. Bedding must be soft and absorbent and maintained so it is clean and dry.” (COP of Farmed Fox 2013)
11 Breeding Diet
As with other canids, the pregnant red fox should be fed to maintain optimal condition before, during, and after gestation/whelping.
After whelping, the vixen will require up to 2 or 3 times her normal daily intake of food to make up for the extra energy required to nurse her young – depending on the number of young she has to raise.
12 Oestrous Cycle and Gestation Period
Females are in season for 3 weeks, however, oestrus only lasts for 1 – 6 days (generally around 3 days), during which fertilization can occur.
Gestation lasts between 49 and 58 days, with the average being 52 days.
13 Litter Size
Litter size can vary from about 4 to 10 young, but up to 14 has been reported (possibly anecdotal) – average is 4 to 6 in the wild.
14 Age at Weaning
Weaning in the wild starts from 4 to 5 weeks of age, with the parents regurgitating partially digested food for the young. Weaning is generally complete by 8 to 10 weeks of age, and the young are on a fully solid food diet from then on, even though they aren’t capable of hunting on their own yet.
In captivity, weaning would depend largely on whether the young are mother-reared or hand raised. Hand raised young can be offered semi-solid mush from around 3 weeks of age… if they will take it might be another matter, but generally they are amenable and happily start lapping at the offering. Once they have teeth, more solid food can be offered.
[pic]
Photo by Jeff Manser – Wild Photography (Flickr)
15 Age of Removal from Parents
In the wild, fox young will generally stay with the family group until around 8 -10 months of age – or the start of the next breeding season. Males will generally disperse to their own territories, and females may either disperse too, or stay with the family group and assist with the care of young in future breeding seasons.
In captivity, we have a bit more flexibility with what age we separate young from the family group – either by taking young at birth and hand raising, or by removal once they are self-sufficient in a captive environment – which could be as young as 5-6 months of age.
16 Growth and Development
[pic]
Image: Fox cub/kit/pup growth chart – from Wildlife Online website
As can be seen from the above chart, fox cubs reach almost full adult size by around 6 months of age. Average birth weight is between 50g and 150g, and once weaning starts, growth rate really starts to take off.
Kits are born with almost black fur and have a white tip on the end of the tail. Eyes and ears are closed, and they are 100% dependent upon the vixen for warmth and food.
Normal development is as follows:
• 8 - 12 days – eyes and ears open
• 10 - 14 days – start walking
• 2 – 3 weeks – teeth have started coming through, ability to thermoregulate starts
• 3 – 4 weeks – playing and brief trips to mouth of den, start on semi-solid foods – start playing and fighting with each other
• 4 - 5 weeks – start emerging from den, start weaning
• 6 weeks – full dentition (milk teeth) present
• 8 – 10 weeks – fully weaned
• 12 weeks – able to hunt and catch small prey on their own (insects, small lizards)
• 4 - 5 months – learn to hunt larger prey and become self sufficient
• 6 – 9 months – disperse from the family unit (mostly males, and some females)
• 10 months – sexually mature and capable of breeding successfully
[pic]
Photo by Jeff Manser – Wild Photography (Flickr)
Artificial Rearing
NOTE: Taking in wild kits and raising them is now illegal in all states of Australia. Sydney Fox Rescue does NOT currently raise orphan kits, but used to when it was legal to do so.
1 Housing
At Sydney Fox Rescue we make up a 48-54 litre plastic tub lined with newspaper and/or puppy pads, soft bedding, a hot water bottle or heat pack (covered and placed where the kit can move away from it if they get too warm), a thermometer to measure temperature, and a blanket to cover the top (to keep temperature stable).
As temperature is more vital to neonate kit survival than humidity, as long as the kit is dry and hydrated, we do not place as much emphasis on relative humidity ranges.
Generally, kits are housed in these makeshift humidicribs singly, unless they come in as a litter, then we will adjust tub size and arrangements to keep them together – this is less stressful for the kits, and makes long term survival more likely.
2 Temperature Requirements
|Kit Age |Temp range req. |
|0-14 days |28-32oC |
|15-21 days |26-30oC |
|22-28 days |22-26oC |
|29-35 days |overnight water bottle |
For kits under 2 weeks of age, the temperature in the tub is kept between 28-32oC.
For kits 2-3 weeks of age, temperature can be decreased to 26-30oC
For kits 3-4 weeks of age, temperature can be decreased to 22-26oC
From 4-5 weeks of age, kits are able to regulate their own body temperature, and thusly do not need a continuous heat source, although a water bottle may be given overnight.
3 Diet and Feeding Routine
For bottle feeding kits, Sydney Fox Rescue uses Biolac Blue (for puppies) formula.
The initial feed when a neonate kit comes into care is 2 parts Biolac to 4 parts water (a weaker mixture to lessen the chances of an upset stomach), gradually working the mix up to 2 parts Biolac to 3 parts water over the course of a couple of days.
The general rule for feeding amounts is roughly 10-15% of the kit’s bodyweight (in mls) divided into regular feeds over the course of 24 hours, however, this can vary depending on the individual kit – some will want/need more, and some may want/need less. Most neonate kits will take between 5-10ml per feed and increase intake as they grow.
Feeding routines for age ranges is as follows:
0-7 days old – every 1.5 hours during the day, and every 2 hours overnight
7-14 days old – every 2 hours during the day, and every 3 hours overnight
14-21 days old – every 3 hours during the day, and every 4 hours overnight
21-28 days old – every 4 hours during the day, and every 5 hours overnight
From 28 days old – start weaning – feed every 5 hours during the day and 8 hours overnight
Weaning of fox kits starts in weeks 4-5. We offer a gruel mix of Biolac and high fat puppy tinned food (2 tablespoons of tinned food mixed into a porridge consistency with the Biolac), and encourage lapping. Over a period of 2 weeks, we thicken the mixture until the kit is eating just the tinned food, then start adding chicken mince, and eventually chicken necks or wings. By 5-6 weeks, kits are usually fully weaned onto solid foods.
4 Specific Requirements
Do NOT attempt to feed a cold or dehydrated kit. Warm up to body temp of at least 35oC, and possibly rehydrate by injecting small amounts of sterile saline solution subcutaneously (under vet supervision).
5 Data Recording
The following data should be recorded on a daily basis (can be more or less often depending on the stage of development):
• Kit identification – name or number
• Age – if unsure of exact age, approximate
• Date
• Time
• Weight before feeding (in grams)
• Amount fed (in mls if bottle)
• Toileted – yes/no, urine/faeces, assisted/unassisted
• Other comments – such as ‘eyes open’, ‘toileted without assistance’, and any other relevant milestone data or observation out of the norm.
6 Identification Methods
As all neonate kits look fairly identical, Sydney Fox Rescue usually houses them separately in individual tubs, with a chart designating which is which. In cases where there are more than one kit in a tub, coloured Velcro neonate collars are applied.
As kits grow older, collars are put on them with SFR numbered tags, and their crates have their cage cards attached also.
Once the kits are 6-8 weeks old, microchips are implanted at the time they get their first vaccinations. By this age the kits have also started to look different in their markings and behaviours, so it’s also easier to identify who is who – they still wear their collars and numbered tags just in case.
7 Hygiene
Good hygiene practices are essential for the raising of healthy kits. The following guidelines should be followed:
• Neonate tubs should be kept clean and dry at all times. Lining and bedding need to be changed regularly, and at least once a day the tubs need to be scrubbed with warm soapy water, dried, and then sprayed with F10 solution to reduce the possibility of disease.
• Milk replacement formula (Biolac) is to be made fresh immediately prior to every feed.
• Bottles and teats need to be sterilised before every feed.
• Human personal hygiene routines need to be followed – wash hands before AND after handling each kit – wearing of a disposable apron is also advised.
• Avoid contact with other animals before attending to kits.
• For kits unable to toilet on their own, gently massage the anus and urinary orifice with a warm moist cotton ball or baby wipe – this replicates the vixen’s toileting regimen, and kits will urinate or defecate upon having the stimulus applied.
8 Behavioural Considerations
As we want these hand reared kits to be human friendly (or at the very least, human tolerant), it is imperative that they interact with as many different people and animals as is feasible for their age. Sydney Fox Rescue has noted that communally raised kits have more often become human friendly than kits raised singly by foster carers. The fostered kits have formed bonds only with their primary carer, and subsequently been intolerant of (or aloof with) anyone else.
Young kits may be introduced to kittens and puppies in the same age bracket, and they tend to get along fine. Older dogs and cats of calm temperaments can also be introduced to the kits once they have had their vaccinations.
9 Use of Foster Species
It is not usual to have kits raised by dogs or cats, but I suppose it could be done, as the milk from either would have similar nutritional components to vixen milk.
10 Weaning
Weaning of fox kits starts in weeks 3-4. We offer a gruel mix of Biolac and high fat puppy tinned food, and encourage lapping. Over a period of 2 weeks, we thicken the mixture until the kit is eating just the tinned food, then start adding chicken mince, and eventually chicken necks or wings. By 5-6 weeks, kits are usually fully weaned onto solid foods.
11 Rehabilitation and Release Procedures
At this time in Australia, it is illegal to take in or release any fox one may find.
[pic]
Photo by Jeff Manser – Wild Photography (Flickr)
Collection Management
1 Current Collection Census and Plan holdings
[pic]
As evidenced above, the Red Fox is not an overly popular animal to be exhibited in Australia. Possible reasons for this could be:-
• Their classification as a pest species in this country
• Their naturally shy demeanour makes them more likely to hide away from view
There may be non-ZAA (Zoo and Aquarium Association) zoos in Australia that do exhibit the Red Fox, but their collections are not submitted to the census.
2 IUCN Category
The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species lists the Red Fox (Vulpes vulpes) as Least Concern – see ranking below (IUCN Red List 2015.2)
[pic]
“Present in most temperate-subarctic conservation areas with the exception of some inaccessible islands in the Old World and South America. Widely regarded as a pest and unprotected.” (IUCN Red List 2015.2)
3 C.I.T.E.S. Appendix
“Not listed in CITES Appendices at species level. V. v. necator in the Sierra Nevada, California, USA, is rare, possibly declining (Nowak 1991). The subspecies griffithi, montana and pusilla (=leucopus) are listed as CITES – Appendix III (India).” (IUCN Red List 2015.2)
4 National Category
Up until December 4, 2014, the Red Fox was listed as a declared pest/feral/vermin in all states except NSW – where it was listed as a ‘game animal’ only.
On December 4, 2014, the Red Fox was upgraded to pest status in NSW – thus making the Red Fox a declared pest/feral/vermin in ALL states and territories.
5 State or Territory Categories
“Fox management on private and public lands other than those controlled by conservation agencies are governed by various state and territory legislation, listed below:
Australian Capital Territory: Foxes are a declared pest under the Pest Plant and Animal Act 2005and must be managed according to a developed pest management plan. It is an offence to keep, supply or release foxes.
New South Wales: As foxes are not a declared pest under the Rural Lands Protection Act 1998, there is no legal obligation for land managers to control them. Foxes may be kept in captivity, but it is an offence under the National Parks and Wildlife Act 1974 to release them. Foxes are listed as a game animal under the Game and Feral Animal Control Act 2002 and regulated hunting of foxes is permitted on some
public lands. (since updated to pest category Dec 4, 2014)
Northern Territory: Foxes are a declared feral animal under the Territory Parks and Wildlife Conservation Act 1998, but they need only be controlled in declared pest control areas. No areas are currently declared. It is an offence to release foxes.
Queensland: Foxes are a declared pest under the Land Protection (Pest and Stock Route Management) Act 2002. Land managers must take reasonable steps to keep their land free of foxes. It is an offence to feed, keep, introduce, release or supply foxes without a declared pest permit.
South Australia: Under the Natural Resources Management Act 2004, foxes are a declared animal and must remain controlled on all lands. It is an offence to keep, move, sell or release foxes.
Tasmania: Foxes are declared vermin under the Vermin Control Act 2000 and restricted animals under the Nature Conservation Act 2002. Landholders may be required to ‘suppress and destroy’ any fox found on their property. It is an offence to import, keep, carry or release foxes. The Animal Health Act 1995 restricts the importation of fox carcasses, faeces, salted, dried, frozen or untanned skins and any untanned fox parts including tails.
Victoria: Foxes are a declared established pest animal under the Catchment and Land Protection Act 1994. Land owners (public and private) must take all reasonable steps to prevent the spread of foxes, and eradicate them where possible. It is an offence to bring foxes into Victoria, or keep, sell or release them without a permit.
Western Australia: Foxes are a declared pest under the Agriculture and Related Resources Protection Act 1976. However, this Act will soon be superseded by the Biosecurity and Agriculture Management Act 2007. All land managers (public and private) must make reasonable endeavours to reduce and control foxes. It is an offence to release foxes.” (PestSmart)
6 Wild Population Management
As evidenced in previous sections here – the only wild population management pertaining to the Red Fox in Australia is aimed at the reduction of numbers.
7 ASMP Category of management
Not applicable to this species
8 Key Personnel
Not applicable to this species
9 Captive Management details
Not applicable to this species
10 Population Viability Assessment
Not applicable to this species
[pic]
Photo by Jeff Manser – Wild Photography (Flickr)
Acknowledgements
I would like to acknowledge the following people for their input and guidance while writing this manual:
Charlie Jackson-Martin – Sydney Fox Rescue – for sharing his amazing knowledge and foxes with me.
JM Thornton BVSc, MANZCVS (Anaes. Crit Care) – the most awesome and fox knowledgeable vet I have had the pleasure of bouncing ideas off (Health section of this manual).
Graeme Phipps – Teacher, Richmond TAFE – for his encouragement, and occasional ribbing, about my husbandry manual subject matter… not to mention his inspiring enthusiasm for all things Captive Animals.
Jacki Salkeld – Teacher, Richmond TAFE – simply the most awesome teacher on the planet.
Brad Walker – Teacher, Richmond TAFE – for his meticulous attention to detail and inspiring enthusiasm for even the most mundane course subjects.
Jeff Manser – Wild Photography (Flickr) – for graciously allowing me to use his spectacular wild fox photos in this manual – website address
References
GFAS – Standards for Canid Sanctuaries (2013)
Red Fox (Vulpes vulpes) risk assessment for Australia. Win Kirkpatrick, Amanda Page, and Marion Massam, September 2008, Department of Agriculture and Food, Western Australia.
National Fox Welfare Society (UK) - Fox Rescue Information and Foxes Wildlife and the Law (not dated) < >
2015 Regional Collection and Plan – from ZAA members area
IUCN Red List page for Vulpes vulpes -
Fox Legislation in Australia (PestSmart website) -
NSW Pest Control Order for Foxes -
Wildlife Online – Marc Baldwin 2015-
Animal Diversity Web – Vulpes vuples Red Fox 2007 -
PestSmart – Red Fox 2014 -
Wikipedia – Red Fox 2016 -
Code of Practice for the Care and Handling of Farmed Fox - National Farm Animal Care Council, Canada Fox Breeders’ Association 2013 -
Liska´s EncycVulpedia – Breeding and Development 1997 -
Live restraint and handling of pest animals used in research – Pestsmart -
Guide to the care and use of experimental animals – volume 2 – Canadian Council on Animal Care -
Catching and handling of Vulpes vulpes – Red Fox (Techniques) – Twycross Zoo -
Domitor for Animal Use – -
Antisedan for Animal Use – -
Isoflurane for animal Use – -
Advocate – comparison with other topical treatments – manufacturer site -
Compare Revolution – manufacturer site -
Revolution Topical – -
Frontline Plus – manufacturer site -
Droncit Canine Tablets – -
Wilston Vet Dog and Cat Vaccinations -
Nobivac canine vaccine factsheet -
Protech C3+2i vaccine factsheet -
Cottage Canines Australia – vaccinations and diseases -
Australian Mammals: Biology and Captive Management – Stephen Jackson 2007 – pp389-394 - (purchased download pdf Dingo chapter)
Conversations with JM Thornton BVSc, MANZCVS (Anaes. Crit Care) – West Cessnock Veterinary Hospital - regarding diseases, vaccinations, and chemical restraint methods.
Diseases and Parasites of Foxes and Coyotes -
Immiticide for Animal Use – -
Heartguard for Animal Use – -
Proheart 6 – -
Baycox Oral Suspension – -
Conofite Cream – -
ParvoOne – Avianax website -
Sydney Fox Rescue -
Management of the Red Fox (Vulpes vulpes) in Captivity – Jessica Addams and Andrew Miller 2007 – pp28-32
Nebraska Brand Carnivore Chow -
Kong Toys -
PestSmart - RES002 restraint and handling of pest animals used in research - Prepared by Trudy Sharp, Glen Saunders and Bruce Mitchell, NSW Department of Primary Industries -
Irish Wildlife Matters (capture information) -
Twycross Zoo – Wildlife Casualty Accommodation -
IATA Live Animals Regulations (LAR) -
Red Fox: The Animal Files (2008-2014)
Vulpes vulpes – Wikimedia (2014) – World distribution map
Linnæus, Carl (1758). Systema naturæ per regna tria naturæ, secundum classes, ordines, genera, species, cum characteribus, differentiis, synonymis, locis. Tomus I (in Latin) (10 ed.). Holmiæ (Stockholm): Laurentius Salvius. p. 40
Macdonald, D.W. & Reynolds, J.C. 2008. Vulpes vulpes. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Version 2015.2. Downloaded on 01 September 2015
Complete list of Fox Species/Subspecies – Wolfologist (2014).
Invasive Animals CRC (2011), PestSmart Factsheet: European Red Fox
Cavallini, P. (1995) Variation in the body size of the red fox
“Urban-Mongoose” (2014) – DeviantArt image - Color Morphs in the Wild Red Foxes of Europe
PestSmart – Fox National Maps 2006/07
PestSmart – Rabbit National Maps 2006/07
GFAS – Standards for Canid Sanctuaries (2013)
NSW Department of Primary Industries - Welfare of zoo, circus, exhibited & other animals – various codes and legislation links page (2015) , ,
- TRAILSIDE MASTER PLAN Milton, Massachusetts 2008 - Zoological Appendices (C) - Animal Enclosure Requirements/Fact Sheets – Red Fox Exhibit Design pp10 and pp14
- Standards for Exhibiting Carnivores in New South Wales - Exhibited Animals Protection Act 1986
- Delete Disinfectant website (no MSDS available)
- F10SC disinfectant
- F10SC disinfectant MSDS
– Racumin rodent baits
– Racumin MSDS
Sydney Fox Rescue Neonatal Care sheets – Charlie Jackson-Martin
Wikipedia – Behavioural Enrichment -
Animal Behaviour/Enrichment – J Salkeld 2006 – paper handout in class
Environmental Enrichment 2003 – M Hawkins – paper handout in class
Bibliography
GFAS – Standards for Canid Sanctuaries (2013)
Red Fox (Vulpes vulpes) risk assessment for Australia. Win Kirkpatrick, Amanda Page, and Marion Massam, September 2008, Department of Agriculture and Food, Western Australia.
National Fox Welfare Society (UK) - Fox Rescue Information and Foxes Wildlife and the Law (not dated) < >
2015 Regional Collection and Plan – from ZAA members area
IUCN Red List page for Vulpes vulpes -
Fox Legislation in Australia (PestSmart website) -
NSW Pest Control Order for Foxes -
Wildlife Online – Marc Baldwin 2015-
Animal Diversity Web – Vulpes vuples Red Fox 2007 -
PestSmart – Red Fox 2014 -
Wikipedia – Red Fox 2016 -
Code of Practice for the Care and Handling of Farmed Fox - National Farm Animal Care Council, Canada Fox Breeders’ Association 2013 -
Liska´s EncycVulpedia – Breeding and Development 1997 -
Live restraint and handling of pest animals used in research – Pestsmart -
Guide to the care and use of experimental animals – volume 2 – Canadian Council on Animal Care -
Catching and handling of Vulpes vulpes – Red Fox (Techniques) – Twycross Zoo -
Domitor for Animal Use – -
Antisedan for Animal Use – -
Isoflurane for animal Use – -
Advocate – comparison with other topical treatments – manufacturer site -
Compare Revolution – manufacturer site -
Revolution Topical – -
Frontline Plus – manufacturer site -
Droncit Canine Tablets – -
Wilston Vet Dog and Cat Vaccinations -
Nobivac canine vaccine factsheet -
Protech C3+2i vaccine factsheet -
Cottage Canines Australia – vaccinations and diseases -
Australian Mammals: Biology and Captive Management – Stephen Jackson 2007 – pp389-394 - (purchased download pdf Dingo chapter)
Conversations with JM Thornton BVSc, MANZCVS (Anaes. Crit Care) – West Cessnock Veterinary Hospital - regarding diseases, vaccinations, and chemical restraint methods.
Diseases and Parasites of Foxes and Coyotes -
Immiticide for Animal Use – -
Heartguard for Animal Use – -
Proheart 6 – -
Baycox Oral Suspension – -
Conofite Cream – -
ParvoOne – Avianax website -
Sydney Fox Rescue -
Management of the Red Fox (Vulpes vulpes) in Captivity – Jessica Addams and Andrew Miller 2007 – pp28-32
Nebraska Brand Carnivore Chow -
Kong Toys -
PestSmart - RES002 restraint and handling of pest animals used in research - Prepared by Trudy Sharp, Glen Saunders and Bruce Mitchell, NSW Department of Primary Industries -
Irish Wildlife Matters (capture information) -
Twycross Zoo – Wildlife Casualty Accommodation -
IATA Live Animals Regulations (LAR) -
Red Fox: The Animal Files (2008-2014)
Vulpes vulpes – Wikimedia (2014) – World distribution map
Linnæus, Carl (1758). Systema naturæ per regna tria naturæ, secundum classes, ordines, genera, species, cum characteribus, differentiis, synonymis, locis. Tomus I (in Latin) (10 ed.). Holmiæ (Stockholm): Laurentius Salvius. p. 40
Macdonald, D.W. & Reynolds, J.C. 2008. Vulpes vulpes. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Version 2015.2. Downloaded on 01 September 2015
Complete list of Fox Species/Subspecies – Wolfologist (2014).
Invasive Animals CRC (2011), PestSmart Factsheet: European Red Fox
Cavallini, P. (1995) Variation in the body size of the red fox
“Urban-Mongoose” (2014) – DeviantArt image - Color Morphs in the Wild Red Foxes of Europe
PestSmart – Fox National Maps 2006/07
PestSmart – Rabbit National Maps 2006/07
GFAS – Standards for Canid Sanctuaries (2013)
NSW Department of Primary Industries - Welfare of zoo, circus, exhibited & other animals – various codes and legislation links page (2015) , ,
- TRAILSIDE MASTER PLAN Milton, Massachusetts 2008 - Zoological Appendices (C) - Animal Enclosure Requirements/Fact Sheets – Red Fox Exhibit Design pp10 and pp14
- Standards for Exhibiting Carnivores in New South Wales - Exhibited Animals Protection Act 1986
- Delete Disinfectant website (no MSDS available)
- F10SC disinfectant
- F10SC disinfectant MSDS
– Racumin rodent baits
– Racumin MSDS
Sydney Fox Rescue Neonatal Care sheets – Charlie Jackson-Martin
Wikipedia – Behavioural Enrichment -
Animal Behaviour/Enrichment – J Salkeld 2006 – paper handout in class
Environmental Enrichment 2003 – M Hawkins – paper handout in class
Appendices
1 Food Suppliers
Petbarn - - National supplier of a multitude of pet products – food, toys, equipment.
Kibble types sourced – Nutro, Eukanuba, Royal Canin, Bonnie, Supercoat
Tinned foods sourced – Pedigree Puppy, Optimum Puppy
Puppy Milk Formula – Biolac Blue
Petfood Plus - - similar to above, but local to Bankstown area of Sydney - 1230 Canterbury Road, Roselands, Sydney NSW 2196 – Phone: (02) 9750 – 2922
Supreme Pet Foods - - suppliers of raw chicken products, mince, wings, necks - 62 South Creek Rd, Shanes Park, NSW 2747 – Phone: 0403 643 663
Seasonal fruit and vegetables - sourced from local supermarkets and grocers.
2 Medications (non-veterinarian)
Flea and worming products – Petbarn - - Heartguard, Revolution, Frontline, Advocate, Panoramis, Nexguard, Comfortis, Droncit, Drontal
Baycox – veterinarian supplied only – off-label use for dogs/cats (and foxes)
3 Cleaning Supplies
Delete Kennel Disinfectant/Deodorant - - no MSDS available
F10SC Disinfectant - - F10SC is a total spectrum disinfectant - Kills all types of pathogen – F10SC is bactericidal, virucidal, fungicidal, sporicidal.
MSDS for F10SC on following pages
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