Abstract: - McMaster University



BELONGING IN TRANSITIONBELONGING IN TRANSITION:FORMER YOUTH IN CARE’S SENSE OF BELONGING AND THE TRANSITION TO ADULTHOODBy TERRY ARNOLD, BA, BSWA ThesisSubmitted to the School of Graduate StudiesIn Partial Fulfillment of the Requirementsfor the DegreeMaster of Social WorkMcMaster UniversityMcMaster University ? Copyright by Terry Arnold May 2017MASTER OF SOCIAL WORKMcMaster University(2017)Hamilton, OntarioTITLE: Belonging In Transition: Former Youth-In-Care’s Sense of Belonging and the Transition to AdulthoodAUTHOR:Terry ArnoldBA (Brock University)BSW (King’s College, University of Western Ontario)SUPERVISOR:Dr. James GladstoneNUMBER OF PAGES:vi, 79Abstract:Youth growing up in foster care tend to have poorer outcomes after reaching adulthood than youth in the general population, such as lower educational attainment, lower rates of employment, and more mental/emotional health difficulties than their peers. Although several factors have been suggested to explain this difference in outcomes, most studies have focused on youth’s negative experiences in-care as being the determinant factor. My study adopted an alternative approach and focused on youth who have had positive experiences during care, in hopes of learning from their experience.Using grounded theory methodology anchored within a life course perspective, this study explored how some youth developed a sense of belonging and what impact this had on their transition to adulthood. Each of the four young adults who participated in this studied shared their experiences of growing up in foster care and the impact this had on their transition to adulthood. The findings emphasized the importance of a sense of belonging to creating positive outcomes for young adults during their transition to adulthood. Five categories emerged from the data: “lack of control”, “realizing a stable, loving, and secure home”, “navigating multiple attachments”, “gaining a sense of belonging”, and “successful transition to adulthood”. These findings suggest that gaining a sense of belonging may be foundational to a successful transition to adulthood, especially when success is defined in terms of interdependence rather than independence.Acknowledgements:Although in many ways a solitary task, this journey was not taken alone and I could not have made it without the many people who made it possible. First, I would like to thank the courageous young adults that agreed to be interviewed by a novice researcher and were willing to share both their precious time and their highly personal experiences so that we could journey together. Second, I would like to thank my research advisors; Dr. Gary Dumbrill for getting me started and pointing me in the right direction, and Dr. James Gladstone for keeping me on the right track and sharing his knowledge and experience. Finally, I would like to thank my family, who are both my motivation and my distraction, and without whose unconditional support and encouragement I would surely have lost my way.Table of Contents TOC \o "1-3" \h \z \u Abstract: PAGEREF _Toc483835946 \h iiiAcknowledgements: PAGEREF _Toc483835947 \h ivBackground: PAGEREF _Toc483835948 \h 1Introduction: PAGEREF _Toc483835949 \h 4Literature Review: PAGEREF _Toc483835950 \h 6Disruption and Breakdown PAGEREF _Toc483835951 \h 7Outcomes for Youth Leaving Care PAGEREF _Toc483835952 \h 12Permanency PAGEREF _Toc483835953 \h 15Felt Security/Sense of Belonging PAGEREF _Toc483835954 \h 17Research Methodology: PAGEREF _Toc483835955 \h 22Overview of Methodological Approach: PAGEREF _Toc483835956 \h 22Theoretical Perspective: PAGEREF _Toc483835957 \h 25Recruitment: PAGEREF _Toc483835958 \h 26Participants: PAGEREF _Toc483835959 \h 27Data Collection: PAGEREF _Toc483835960 \h 28Analysis PAGEREF _Toc483835961 \h 28Ethics PAGEREF _Toc483835962 \h 30Limitations PAGEREF _Toc483835963 \h 30Findings and Discussion: PAGEREF _Toc483835964 \h 33Lack of Control PAGEREF _Toc483835965 \h 33Realizing a Stable, Loving, and Secure Home PAGEREF _Toc483835966 \h 37Navigating Multiple Attachments PAGEREF _Toc483835967 \h 40Gaining a Sense of Belonging PAGEREF _Toc483835968 \h 46Successful Transition to Adulthood PAGEREF _Toc483835969 \h 53Conclusion and Implications for Social Work Practice PAGEREF _Toc483835970 \h 66Directions for Future Research PAGEREF _Toc483835971 \h 69References: PAGEREF _Toc483835972 \h 71Background:For the past 13 years, I have supervised a team of social workers in a medium-sized Children’s Aid Society in southwestern Ontario. My team serves children and youth that are in the permanent care of the children’s aid society. In legal terms, these children and youth are “wards of the crown” and the province acts as their parent/guardian through the agency of local children’s aid societies. Although commonly referred to as ‘crown wards’, this term has been criticized recently by those it describes, for reducing them to a label based solely on their relationship to the state ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"jQ5PrzmJ","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Youth Leaving Care Hearings, 2012)","plainCitation":"(Youth Leaving Care Hearings, 2012)"},"citationItems":[{"id":1044,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":1044,"type":"report","title":"My Real Life Book","URL":"","note":"00000","author":[{"literal":"Youth Leaving Care Hearings"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2012"]]},"accessed":{"date-parts":[["2015",6,9]]}}}],"schema":""} (Youth Leaving Care Hearings, 2012). Instead, the preferred term is ‘children and youth with crown ward status’.Services to children in Ontario tend to alternate between a child welfare model and a child protection model, with the level of state intrusiveness being likened to a pendulum that swings back and forth from less-intrusive to more-intrusive ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"rI03YnVq","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Dumbrill, 2006)","plainCitation":"(Dumbrill, 2006)"},"citationItems":[{"id":622,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":622,"type":"article-journal","title":"Ontario's child welfare transformation: Another swing of the pendulum?","container-title":"Canadian Social Work Review / Revue canadienne de service social","page":"5-19","volume":"23","issue":"1/2","source":"JSTOR","abstract":"Child welfare policy has been likened to a pendulum that shifts between extremes. At one extreme, the pendulum focuses practice on supporting families at the expense of child safety; at the other, it focuses practice on child safety at the expense of support to families. Child welfare \"transformation\" is underway in Ontario, a process designed to push policy toward a more balanced position that provides support to families while also protecting children. As an analysis of the dynamics that drive the child welfare pendulum shows, the current transformation initiative contains weaknesses that may undermine its goal of seeking balance and may cause it to fail. Strengthening the initiative by coordinating agency services and involving families in formulating their own needs, among other suggestions, may help to avoid these failures, not only in Ontario, but also in other jurisdictions attempting to balance how child protection services are delivered. On a qualifié la politique de la protection de l'enfance de pendule se balan?ant entre, à un extrême, une pratique axée sur le soutien des familles au détriment de la sécurité des enfants et, à l'autre extrême, une pratique axée sur la sécurité des enfants au détriment du soutien des familles. L'on est à ? transformer ? la protection de l'enfance en Ontario, préconisant pour ce faire une approche plus équilibrée à mi-chemin du soutien des familles et de la protection des enfants. Comme l'indique une analyse de la dynamique qui anime le mouvement de pendule de la protection de l'enfance, l'initiative de transformation actuelle présente des faiblesses susceptibles de miner son objectif-trouver un point d'équilibre-et pourrait la faire échouer. Il serait peut-être utile de renforcer l'initiative en coordonnant les services des organismes et en faisant participer les familles à la définition de leurs besoins pour éviter que de tels échecs ne se produisent, et ce, non seulement en Ontario, mais également ailleurs où l'on tente de trouver une formule équilibrée de prestation des services de protection de l'enfance.","ISSN":"0820-909X","shortTitle":"ONTARIO'S CHILD WELFARE TRANSFORMATION","journalAbbreviation":"Canadian Social Work Review / Revue canadienne de service social","author":[{"family":"Dumbrill","given":"Gary C."}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2006",1,1]]}}}],"schema":""} (Dumbrill, 2006). At the start of my career in 1998, the pendulum had swung decisively towards child protection with the focus being firmly on child safety, resulting in increased levels of intrusiveness under the new child welfare Reform Agenda ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"drhu02Qf","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(OACAS, 2011)","plainCitation":"(OACAS, 2011)"},"citationItems":[{"id":1480,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":1480,"type":"report","title":"Measuring 2004 Transformation Goals to 2010 Child Welfare Practices: Interim Progress Report","publisher-place":"Toronto, Ontario","page":"80","event-place":"Toronto, Ontario","note":"00000","author":[{"literal":"OACAS"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2011",6,14]]}}}],"schema":""} (OACAS, 2011). From 1998 to 2003, the number of child abuse and neglect investigations conducted in Ontario increased 47 per cent, expanding from an estimated 56,205 investigations in 1998 to 82,534 in 2003 ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"0of0ZC4G","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(OACAS, 2003)","plainCitation":"(OACAS, 2003)"},"citationItems":[{"id":1503,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":1503,"type":"report","title":"CAS Facts: April 1, 2002 to March 31, 2003","publisher-place":"Toronto, Ontario","page":"13","event-place":"Toronto, Ontario","URL":"","note":"00000","author":[{"literal":"OACAS"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2003"]]},"accessed":{"date-parts":[["2017",3,14]]}}}],"schema":""} (OACAS, 2003). Over two thirds of investigations involved families with previous child welfare contact ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"gY2YJgSh","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Farris-Manning & Zandstra, 2003)","plainCitation":"(Farris-Manning & Zandstra, 2003)"},"citationItems":[{"id":1538,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":1538,"type":"article-journal","title":"Children in care in Canada","container-title":"Child Welfare of League of Canada","source":"Google Scholar","URL":"","note":"00107","author":[{"family":"Farris-Manning","given":"Cheryl"},{"family":"Zandstra","given":"Marietta"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2003"]]},"accessed":{"date-parts":[["2017",3,16]]}}}],"schema":""} (Farris-Manning & Zandstra, 2003). This increased number of investigations has been attributed to the broadened definition of the grounds for protection, specifically to include domestic violence and risk of emotional maltreatment ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"lDhoN1n8","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Fallon et al., 2005)","plainCitation":"(Fallon et al., 2005)"},"citationItems":[{"id":1544,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":1544,"type":"report","title":"Ontario Incidence Study of Reported Child Abuse and Neglect-2003 (OIS 2003): Major Findings","publisher":"Centre of Excellence for Child Welfare","publisher-place":"Toronto, Ontario","page":"207","event-place":"Toronto, Ontario","URL":"","note":"00000","author":[{"family":"Fallon","given":"Barbara"},{"family":"Trocme","given":"Nico"},{"family":"MacLaurin","given":"Bruce"},{"family":"Knoke","given":"Della"},{"family":"Black","given":"Tara"},{"family":"Daciuk","given":"Joanne"},{"family":"Felstiner","given":"Caroline"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2005"]]},"accessed":{"date-parts":[["2017",3,21]]}}}],"schema":""} (Fallon et al., 2005), and the implementation of a forensics-based child safety-focused investigation and risk assessment model that resulted in a higher proportion of caseloads being labeled “high-risk” ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"acFud0GS","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Farris-Manning & Zandstra, 2003)","plainCitation":"(Farris-Manning & Zandstra, 2003)"},"citationItems":[{"id":1538,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":1538,"type":"article-journal","title":"Children in care in Canada","container-title":"Child Welfare of League of Canada","source":"Google Scholar","URL":"","note":"00107","author":[{"family":"Farris-Manning","given":"Cheryl"},{"family":"Zandstra","given":"Marietta"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2003"]]},"accessed":{"date-parts":[["2017",3,16]]}}}],"schema":""} (Farris-Manning & Zandstra, 2003). Not surprisingly, the number of children in care also increased dramatically, from 11,260 in 1998 ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"q1jUMW1y","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(OACAS, 1999)","plainCitation":"(OACAS, 1999)"},"citationItems":[{"id":1536,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":1536,"type":"report","title":"CAS Facts: April 1998 - March 1999.pdf","publisher-place":"Toronto, Ontario","event-place":"Toronto, Ontario","URL":"","note":"00000","author":[{"literal":"OACAS"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["1999"]]},"accessed":{"date-parts":[["2017",3,16]]}}}],"schema":""} (OACAS, 1999) to 19,105 in 2004 at the peak of child welfare Reform ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"t1HyxJd3","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(OACAS, 2005)","plainCitation":"(OACAS, 2005)"},"citationItems":[{"id":1513,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":1513,"type":"report","title":"CAS Facts: April 1, 2004 - March 31, 2005","publisher":"Ontario Association of Children's Aid Societies","publisher-place":"Toronto, Ontario","page":"13","event-place":"Toronto, Ontario","URL":"","note":"00000","author":[{"literal":"OACAS"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2005"]]},"accessed":{"date-parts":[["2017",3,15]]}}}],"schema":""} (OACAS, 2005). Given there were only 5,264 foster homes available or in use as of April 1, 1998 ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"Cs8hbFFr","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(OACAS, 1999)","plainCitation":"(OACAS, 1999)"},"citationItems":[{"id":1536,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":1536,"type":"report","title":"CAS Facts: April 1998 - March 1999.pdf","publisher-place":"Toronto, Ontario","event-place":"Toronto, Ontario","URL":"","note":"00000","author":[{"literal":"OACAS"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["1999"]]},"accessed":{"date-parts":[["2017",3,16]]}}}],"schema":""} (OACAS, 1999), the increased number of children coming into care necessitated a corresponding increase in the number of foster homes. Children’s Aid Societies accomplished this through various recruitment campaigns, and many of the people that came forward, at least in my agency, were recruited through local churches. In 2005, the number of foster homes available or in use reached its peak, at 8,004 ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"jWP7j6lE","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(OACAS, 2006)","plainCitation":"(OACAS, 2006)"},"citationItems":[{"id":1531,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":1531,"type":"report","title":"CAS Facts: April 2005 - March 2006.pdf","publisher":"Ontario Association of Children's Aid Societies","publisher-place":"Toronto, Ontario","page":"10","event-place":"Toronto, Ontario","URL":"","note":"00000","author":[{"literal":"OACAS"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2006"]]},"accessed":{"date-parts":[["2017",3,16]]}}}],"schema":""} (OACAS, 2006).Although many factors contributed to the almost unprecedented increase of child protection intrusiveness, its basis was an underlying fear that biological families were not a safe place, and children needed to be removed in order to be protected ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"QadCMBSm","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Dumbrill, 2006)","plainCitation":"(Dumbrill, 2006)"},"citationItems":[{"id":622,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":622,"type":"article-journal","title":"Ontario's child welfare transformation: Another swing of the pendulum?","container-title":"Canadian Social Work Review / Revue canadienne de service social","page":"5-19","volume":"23","issue":"1/2","source":"JSTOR","abstract":"Child welfare policy has been likened to a pendulum that shifts between extremes. At one extreme, the pendulum focuses practice on supporting families at the expense of child safety; at the other, it focuses practice on child safety at the expense of support to families. Child welfare \"transformation\" is underway in Ontario, a process designed to push policy toward a more balanced position that provides support to families while also protecting children. As an analysis of the dynamics that drive the child welfare pendulum shows, the current transformation initiative contains weaknesses that may undermine its goal of seeking balance and may cause it to fail. Strengthening the initiative by coordinating agency services and involving families in formulating their own needs, among other suggestions, may help to avoid these failures, not only in Ontario, but also in other jurisdictions attempting to balance how child protection services are delivered. On a qualifié la politique de la protection de l'enfance de pendule se balan?ant entre, à un extrême, une pratique axée sur le soutien des familles au détriment de la sécurité des enfants et, à l'autre extrême, une pratique axée sur la sécurité des enfants au détriment du soutien des familles. L'on est à ? transformer ? la protection de l'enfance en Ontario, préconisant pour ce faire une approche plus équilibrée à mi-chemin du soutien des familles et de la protection des enfants. Comme l'indique une analyse de la dynamique qui anime le mouvement de pendule de la protection de l'enfance, l'initiative de transformation actuelle présente des faiblesses susceptibles de miner son objectif-trouver un point d'équilibre-et pourrait la faire échouer. Il serait peut-être utile de renforcer l'initiative en coordonnant les services des organismes et en faisant participer les familles à la définition de leurs besoins pour éviter que de tels échecs ne se produisent, et ce, non seulement en Ontario, mais également ailleurs où l'on tente de trouver une formule équilibrée de prestation des services de protection de l'enfance.","ISSN":"0820-909X","shortTitle":"ONTARIO'S CHILD WELFARE TRANSFORMATION","journalAbbreviation":"Canadian Social Work Review / Revue canadienne de service social","author":[{"family":"Dumbrill","given":"Gary C."}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2006",1,1]]}}}],"schema":""} (Dumbrill, 2006). This became the dominant child protection paradigm for workers, management, the Ministry, the judiciary, and the media. Other alternatives, such as placement with relatives, were deemed too risky and were rarely considered in cases where workers believed it was too dangerous for children to return home. Simultaneously, there was a reluctance to completely sever ties to biological parents, and an incongruous situation developed where parents and extended families were deemed worthy of maintaining some connection (albeit in most cases limited to quarterly visits) to their children, but were seen as being not good enough to parent on a permanent basis. As parents retained access rights, children and youth who were made crown wards with access were ineligible for adoption ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"3flESgdu","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Ontario, 1990)","plainCitation":"(Ontario, 1990)"},"citationItems":[{"id":1541,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":1541,"type":"legislation","title":"Child and Family Services Act","section":"Chapter C. 11","URL":"","note":"00000","number":"RSO 1990","author":[{"literal":"Ontario"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["1990"]]},"accessed":{"date-parts":[["2017",3,16]]}}}],"schema":""} (Ontario, 1990), and ‘long term foster care’ became their permanency plan. In 1999, there were 5,200 children and youth with crown ward status ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"seTAMSQT","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Office of the Auditor General of Ontario, 2000)","plainCitation":"(Office of the Auditor General of Ontario, 2000)"},"citationItems":[{"id":1515,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":1515,"type":"report","title":"Ministry of Community and Social Services: Child Welfare Services Program","collection-title":"Special Report: Accountability and Value for Money","publisher-place":"Toronto, Ontario","page":"21","event-place":"Toronto, Ontario","URL":"","note":"00000","author":[{"literal":"Office of the Auditor General of Ontario"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2000"]]},"accessed":{"date-parts":[["2017",3,15]]}}}],"schema":""} (Office of the Auditor General of Ontario, 2000) but by 2007, that number had increased to 9, 472. Almost three-quarters were crown wards with access ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"o5S2oLNr","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(OACAS, 2011)","plainCitation":"(OACAS, 2011)"},"citationItems":[{"id":1480,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":1480,"type":"report","title":"Measuring 2004 Transformation Goals to 2010 Child Welfare Practices: Interim Progress Report","publisher-place":"Toronto, Ontario","page":"80","event-place":"Toronto, Ontario","note":"00000","author":[{"literal":"OACAS"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2011",6,14]]}}}],"schema":""} (OACAS, 2011). Each of the youth in my study is part of this group of children that entered care during the Reform Agenda. In 2006, the pendulum swung yet again, with the implementation of the Transformation Agenda and its family-centred, more supportive approach to child protection ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"FWGxViV8","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(OACAS, 2011)","plainCitation":"(OACAS, 2011)"},"citationItems":[{"id":1480,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":1480,"type":"report","title":"Measuring 2004 Transformation Goals to 2010 Child Welfare Practices: Interim Progress Report","publisher-place":"Toronto, Ontario","page":"80","event-place":"Toronto, Ontario","note":"00000","author":[{"literal":"OACAS"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2011",6,14]]}}}],"schema":""} (OACAS, 2011). Under Transformation, the number of children and youth with crown ward status has steadily declined, to 6,106 in 2015 ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"1YIirbAM","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(OACAS, 2016a)","plainCitation":"(OACAS, 2016a)"},"citationItems":[{"id":1149,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":1149,"type":"report","title":"CAS Trends - April 2014 - March 2015.pdf","URL":"","note":"00000","author":[{"literal":"OACAS"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2016"]]},"accessed":{"date-parts":[["2016",9,13]]}}}],"schema":""} (OACAS, 2016a). In my own agency, practice has changed and it is now rare to have an application for crown wardship with access. Instead, practice is directed more towards family reunification, placement with extended family through informal out-of-care arrangements (e.g. kinservice) or adoption/guardianship. Consequently, the number of children and youth with crown ward status is declining as youth turn 21 and leave the system, and fewer children are being made crown wards with access.Introduction:In his Nicomachean Ethics, Aristotle asserts, “It is possible to fail in many ways...while to succeed is possible only in one way (Aristotle, trans. 1908, I)”. Tolstoy expresses a similar sentiment in Anna Karenina: “Happy families are all alike; each unhappy family is unhappy in its own way” ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"Bo1pdT6b","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Tolstoy, 1877, p. 1)","plainCitation":"(Tolstoy, 1877, p. 1)"},"citationItems":[{"id":1546,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":1546,"type":"book","title":"Anna Karenina","publisher":"Penguin","publisher-place":"London","edition":"Translated by Constance Garnett","event-place":"London","note":"00000","author":[{"family":"Tolstoy","given":"Leo"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["1877"]]}},"locator":"1","label":"page"}],"schema":""} (Tolstoy, 1877, p. 1). These assertions suggest that if one desires a particular outcome, it is most useful to study instances where that outcome has been achieved, and consider what factors contributed to it. Although an alternative approach is to look at instances where the outcome was not achieved and consider the factors responsible, this only suggests what is to be avoided, rather than what should be done to achieve the outcome. In the child protection system, children are often removed from their families as a result of neglect and/or abuse precipitated by unstable and unpredictable living conditions. They are brought into foster care in hopes that placement in care will compensate them developmentally for the chaotic nature of their parental homes ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"46i4n0kD","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Egelund & Vitus, 2009)","plainCitation":"(Egelund & Vitus, 2009)"},"citationItems":[{"id":373,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":373,"type":"article-journal","title":"Breakdown of care: The case of Danish teenage placements","container-title":"International Journal of Social Welfare","page":"45–56","volume":"18","issue":"1","source":"Wiley Online Library","abstract":"This article analyses the breakdown of teenage placements in Denmark from survey data on 227 teenagers placed in care during 2004. We explore frequencies of breakdown, time of breakdown occurrence and factors possibly causing breakdown. These are factors related to (i) the teenager, (ii) the parents, (iii) the care environment and (iv) the casework process. Results show that 26 per cent of the teenagers in the study experienced placement breakdown. Thirty per cent of these breakdowns occurred within the first 4 months of placement. A factor significantly increasing probability of breakdown was emotional problems of the teenager. A factor significantly reducing placement breakdown was the teenager having continuity with the same caseworker throughout the placement. System- and policy-related factors also proved to have an influence on breakdown rates. We discuss possible policy implications of these findings.","DOI":"10.1111/j.1468-2397.2008.00564.x","ISSN":"1468-2397","shortTitle":"Breakdown of care","language":"en","author":[{"family":"Egelund","given":"Tine"},{"family":"Vitus","given":"Kathrine"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2009"]]}}}],"schema":""} (Egelund & Vitus, 2009). Despite these good intentions, the foster care system has largely been unable to deliver on its promise of good outcomes for every child brought into care. In particular, the foster care system struggles to ensure that each youth leaving care has a sense of belonging. A great deal of the research on youth’s sense of belonging in foster care has focused on situations where a sense of belonging has not happened, in attempts to analyze the youth, foster parent, and/or system ‘failures’ that are responsible. Less attention has been given to those situations where a sense of belonging has occurred. Using grounded theory methodology anchored within a life course perspective, my study will explore how some youth develop a sense of belonging and what impact this has on their transition to adulthood. Developing a better understanding of the path that led to this success may lead to greater opportunity for early identification and more effective interventions for youth at the individual level, and may suggest structural or systemic changes that could improve outcomes overall for this population.Literature Review:In an ideal world, children who could not remain with their birth parents would be welcomed into a surrogate family who would meet their developmental needs for safety and security, identity, and continuity, and provide a home for them until it was no longer needed. Unfortunately, the child welfare system is less than ideal and children are often placed in families that cannot meet their developmental needs and are unable to provide a lasting home. Understanding the dynamics of how this occurs is helpful in framing a further discussion of belonging In their seminal work on permanency in foster care, Fein & Maluccio ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"B91Lmpyb","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(1984)","plainCitation":"(1984)"},"citationItems":[{"id":139,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":139,"type":"article-journal","title":"Children leaving foster care: Outcomes of permanency planning","container-title":"Child Abuse & Neglect","page":"425-431","volume":"8","issue":"4","source":"EBSCOhost","archive":"sih","abstract":"Foster care, created to overcome some of the disadvantages and abuses of institutional care of children, can present its own problems. One problem is overt abuse, but there are other, more subtle, deficiencies and concerns about foster care. In response, the concept of permanency planning has been introduced as a philosophy, a policy, and a technique. It is designed to return every child who enters care to the stability of a family as quickly as possible. This paper presents findings of a longitudinal study of the outcomes of permanency planning. Results show that over half the children returned to their biological parents, that adoptions were more common for Caucasian than black children, that 78% of the children were still in their permanent placements 12-16 months later, that most children were functioning well, and that there was a marked need for services for the families. In addition to the results of the study, the discussion focuses on implications for foster care practice and child welfare policy, including the importance of relatives, the impact of foster care placements, the needs of biological families, and the provision of services and supports for reunified families. (English) [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]","ISSN":"01452134","call-number":"25237637","shortTitle":"CHILDREN LEAVING FOSTER CARE","journalAbbreviation":"Child Abuse & Neglect","author":[{"family":"Fein","given":"Edith"},{"family":"Maluccio","given":"Anthony"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["1984",12]]}},"suppress-author":true}],"schema":""} (1984) describe several obvious problems of the foster care system (such as physical, sexual, or emotional abuse), and some more subtle but equally damaging problems (such as the stigmatization a foster child feels in ‘normal society’, repeated moves from foster home to foster home, and the ‘drift’ of children who remain in care for many years without a sense of belonging to a family). In fact, placement instability is such a widespread problem in foster care that Egelund & Vitus ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"K0VZh2QQ","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(2009)","plainCitation":"(2009)"},"citationItems":[{"id":373,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":373,"type":"article-journal","title":"Breakdown of care: The case of Danish teenage placements","container-title":"International Journal of Social Welfare","page":"45–56","volume":"18","issue":"1","source":"Wiley Online Library","abstract":"This article analyses the breakdown of teenage placements in Denmark from survey data on 227 teenagers placed in care during 2004. We explore frequencies of breakdown, time of breakdown occurrence and factors possibly causing breakdown. These are factors related to (i) the teenager, (ii) the parents, (iii) the care environment and (iv) the casework process. Results show that 26 per cent of the teenagers in the study experienced placement breakdown. Thirty per cent of these breakdowns occurred within the first 4 months of placement. A factor significantly increasing probability of breakdown was emotional problems of the teenager. A factor significantly reducing placement breakdown was the teenager having continuity with the same caseworker throughout the placement. System- and policy-related factors also proved to have an influence on breakdown rates. We discuss possible policy implications of these findings.","DOI":"10.1111/j.1468-2397.2008.00564.x","ISSN":"1468-2397","shortTitle":"Breakdown of care","language":"en","author":[{"family":"Egelund","given":"Tine"},{"family":"Vitus","given":"Kathrine"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2009"]]}},"suppress-author":true}],"schema":""} (2009) commented: Instability?is?not?the?regrettable?exception?to?a predominant rule of stability. Rather, unstable placement patterns?seem to?be?inherent?in?the?out-of-home?care phenomenon itself (p. 45) Instability is endemic to the foster care system. Its prevalence is concerning as it has been identified as a factor that is significantly related to negative outcomes for children ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"2mi10ceej7","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Unrau, 2008)","plainCitation":"(Unrau, 2008)"},"citationItems":[{"id":195,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":195,"type":"article-journal","title":"Former foster youth remember multiple placement moves: A journey of loss and hope","container-title":"Children and Youth Services Review","page":"1256-1266","volume":"30","issue":"11","abstract":"The purpose of this qualitative study is to better understand the experience and perceived\nimpact of multiple placement moves on adults who lived in foster care for at least some portion\nof their childhoods. Network and snowball sampling resulted in interviews with 22 adults\nbetween the ages of 18 and 65 years old, who had formerly lived in foster care. The ?ndings\nreveal that the experience of placement moves is not only remembered as a series of signi?cant\nlosses but also perceived by participants to leave imprinted negative emotional scars,\nparticularly in the area of trusting people and building and maintaining relationships. While\nparticipants remembered the negative aspects of placement moves in very similar ways,\nstrategies for coping and resilience were more unique to individuals. The ?ndings are important\nin that prior research on placement stability has not focused on understanding the perceived\nconsequences of the move experience on those formerly in foster care who are now adults.\nTheories of attachment, grief, traumatic stress and resilience, as well as the concept of family\nprivilege, can help to inform best practice for foster care practitioners and caregivers involved in\nplacement moves for foster children.","ISSN":"01907409","shortTitle":"Former foster youth remember multiple placement moves","author":[{"family":"Unrau","given":"Yvonne A."}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2008",11,1]]}}}],"schema":""} (Unrau, 2008). Disruption and BreakdownAt the core of placement instability lie the interchangeable concepts of ‘disruption’ and ‘breakdown’. Both terms generally refer to any unplanned (i.e. not planned by the Children’s Aid Society) termination of a foster placement, whether initiated by the child, her or his parents, the foster parents, or the Children’s Aid Society ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"a6hqj6iul","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Egelund & Vitus, 2009)","plainCitation":"(Egelund & Vitus, 2009)"},"citationItems":[{"id":373,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":373,"type":"article-journal","title":"Breakdown of care: The case of Danish teenage placements","container-title":"International Journal of Social Welfare","page":"45–56","volume":"18","issue":"1","source":"Wiley Online Library","abstract":"This article analyses the breakdown of teenage placements in Denmark from survey data on 227 teenagers placed in care during 2004. We explore frequencies of breakdown, time of breakdown occurrence and factors possibly causing breakdown. These are factors related to (i) the teenager, (ii) the parents, (iii) the care environment and (iv) the casework process. Results show that 26 per cent of the teenagers in the study experienced placement breakdown. Thirty per cent of these breakdowns occurred within the first 4 months of placement. A factor significantly increasing probability of breakdown was emotional problems of the teenager. A factor significantly reducing placement breakdown was the teenager having continuity with the same caseworker throughout the placement. System- and policy-related factors also proved to have an influence on breakdown rates. We discuss possible policy implications of these findings.","DOI":"10.1111/j.1468-2397.2008.00564.x","ISSN":"1468-2397","shortTitle":"Breakdown of care","language":"en","author":[{"family":"Egelund","given":"Tine"},{"family":"Vitus","given":"Kathrine"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2009"]]}}}],"schema":""} (Egelund & Vitus, 2009). Although disruption can occur at any age or at any time in the placement trajectory, it is particularly worrisome when it occurs during mid to late adolescence as youth-in-care prepare for the transition to adulthood. Disruption during the transition to adulthood leads to a lack of social supports and a loss of connected relationships, and foster youth with histories of placement instability may be less likely to have developed coping skills and self-competence necessary to achieve self-sufficiency ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"9d8wtgYy","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(T. Stott & Gustavsson, 2010, p. 620)","plainCitation":"(T. Stott & Gustavsson, 2010, p. 620)"},"citationItems":[{"id":8,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":8,"type":"article-journal","title":"Balancing permanency and stability for youth in foster care","container-title":"Children and Youth Services Review","page":"619-625","volume":"32","issue":"4","source":"EBSCOhost","archive":"swh","abstract":"Youth aging out of the foster care system are at risk for poor outcomes. Little is known about the etiology of these outcomes. However, placement instability may be one contributor. Permanency planning as a policy was well-intentioned. However, for adolescents likely to age out ofcare, the policy may actually contribute to placement instability. A review of the elements of permanency reveals a complex concept which emphasizes continuity of relationships. Federal permanency legislation and state policy may be in conflict with this goal, especially for youth who age out ofcare. The authors review the challenges faced by youth aging out of care, their placement histories, permanency planning as a policy and practice, and suggest modifictions to permanency planning to facilitate the development and maintenance of the stable social networks essential for successfultransitions to adulthood. (Journal abstract)","ISSN":"01907409","call-number":"80162","journalAbbreviation":"Children and Youth Services Review","author":[{"family":"Stott","given":"T."},{"family":"Gustavsson","given":"N."}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2010"]]}},"locator":"620","label":"page"}],"schema":""} (T. Stott & Gustavsson, 2010, p. 620). Simple questions that most youth growing up in their biological families take for granted; like where to stay when their university residence closes for Christmas; can be insurmountable obstacles to youth-in-care trying to become independent without a stable placement or a place to call home. While most researchers agree on which form of placement disrupts most frequently, there is less agreement concerning the causes of disruption for adolescents. Four sets of?factors?have generally?been?hypothesized?to?cause disruption: those related to the adolescent, those related to the biological parents, those related?to?the foster family/foster home environment?and?those related to the Children’s Aid Society ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"1malf3jkep","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Egelund & Vitus, 2009)","plainCitation":"(Egelund & Vitus, 2009)"},"citationItems":[{"id":373,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":373,"type":"article-journal","title":"Breakdown of care: The case of Danish teenage placements","container-title":"International Journal of Social Welfare","page":"45–56","volume":"18","issue":"1","source":"Wiley Online Library","abstract":"This article analyses the breakdown of teenage placements in Denmark from survey data on 227 teenagers placed in care during 2004. We explore frequencies of breakdown, time of breakdown occurrence and factors possibly causing breakdown. These are factors related to (i) the teenager, (ii) the parents, (iii) the care environment and (iv) the casework process. Results show that 26 per cent of the teenagers in the study experienced placement breakdown. Thirty per cent of these breakdowns occurred within the first 4 months of placement. A factor significantly increasing probability of breakdown was emotional problems of the teenager. A factor significantly reducing placement breakdown was the teenager having continuity with the same caseworker throughout the placement. System- and policy-related factors also proved to have an influence on breakdown rates. We discuss possible policy implications of these findings.","DOI":"10.1111/j.1468-2397.2008.00564.x","ISSN":"1468-2397","shortTitle":"Breakdown of care","language":"en","author":[{"family":"Egelund","given":"Tine"},{"family":"Vitus","given":"Kathrine"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2009"]]}}}],"schema":""} (Egelund & Vitus, 2009). Adolescent-specific factors, for example behavioural issues, emotional problems, gender, history of physical/sexual abuse, and/or reaction-formation, have received the most attention in the literature, having been examined in all studies of disruption of care ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"oeopgfgo","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Egelund & Vitus, 2009)","plainCitation":"(Egelund & Vitus, 2009)"},"citationItems":[{"id":373,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":373,"type":"article-journal","title":"Breakdown of care: The case of Danish teenage placements","container-title":"International Journal of Social Welfare","page":"45–56","volume":"18","issue":"1","source":"Wiley Online Library","abstract":"This article analyses the breakdown of teenage placements in Denmark from survey data on 227 teenagers placed in care during 2004. We explore frequencies of breakdown, time of breakdown occurrence and factors possibly causing breakdown. These are factors related to (i) the teenager, (ii) the parents, (iii) the care environment and (iv) the casework process. Results show that 26 per cent of the teenagers in the study experienced placement breakdown. Thirty per cent of these breakdowns occurred within the first 4 months of placement. A factor significantly increasing probability of breakdown was emotional problems of the teenager. A factor significantly reducing placement breakdown was the teenager having continuity with the same caseworker throughout the placement. System- and policy-related factors also proved to have an influence on breakdown rates. We discuss possible policy implications of these findings.","DOI":"10.1111/j.1468-2397.2008.00564.x","ISSN":"1468-2397","shortTitle":"Breakdown of care","language":"en","author":[{"family":"Egelund","given":"Tine"},{"family":"Vitus","given":"Kathrine"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2009"]]}}}],"schema":""} (Egelund & Vitus, 2009). This reflects a focus on the adolescent as being the cause of the disruption, either overtly, for example by running away or covertly due to his/her personal characteristics. Several researchers have found that an adolescent’s difficult behaviour is associated with disruption (Aarons et al., 2010; James, 2004; Knorth, Knot-Dickscheit, & Strijker, 2008; Sinclair & Wilson, 2003), however, there is some disagreement about whether behaviour problems lead to disruption or whether disruption leads to behaviour problems ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"7puce9eot","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Aarons et al., 2010)","plainCitation":"(Aarons et al., 2010)"},"citationItems":[{"id":306,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":306,"type":"article-journal","title":"Behavior problems and placement change in a national child welfare sample: A prospective study","container-title":"Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry","page":"70-80","volume":"49","issue":"1","source":"ScienceDirect","abstract":"Objective \r\nThere is ongoing debate regarding the impact of youth behavior problems on placement change in child welfare compared to the impact of placement change on behavior problems. Existing studies provide support for both perspectives. The purpose of this study was to prospectively examine the relations of behavior problems and placement change in a nationally representative sample of youths in the National Survey of Child and Adolescent Well-Being. \r\nMethod \r\nThe sample consisted of 500 youths in the child welfare system with out-of-home placements over the course of the National Survey of Child and Adolescent Well-Being study. We used a prospective cross-lag design and path analysis to examine reciprocal effects of behavior problems and placement change, testing an overall model and models examining effects of age and gender. \r\nResults \r\nIn the overall model, out of a total of eight path coefficients, behavior problems significantly predicted placement changes for three paths and placement change predicted behavior problems for one path. Internalizing and externalizing behavior problems at baseline predicted placement change between baseline and 18 months. Behavior problems at an older age and externalizing behavior at 18 months appear to confer an increased risk of placement change. Of note, among female subjects, placement changes later in the study predicted subsequent internalizing and externalizing behavior problems. \r\nConclusions \r\nIn keeping with recommendations from a number of professional bodies, we suggest that initial and ongoing screening for internalizing and externalizing behavior problems be instituted as part of standard practice for youths entering or transitioning in the child welfare system.","DOI":"10.1016/j.jaac.2009.09.005","ISSN":"0890-8567","shortTitle":"Behavior Problems and Placement Change in a National Child Welfare Sample","journalAbbreviation":"Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry","author":[{"family":"Aarons","given":"Gregory A."},{"family":"James","given":"Sigrid"},{"family":"Monn","given":"Amy R."},{"family":"Raghavan","given":"Ramesh"},{"family":"Wells","given":"Rebecca S."},{"family":"Leslie","given":"Laurel K."}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2010",1]]}}}],"schema":""} (Aarons et al., 2010). The role of anti-social behaviour (i.e. criminal or violent conduct, alcohol and drug use) in disruption is also contested. Although most studies have found antisocial behaviour to be a clear predictor of potential disruption ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"G3Xs217C","properties":{"formattedCitation":"{\\rtf (Barth et al., 2007; Salln\\uc0\\u228{}s, Vinnerljung, & Kyhle Westermark, 2004)}","plainCitation":"(Barth et al., 2007; Salln?s, Vinnerljung, & Kyhle Westermark, 2004)"},"citationItems":[{"id":362,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":362,"type":"article-journal","title":"Predictors of placement moves among children with and without emotional and behavioral disorders","container-title":"Journal of Emotional and Behavioral Disorders","page":"46-55","volume":"15","issue":"1","source":"ebx..libaccess.lib.mcmaster.ca","abstract":"Children identified as having emotional and behavioral disorders (EBD) may have different out-of-home care placements than their peers without EBD.This study compared the factors influencing placement movements for 362 children with EBD and 363 children without EBD, using clinical Child Behavior Checklist (CBCL) scores at baseline data collection of the National Survey of Child and Adolescent Well-Being. The analyses explored potential case characteristics influencing the number of placements for children with a clinical CBCL score at baseline data collection. Poisson regression models were used to explain the number of placements experienced during the first 36 months of placement. Overall, children with a clinical-level CBCL score were 2.5 times as likely to experience four or more placements as their nonclinical peers. Findings indicated that the presence of depression and not residing with siblings predicted movement among children with EBD. Among children without EBD, only older age was strongly associated with placement moves. Although the direction of effects is equivocal, these results call for greater attention to children's experience of out-of-home placement and the lack of homogeneity among children who are placed outside their homes.","DOI":"10.1177/10634266070150010501","ISSN":"1063-4266, 1538-4799","journalAbbreviation":"Journal of Emotional and Behavioral Disorders","author":[{"family":"Barth","given":"Richard"},{"family":"Lloyd","given":"E. Christopher"},{"family":"Green","given":"Rebecca L."},{"family":"James","given":"Sigrid"},{"family":"Leslie","given":"Laurel K."},{"family":"Landsverk","given":"John"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2007",1,1]]}}},{"id":358,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":358,"type":"article-journal","title":"Breakdown of teenage placements in Swedish foster and residential care","container-title":"Child & Family Social Work","page":"141–152","volume":"9","issue":"2","source":"Wiley Online Library","abstract":"This article deals with the problem of breakdown in different types of out-of-home care (foster care/residential care) for Swedish teenagers. How often are such placements prematurely terminated against the wishes and intentions of child welfare authorities? Which factors appear to increase or decrease the risk of placement breakdown? The sample consists of a national cohort of 776 youths who started 922 placements during 1991. Every placement was followed in municipal case files for a maximum period of five years. Between 30 and 37% of all placements were prematurely terminated, the exact figure depending on whether a narrow or wide definition of breakdown was applied. The lowest rates of breakdown were found in kinship care and secure units, the highest in non-kinship foster homes. Teenagers who display antisocial behaviour and/or have mental health problems constitute a high-risk category for most types of out-of-home care, but especially in non-kinship foster homes. Risk factors in relation to breakdown were analysed in the four main forms of Swedish out-of-home care separately (foster homes, privately/publicly run residential care and secure units). The analysis pointed out that risk factors are not the same in all types of care, but antisocial behaviour at time of placement increased the risk in most forms of care.Prior research indicates that placement breakdown is a major problem of child welfare in other countries, and this study found that Sweden is no exception.","DOI":"10.1111/j.1365-2206.2004.00309.x","ISSN":"1365-2206","language":"en","author":[{"family":"Salln?s","given":"Marie"},{"family":"Vinnerljung","given":"Bo"},{"family":"Kyhle Westermark","given":"Pia"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2004"]]}}}],"schema":""} (Barth et al., 2007; Salln?s, Vinnerljung, & Kyhle Westermark, 2004), some have found no such link ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"17lji193ld","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Egelund & Vitus, 2009)","plainCitation":"(Egelund & Vitus, 2009)"},"citationItems":[{"id":373,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":373,"type":"article-journal","title":"Breakdown of care: The case of Danish teenage placements","container-title":"International Journal of Social Welfare","page":"45–56","volume":"18","issue":"1","source":"Wiley Online Library","abstract":"This article analyses the breakdown of teenage placements in Denmark from survey data on 227 teenagers placed in care during 2004. We explore frequencies of breakdown, time of breakdown occurrence and factors possibly causing breakdown. These are factors related to (i) the teenager, (ii) the parents, (iii) the care environment and (iv) the casework process. Results show that 26 per cent of the teenagers in the study experienced placement breakdown. Thirty per cent of these breakdowns occurred within the first 4 months of placement. A factor significantly increasing probability of breakdown was emotional problems of the teenager. A factor significantly reducing placement breakdown was the teenager having continuity with the same caseworker throughout the placement. System- and policy-related factors also proved to have an influence on breakdown rates. We discuss possible policy implications of these findings.","DOI":"10.1111/j.1468-2397.2008.00564.x","ISSN":"1468-2397","shortTitle":"Breakdown of care","language":"en","author":[{"family":"Egelund","given":"Tine"},{"family":"Vitus","given":"Kathrine"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2009"]]}}}],"schema":""} (Egelund & Vitus, 2009). Other studies have found a link between disruption in care and adolescents who have run away from their parental homes or who have been thrown out by parents on several occasions ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"2du08bmjkb","properties":{"formattedCitation":"{\\rtf (Salln\\uc0\\u228{}s et al., 2004)}","plainCitation":"(Salln?s et al., 2004)"},"citationItems":[{"id":358,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":358,"type":"article-journal","title":"Breakdown of teenage placements in Swedish foster and residential care","container-title":"Child & Family Social Work","page":"141–152","volume":"9","issue":"2","source":"Wiley Online Library","abstract":"This article deals with the problem of breakdown in different types of out-of-home care (foster care/residential care) for Swedish teenagers. How often are such placements prematurely terminated against the wishes and intentions of child welfare authorities? Which factors appear to increase or decrease the risk of placement breakdown? The sample consists of a national cohort of 776 youths who started 922 placements during 1991. Every placement was followed in municipal case files for a maximum period of five years. Between 30 and 37% of all placements were prematurely terminated, the exact figure depending on whether a narrow or wide definition of breakdown was applied. The lowest rates of breakdown were found in kinship care and secure units, the highest in non-kinship foster homes. Teenagers who display antisocial behaviour and/or have mental health problems constitute a high-risk category for most types of out-of-home care, but especially in non-kinship foster homes. Risk factors in relation to breakdown were analysed in the four main forms of Swedish out-of-home care separately (foster homes, privately/publicly run residential care and secure units). The analysis pointed out that risk factors are not the same in all types of care, but antisocial behaviour at time of placement increased the risk in most forms of care.Prior research indicates that placement breakdown is a major problem of child welfare in other countries, and this study found that Sweden is no exception.","DOI":"10.1111/j.1365-2206.2004.00309.x","ISSN":"1365-2206","language":"en","author":[{"family":"Salln?s","given":"Marie"},{"family":"Vinnerljung","given":"Bo"},{"family":"Kyhle Westermark","given":"Pia"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2004"]]}}}],"schema":""} (Salln?s et al., 2004). In addition, a strong correlation has also been found between disruption and an adolescent’s mental health problems ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"20rivd8pdp","properties":{"formattedCitation":"{\\rtf (Egelund & Vitus, 2009; Salln\\uc0\\u228{}s et al., 2004)}","plainCitation":"(Egelund & Vitus, 2009; Salln?s et al., 2004)"},"citationItems":[{"id":373,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":373,"type":"article-journal","title":"Breakdown of care: The case of Danish teenage placements","container-title":"International Journal of Social Welfare","page":"45–56","volume":"18","issue":"1","source":"Wiley Online Library","abstract":"This article analyses the breakdown of teenage placements in Denmark from survey data on 227 teenagers placed in care during 2004. We explore frequencies of breakdown, time of breakdown occurrence and factors possibly causing breakdown. These are factors related to (i) the teenager, (ii) the parents, (iii) the care environment and (iv) the casework process. Results show that 26 per cent of the teenagers in the study experienced placement breakdown. Thirty per cent of these breakdowns occurred within the first 4 months of placement. A factor significantly increasing probability of breakdown was emotional problems of the teenager. A factor significantly reducing placement breakdown was the teenager having continuity with the same caseworker throughout the placement. System- and policy-related factors also proved to have an influence on breakdown rates. We discuss possible policy implications of these findings.","DOI":"10.1111/j.1468-2397.2008.00564.x","ISSN":"1468-2397","shortTitle":"Breakdown of care","language":"en","author":[{"family":"Egelund","given":"Tine"},{"family":"Vitus","given":"Kathrine"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2009"]]}}},{"id":358,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":358,"type":"article-journal","title":"Breakdown of teenage placements in Swedish foster and residential care","container-title":"Child & Family Social Work","page":"141–152","volume":"9","issue":"2","source":"Wiley Online Library","abstract":"This article deals with the problem of breakdown in different types of out-of-home care (foster care/residential care) for Swedish teenagers. How often are such placements prematurely terminated against the wishes and intentions of child welfare authorities? Which factors appear to increase or decrease the risk of placement breakdown? The sample consists of a national cohort of 776 youths who started 922 placements during 1991. Every placement was followed in municipal case files for a maximum period of five years. Between 30 and 37% of all placements were prematurely terminated, the exact figure depending on whether a narrow or wide definition of breakdown was applied. The lowest rates of breakdown were found in kinship care and secure units, the highest in non-kinship foster homes. Teenagers who display antisocial behaviour and/or have mental health problems constitute a high-risk category for most types of out-of-home care, but especially in non-kinship foster homes. Risk factors in relation to breakdown were analysed in the four main forms of Swedish out-of-home care separately (foster homes, privately/publicly run residential care and secure units). The analysis pointed out that risk factors are not the same in all types of care, but antisocial behaviour at time of placement increased the risk in most forms of care.Prior research indicates that placement breakdown is a major problem of child welfare in other countries, and this study found that Sweden is no exception.","DOI":"10.1111/j.1365-2206.2004.00309.x","ISSN":"1365-2206","language":"en","author":[{"family":"Salln?s","given":"Marie"},{"family":"Vinnerljung","given":"Bo"},{"family":"Kyhle Westermark","given":"Pia"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2004"]]}}}],"schema":""} (Egelund & Vitus, 2009; Salln?s et al., 2004). Other researchers such as Urua ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"wMlZtmnL","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(2008)","plainCitation":"(2008)"},"citationItems":[{"id":195,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":195,"type":"article-journal","title":"Former foster youth remember multiple placement moves: A journey of loss and hope","container-title":"Children and Youth Services Review","page":"1256-1266","volume":"30","issue":"11","abstract":"The purpose of this qualitative study is to better understand the experience and perceived\nimpact of multiple placement moves on adults who lived in foster care for at least some portion\nof their childhoods. Network and snowball sampling resulted in interviews with 22 adults\nbetween the ages of 18 and 65 years old, who had formerly lived in foster care. The ?ndings\nreveal that the experience of placement moves is not only remembered as a series of signi?cant\nlosses but also perceived by participants to leave imprinted negative emotional scars,\nparticularly in the area of trusting people and building and maintaining relationships. While\nparticipants remembered the negative aspects of placement moves in very similar ways,\nstrategies for coping and resilience were more unique to individuals. The ?ndings are important\nin that prior research on placement stability has not focused on understanding the perceived\nconsequences of the move experience on those formerly in foster care who are now adults.\nTheories of attachment, grief, traumatic stress and resilience, as well as the concept of family\nprivilege, can help to inform best practice for foster care practitioners and caregivers involved in\nplacement moves for foster children.","ISSN":"01907409","shortTitle":"Former foster youth remember multiple placement moves","author":[{"family":"Unrau","given":"Yvonne A."}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2008",11,1]]}},"suppress-author":true}],"schema":""} (2008) have suggested that a youth’s individual characteristics such as behaviour and/or mental health problems may be the result of disruption rather than the cause, and that once a cycle of disrupted placements begins, youth-in-care may become distrustful of relationships and emotionally distance themselves from others. This ‘emotional closure’ creates a sense of distance where both the youth-in-care and the foster family view the youth as being a separate from the family ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"1cne5crfho","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(T. Stott & Gustavsson, 2010)","plainCitation":"(T. Stott & Gustavsson, 2010)"},"citationItems":[{"id":8,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":8,"type":"article-journal","title":"Balancing permanency and stability for youth in foster care","container-title":"Children and Youth Services Review","page":"619-625","volume":"32","issue":"4","source":"EBSCOhost","archive":"swh","abstract":"Youth aging out of the foster care system are at risk for poor outcomes. Little is known about the etiology of these outcomes. However, placement instability may be one contributor. Permanency planning as a policy was well-intentioned. However, for adolescents likely to age out ofcare, the policy may actually contribute to placement instability. A review of the elements of permanency reveals a complex concept which emphasizes continuity of relationships. Federal permanency legislation and state policy may be in conflict with this goal, especially for youth who age out ofcare. The authors review the challenges faced by youth aging out of care, their placement histories, permanency planning as a policy and practice, and suggest modifictions to permanency planning to facilitate the development and maintenance of the stable social networks essential for successfultransitions to adulthood. (Journal abstract)","ISSN":"01907409","call-number":"80162","journalAbbreviation":"Children and Youth Services Review","author":[{"family":"Stott","given":"T."},{"family":"Gustavsson","given":"N."}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2010"]]}}}],"schema":""} (T. Stott & Gustavsson, 2010).Factors relating to the adolescent’s biological parents, specifically the impact of ongoing contacts between the youth-in-care and biological parents, have also been studied, albeit to a lesser extent than individual youth factors. The relationship between continuation of child–parent contact and disruption is uncertain - some studies do not find a correlation between the two, while others argue that contact actually reduces?disruption for adolescents ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"1u9sb1p54u","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Egelund & Vitus, 2009)","plainCitation":"(Egelund & Vitus, 2009)"},"citationItems":[{"id":373,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":373,"type":"article-journal","title":"Breakdown of care: The case of Danish teenage placements","container-title":"International Journal of Social Welfare","page":"45–56","volume":"18","issue":"1","source":"Wiley Online Library","abstract":"This article analyses the breakdown of teenage placements in Denmark from survey data on 227 teenagers placed in care during 2004. We explore frequencies of breakdown, time of breakdown occurrence and factors possibly causing breakdown. These are factors related to (i) the teenager, (ii) the parents, (iii) the care environment and (iv) the casework process. Results show that 26 per cent of the teenagers in the study experienced placement breakdown. Thirty per cent of these breakdowns occurred within the first 4 months of placement. A factor significantly increasing probability of breakdown was emotional problems of the teenager. A factor significantly reducing placement breakdown was the teenager having continuity with the same caseworker throughout the placement. System- and policy-related factors also proved to have an influence on breakdown rates. We discuss possible policy implications of these findings.","DOI":"10.1111/j.1468-2397.2008.00564.x","ISSN":"1468-2397","shortTitle":"Breakdown of care","language":"en","author":[{"family":"Egelund","given":"Tine"},{"family":"Vitus","given":"Kathrine"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2009"]]}}}],"schema":""} (Egelund & Vitus, 2009).The relationship between disruption and the foster family/foster home environment has been examined in a number of studies. Factors such as the foster parent – foster youth relationship, and the relationship between the foster youth and the foster family’s children are associated with disruption ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"C9mwCJB9","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Brown & Bednar, 2006)","plainCitation":"(Brown & Bednar, 2006)"},"citationItems":[{"id":311,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":311,"type":"article-journal","title":"Foster parent perceptions of placement breakdown","container-title":"Children and Youth Services Review","page":"1497-1511","volume":"28","issue":"12","source":"ScienceDirect","abstract":"The purpose of the study was to describe the perceived causes of placement breakdown by foster parents. Sixty-three foster parents from fifty families were asked to describe their challenges in response to the following question: “What would make you consider ending a foster placement”? The responses to this question were analyzed using multidimensional scaling and cluster analysis, to yield nine themes. Foster parents indicated that they would consider ending a placement if there was a danger to their family, if the child could not adapt to the home or if they could not handle the child's behavior. Participants reported that the complex health needs of a foster child, problems dealing with the foster agency, and several unsuccessful attempts to make the placement work would cause a placement to breakdown. Foster parents also indicated that they would consider ending a placement if their personal circumstances changed, their own health deteriorated, or there was a lack of appropriate external support in place. The results of the study point to gaps in the research on violence in general foster care, foster parent perceptions of contributions to a foster child's transition back to his or her birth family, and the process of foster parent decision-making in cases of placement breakdown.","DOI":"10.1016/j.childyouth.2006.03.004","ISSN":"0190-7409","journalAbbreviation":"Children and Youth Services Review","author":[{"family":"Brown","given":"Jason D."},{"family":"Bednar","given":"Lisa M."}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2006",12]]}}}],"schema":""} (Brown & Bednar, 2006). Specifically, when the relationships are poor and there is little commitment to the youth, the negative effects of behavioural or emotional problems are exacerbated. Conversely, a positive relationship and high degree of commitment mitigate the negative effects of behavioural or emotional problems on disruption. In a follow-up qualitative study of foster parents, Brown ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"15sahijj21","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(2006)","plainCitation":"(2006)"},"citationItems":[{"id":311,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":311,"type":"article-journal","title":"Foster parent perceptions of placement breakdown","container-title":"Children and Youth Services Review","page":"1497-1511","volume":"28","issue":"12","source":"ScienceDirect","abstract":"The purpose of the study was to describe the perceived causes of placement breakdown by foster parents. Sixty-three foster parents from fifty families were asked to describe their challenges in response to the following question: “What would make you consider ending a foster placement”? The responses to this question were analyzed using multidimensional scaling and cluster analysis, to yield nine themes. Foster parents indicated that they would consider ending a placement if there was a danger to their family, if the child could not adapt to the home or if they could not handle the child's behavior. Participants reported that the complex health needs of a foster child, problems dealing with the foster agency, and several unsuccessful attempts to make the placement work would cause a placement to breakdown. Foster parents also indicated that they would consider ending a placement if their personal circumstances changed, their own health deteriorated, or there was a lack of appropriate external support in place. The results of the study point to gaps in the research on violence in general foster care, foster parent perceptions of contributions to a foster child's transition back to his or her birth family, and the process of foster parent decision-making in cases of placement breakdown.","DOI":"10.1016/j.childyouth.2006.03.004","ISSN":"0190-7409","journalAbbreviation":"Children and Youth Services Review","author":[{"family":"Brown","given":"Jason D."},{"family":"Bednar","given":"Lisa M."}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2006",12]]}},"suppress-author":true}],"schema":""} (2008) found that, irrespective of a youth’s personal characteristics, foster parents reported they would disrupt a placement if there were problems dealing with the Society, their personal circumstances changed, their own health deteriorated, or there was insufficient external supports.Factors related to the Children’s Aid Society and the case work process, specifically the role that the Society’s policies, procedures, and workers play in disruption, have generally received little attention ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"1s49pi829e","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Egelund & Vitus, 2009)","plainCitation":"(Egelund & Vitus, 2009)"},"citationItems":[{"id":373,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":373,"type":"article-journal","title":"Breakdown of care: The case of Danish teenage placements","container-title":"International Journal of Social Welfare","page":"45–56","volume":"18","issue":"1","source":"Wiley Online Library","abstract":"This article analyses the breakdown of teenage placements in Denmark from survey data on 227 teenagers placed in care during 2004. We explore frequencies of breakdown, time of breakdown occurrence and factors possibly causing breakdown. These are factors related to (i) the teenager, (ii) the parents, (iii) the care environment and (iv) the casework process. Results show that 26 per cent of the teenagers in the study experienced placement breakdown. Thirty per cent of these breakdowns occurred within the first 4 months of placement. A factor significantly increasing probability of breakdown was emotional problems of the teenager. A factor significantly reducing placement breakdown was the teenager having continuity with the same caseworker throughout the placement. System- and policy-related factors also proved to have an influence on breakdown rates. We discuss possible policy implications of these findings.","DOI":"10.1111/j.1468-2397.2008.00564.x","ISSN":"1468-2397","shortTitle":"Breakdown of care","language":"en","author":[{"family":"Egelund","given":"Tine"},{"family":"Vitus","given":"Kathrine"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2009"]]}}}],"schema":""} (Egelund & Vitus, 2009). There is some indication that staff turnover, leading to changes in social workers, triples the likelihood that a placement will disrupt, and that the majority of all disruptions are CAS and casework related ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"ak5hs1h9q","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Egelund & Vitus, 2009)","plainCitation":"(Egelund & Vitus, 2009)"},"citationItems":[{"id":373,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":373,"type":"article-journal","title":"Breakdown of care: The case of Danish teenage placements","container-title":"International Journal of Social Welfare","page":"45–56","volume":"18","issue":"1","source":"Wiley Online Library","abstract":"This article analyses the breakdown of teenage placements in Denmark from survey data on 227 teenagers placed in care during 2004. We explore frequencies of breakdown, time of breakdown occurrence and factors possibly causing breakdown. These are factors related to (i) the teenager, (ii) the parents, (iii) the care environment and (iv) the casework process. Results show that 26 per cent of the teenagers in the study experienced placement breakdown. Thirty per cent of these breakdowns occurred within the first 4 months of placement. A factor significantly increasing probability of breakdown was emotional problems of the teenager. A factor significantly reducing placement breakdown was the teenager having continuity with the same caseworker throughout the placement. System- and policy-related factors also proved to have an influence on breakdown rates. We discuss possible policy implications of these findings.","DOI":"10.1111/j.1468-2397.2008.00564.x","ISSN":"1468-2397","shortTitle":"Breakdown of care","language":"en","author":[{"family":"Egelund","given":"Tine"},{"family":"Vitus","given":"Kathrine"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2009"]]}}}],"schema":""} (Egelund & Vitus, 2009). This suggests that disruption among adolescents in long-term foster placements is not caused by the youth as much as it is caused by the system itself.Several gaps in the research on disruption are apparent, particularly concerning long-term placement disruption for adolescents. First, the literature on disruption primarily focuses on the stability rates of children and youth-in-care for 18 months or less ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"172bjahmq3","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(T. Stott & Gustavsson, 2010)","plainCitation":"(T. Stott & Gustavsson, 2010)"},"citationItems":[{"id":8,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":8,"type":"article-journal","title":"Balancing permanency and stability for youth in foster care","container-title":"Children and Youth Services Review","page":"619-625","volume":"32","issue":"4","source":"EBSCOhost","archive":"swh","abstract":"Youth aging out of the foster care system are at risk for poor outcomes. Little is known about the etiology of these outcomes. However, placement instability may be one contributor. Permanency planning as a policy was well-intentioned. However, for adolescents likely to age out ofcare, the policy may actually contribute to placement instability. A review of the elements of permanency reveals a complex concept which emphasizes continuity of relationships. Federal permanency legislation and state policy may be in conflict with this goal, especially for youth who age out ofcare. The authors review the challenges faced by youth aging out of care, their placement histories, permanency planning as a policy and practice, and suggest modifictions to permanency planning to facilitate the development and maintenance of the stable social networks essential for successfultransitions to adulthood. (Journal abstract)","ISSN":"01907409","call-number":"80162","journalAbbreviation":"Children and Youth Services Review","author":[{"family":"Stott","given":"T."},{"family":"Gustavsson","given":"N."}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2010"]]}}}],"schema":""} (T. Stott & Gustavsson, 2010) meaning that youth in longer duration placements are typically excluded. Second, much of the literature on disruption has been based on quantitative research taken from administrative data collected by child protection agencies and government sources. This administrative data represents the perspectives of the child protection workers and the child protection system. The perspective of other actors such as the foster parents, and most importantly the youth, are often not taken into account. On the occasion that these perspectives are presented, they are often as an ‘added-on’ qualitative study that supplements the ‘real’ quantitative study, and are subsequently dis-counted. As a result, disruption, which is a complex and complicated phenomenon involving a host of inter-related and interconnected processes ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"2qmpfph6se","properties":{"formattedCitation":"{\\rtf (Salln\\uc0\\u228{}s et al., 2004)}","plainCitation":"(Salln?s et al., 2004)"},"citationItems":[{"id":358,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":358,"type":"article-journal","title":"Breakdown of teenage placements in Swedish foster and residential care","container-title":"Child & Family Social Work","page":"141–152","volume":"9","issue":"2","source":"Wiley Online Library","abstract":"This article deals with the problem of breakdown in different types of out-of-home care (foster care/residential care) for Swedish teenagers. How often are such placements prematurely terminated against the wishes and intentions of child welfare authorities? Which factors appear to increase or decrease the risk of placement breakdown? The sample consists of a national cohort of 776 youths who started 922 placements during 1991. Every placement was followed in municipal case files for a maximum period of five years. Between 30 and 37% of all placements were prematurely terminated, the exact figure depending on whether a narrow or wide definition of breakdown was applied. The lowest rates of breakdown were found in kinship care and secure units, the highest in non-kinship foster homes. Teenagers who display antisocial behaviour and/or have mental health problems constitute a high-risk category for most types of out-of-home care, but especially in non-kinship foster homes. Risk factors in relation to breakdown were analysed in the four main forms of Swedish out-of-home care separately (foster homes, privately/publicly run residential care and secure units). The analysis pointed out that risk factors are not the same in all types of care, but antisocial behaviour at time of placement increased the risk in most forms of care.Prior research indicates that placement breakdown is a major problem of child welfare in other countries, and this study found that Sweden is no exception.","DOI":"10.1111/j.1365-2206.2004.00309.x","ISSN":"1365-2206","language":"en","author":[{"family":"Salln?s","given":"Marie"},{"family":"Vinnerljung","given":"Bo"},{"family":"Kyhle Westermark","given":"Pia"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2004"]]}}}],"schema":""} (Salln?s et al., 2004), becomes over-simplified, leading the proposed solutions to be over-simplified as well. For example if one sees disruption as being caused primarily by a youth’s challenging behaviour, the solution then would be to ‘fix’ the youth through therapy, a suggestion which has been made in various studies ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"2d2ipr0edr","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Aarons et al., 2010; Sinclair & Wilson, 2003)","plainCitation":"(Aarons et al., 2010; Sinclair & Wilson, 2003)"},"citationItems":[{"id":306,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":306,"type":"article-journal","title":"Behavior problems and placement change in a national child welfare sample: A prospective study","container-title":"Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry","page":"70-80","volume":"49","issue":"1","source":"ScienceDirect","abstract":"Objective \r\nThere is ongoing debate regarding the impact of youth behavior problems on placement change in child welfare compared to the impact of placement change on behavior problems. Existing studies provide support for both perspectives. The purpose of this study was to prospectively examine the relations of behavior problems and placement change in a nationally representative sample of youths in the National Survey of Child and Adolescent Well-Being. \r\nMethod \r\nThe sample consisted of 500 youths in the child welfare system with out-of-home placements over the course of the National Survey of Child and Adolescent Well-Being study. We used a prospective cross-lag design and path analysis to examine reciprocal effects of behavior problems and placement change, testing an overall model and models examining effects of age and gender. \r\nResults \r\nIn the overall model, out of a total of eight path coefficients, behavior problems significantly predicted placement changes for three paths and placement change predicted behavior problems for one path. Internalizing and externalizing behavior problems at baseline predicted placement change between baseline and 18 months. Behavior problems at an older age and externalizing behavior at 18 months appear to confer an increased risk of placement change. Of note, among female subjects, placement changes later in the study predicted subsequent internalizing and externalizing behavior problems. \r\nConclusions \r\nIn keeping with recommendations from a number of professional bodies, we suggest that initial and ongoing screening for internalizing and externalizing behavior problems be instituted as part of standard practice for youths entering or transitioning in the child welfare system.","DOI":"10.1016/j.jaac.2009.09.005","ISSN":"0890-8567","shortTitle":"Behavior Problems and Placement Change in a National Child Welfare Sample","journalAbbreviation":"Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry","author":[{"family":"Aarons","given":"Gregory A."},{"family":"James","given":"Sigrid"},{"family":"Monn","given":"Amy R."},{"family":"Raghavan","given":"Ramesh"},{"family":"Wells","given":"Rebecca S."},{"family":"Leslie","given":"Laurel K."}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2010",1]]}}},{"id":267,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":267,"type":"article-journal","title":"Matches and mismatches: The contribution of carers and children to the success of foster placements","container-title":"British Journal of Social Work","page":"871-884","volume":"33","issue":"7","source":"bjsw..libaccess.lib.mcmaster.ca","abstract":"Data were collected on 472 foster children at an interval of 14 months. The children's social workers, the family placement social workers and the foster carers reported on disruptions, and the reasons for placement success or lack of it. These views, combined with comments from the children, led to hypotheses about the origins of successful placements. Statistical tests of these hypotheses suggested that success depended on three aspects of the placement. First of these was the children's characteristics. Children, who wanted to be fostered (had attractive characteristics and low levels of disturbance), did better. Second were the qualities of the foster carer. Placements with warm, child‐oriented carers were more successful. Third was the interaction between carer and child. The findings emphasize the crucial importance of the foster carers to outcomes. They also support the need to pay close attention to children's views, and the potential importance of early intervention to prevent negative spirals of interaction between carer and child.","DOI":"10.1093/bjsw/33.7.871","ISSN":"0045-3102, 1468-263X","shortTitle":"Matches and Mismatches","journalAbbreviation":"Br J Soc Work","language":"en","author":[{"family":"Sinclair","given":"Ian"},{"family":"Wilson","given":"Kate"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2003",10,1]]}}}],"schema":""} (Aarons et al., 2010; Sinclair & Wilson, 2003). There is a need for more qualitative studies of disruption, in which youth-in-care and foster parents can give voice to their perspectives, so that the process can be better understood. A final gap in the research on disruption has to do with the methodological approach taken by most of the researchers. In general, a great deal of effort has been put into answering the question “why does disruption occur?” By discovering the truth behind disruption, researchers hope to be able to predict when disruption is likely to occur and to ultimately prevent it. This narrow focus on disruption prevention ignores the possibility that disruption means different things to different people and that sometimes it can be a good thing, particularly when the quality of the relationship between the youth and foster parents is poor, and there is no sense of commitment or belonging. If neither the youth-in-care nor the foster parents are willing to maintain a relationship into the youth’s adulthood and provide consistent support and assistance similar to that which youth not-in-care receive from their parents, stability in care is irrelevant. If what youth-in-care really want and need are “enduring and meaningful interpersonal relationships . . . that remain in their lives over some time, even post-care [i.e. a sense of belonging]” ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"16c00lc7p2","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Snow, 2008, p. 1296)","plainCitation":"(Snow, 2008, p. 1296)"},"citationItems":[{"id":116,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":116,"type":"article-journal","title":"Disposable lives","container-title":"Children and Youth Services Review","page":"1289-1298","volume":"30","issue":"11","source":"ISI Web of Knowledge","abstract":"This paper reports one key finding of a larger case study Critical discourse analysis of a youth-led research project. A model of 20 care-related conceptual dimensions, utilizing a variety of linguistic tools was applied to the responses to five questions asked of youth in the original study. This paper explores one of the three core findings that were identified by the nested analytical approach. The three meta themes of the original research were: a regulated reality, a disposable life and a stained identity. This paper reports on the theme of a disposable life. It draws on that analysis, demonstrating content, frame, and textual analyses of the spoken text of these young people. (c) 2008 Elsevier Ltd. All Fights reserved.","DOI":"10.1016/j.childyouth.2008.03.013","ISSN":"0190-7409","note":"00006","journalAbbreviation":"Child. Youth Serv. Rev.","language":"English","author":[{"family":"Snow","given":"Kim"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2008",11]]}},"locator":"1296"}],"schema":""} (Snow, 2008, p. 1296) then research should be focused on whether these relationships are being grown, and how the current foster care system could encourage and support this growth. This focus transcends the current dialog around disruption and takes the research into an entirely different dimension; one where the voices of youth are critical and central.Outcomes for Youth Leaving CareAfter more than 25 years of research, outcome studies on youth leaving care have consistently shown that these youth do poorly across multiple indicators of well-being, compared to their peers in the general population. Youth leaving care tend to have a lower educational attainment ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"pjbo5o1nm","properties":{"unsorted":true,"formattedCitation":"(Barth, 1990; Brandford, 2002; Cook, 1994; M.E. Courtney et al., 2007; Mech & Clark, 2003; Reilly, 2003; Williams, Pope, Sirles, & Lally, 2005; Hughes et al., 2008; T. C. Stott, 2009)","plainCitation":"(Barth, 1990; Brandford, 2002; Cook, 1994; M.E. Courtney et al., 2007; Mech & Clark, 2003; Reilly, 2003; Williams, Pope, Sirles, & Lally, 2005; Hughes et al., 2008; T. C. Stott, 2009)"},"citationItems":[{"id":771,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":771,"type":"article-journal","title":"On their own: The experiences of youth after foster care","container-title":"Child and Adolescent Social Work Journal","page":"419-440","volume":"7","issue":"5","source":"link..libaccess.lib.mcmaster.ca","abstract":"This study used multiple means to identify 55 young adults who had left foster care in recent years. The young adults who had all emancipated from foster care under the auspices of social services were most often identified by former foster parents, social workers, or other foster youth. This sample of former foster youth are often struggling with ill health, poor educations, severe housing problems, substance abuse, and criminal behavior. Yet the youth in this sample may be surviving more ably than the many former foster youth whom we could not reach.","DOI":"10.1007/BF00756380","ISSN":"0738-0151, 1573-2797","note":"00411","shortTitle":"On their own","journalAbbreviation":"Child Adolesc Soc Work J","language":"en","author":[{"family":"Barth","given":"Richard"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["1990",10,1]]}},"label":"page"},{"id":1106,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":1106,"type":"webpage","title":"Foster youth transition to indpendence study: First annual report","URL":"","note":"00000","author":[{"family":"Brandford","given":"C."}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2002"]]},"accessed":{"date-parts":[["2016",9,12]]}},"label":"page"},{"id":1088,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":1088,"type":"article-journal","title":"Are we helping foster care youth prepare for their future?","container-title":"Children and Youth Services Review","collection-title":"Special Double Issue Preparing Foster Youth for Adulthood","page":"213-229","volume":"16","issue":"3","source":"ScienceDirect","abstract":"This article summarizes the findings from The National Evaluation of Title IV-E Independent Living Programs for Youth in Foster Care, conducted by Westat, Inc. for the Department of Health and Human Services, Administration for Children, Youth, and Families. The study was conducted in two phases: (a) to evaluate the influence of Independent Living Initiatives, Public Law 99–272 on States' development of programs, policies, and services and (b) to develop national estimates of the characteristics and outcomes of older youth discharged from care and ultimately, the relationship between outcomes and whether or not youth received independent living skills training. Youth aged 18 to 24 years were interviewed by telephone and in person, 2.5 to 4 years after discharge from care. This article focuses on the results of the interviews and describes youths' post-discharge outcomes and the effects of receiving independent living skills training. The study found that with respect to education completion, young parenthood, and the use of public assistance, discharged foster care youth more closely resembled 18- to 24-year-olds living below the poverty level than they do 18- to 24-year-olds in the general population. The type of skills training encouraged by Public Law 99–272 was positively related to outcomes, particularly when the skill areas of money management, credit, consumer, education, and employment were provided in combination.","DOI":"10.1016/0190-7409(94)90007-8","ISSN":"0190-7409","note":"00245","journalAbbreviation":"Children and Youth Services Review","author":[{"family":"Cook","given":"Ronna J."}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["1994",1,1]]}},"label":"page"},{"id":1080,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":1080,"type":"article-journal","title":"Midwest evaluation of the adult functioning of former foster youth: Outcomes at age 21","container-title":"Social Work Faculty Publications and Presentations","URL":"","note":"00764","shortTitle":"Midwest Evaluation of the Adult Functioning of Former Foster Youth","author":[{"family":"Courtney","given":"M.E."},{"family":"Dworsky","given":"Amy"},{"family":"Cusick","given":"Gretchen"},{"family":"Havlicek","given":"Judy"},{"family":"Perez","given":"Alfred"},{"family":"Keller","given":"Thomas"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2007",12,1]]}},"label":"page"},{"id":1093,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":1093,"type":"webpage","title":"Uncertain futures: Foster youth in transition to adulthood","URL":"","note":"00000","author":[{"family":"Mech","given":"E.V."},{"family":"Clark","given":"H.B."}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2003"]]},"accessed":{"date-parts":[["2016",9,12]]}},"label":"page"},{"id":1096,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":1096,"type":"article-journal","title":"Transition from care: Status and outcomes of youth who age out of foster care","container-title":"ResearchGate","page":"727-46","volume":"82","issue":"6","source":"","abstract":"This study shows that a significant portion of youth exiting the foster care system face serious difficulty transitioning to life on their own. Many live on the streets, lack the money to meet...","ISSN":"0009-4021","note":"00321 \nPMID: 14736032","shortTitle":"Transition from care","author":[{"family":"Reilly","given":"Thom"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2003",11,1]]}},"label":"page"},{"id":1113,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":1113,"type":"report","title":"Alaska foster care alumni study","publisher":"University of Alasaka Anchorage","publisher-place":"Anchorage","event-place":"Anchorage","note":"16","author":[{"family":"Williams","given":"J.R."},{"family":"Pope","given":"S.M."},{"family":"Sirles","given":"E.A."},{"family":"Lally","given":"E.M."}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2005"]]}},"label":"page"},{"id":1115,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":1115,"type":"article-journal","title":"Preparing our kids for education, work and life: A report of the task force on youth aging out","source":"folio.iupui.edu","abstract":"Summarizes a study of Massachusetts youth transitioning out of foster care, and offers recommendations for policies, practices, and resource conditions, including \"Five Core Resources\" to prepare them for higher education, work, and adulthood.[BREAK]These UNDERSTANDING BOSTON () reports are provided by the Boston Foundation (). All rights reserved.","URL":"","note":"00009","shortTitle":"Preparing Our Kids for Education, Work and Life","language":"en_US","author":[{"family":"Hughes","given":"Della M."},{"family":"Condron","given":"Brian"},{"family":"Elliott","given":"Sara Plachta"},{"family":"Garton","given":"Nelli"},{"family":"Jackson","given":"Nancy"},{"family":"Pitchal","given":"Erik"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2008",6]]},"accessed":{"date-parts":[["2016",9,12]]}},"label":"page"},{"id":1120,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":1120,"type":"thesis","title":"The well-being and risk behaviors of young adults from foster care","publisher":"Arizona State University","publisher-place":"United States -- Arizona","number-of-pages":"332","genre":"Ph.D.","source":"ProQuest","event-place":"United States -- Arizona","URL":"","note":"00003","language":"English","author":[{"family":"Stott","given":"Tonia Christine"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2009"]]},"accessed":{"date-parts":[["2016",9,12]]}},"label":"page"}],"schema":""} (Barth, 1990; Brandford, 2002; Cook, 1994; M.E. Courtney et al., 2007; Mech & Clark, 2003; Reilly, 2003; Williams, Pope, Sirles, & Lally, 2005; Hughes et al., 2008; T. C. Stott, 2009), are more likely to be under-employed or unemployed ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"28uk59nqdc","properties":{"unsorted":true,"formattedCitation":"(Barth, 1990; Cook, 1994; Mark E. Courtney, Piliavin, Grogan-Kaylor, & Nesmith, 2001; Mech & Clark, 2003; Reilly, 2003; Brandford, 2002; M.E. Courtney et al., 2007; Williams et al., 2005; Hughes et al., 2008; T. C. Stott, 2009)","plainCitation":"(Barth, 1990; Cook, 1994; Mark E. Courtney, Piliavin, Grogan-Kaylor, & Nesmith, 2001; Mech & Clark, 2003; Reilly, 2003; Brandford, 2002; M.E. Courtney et al., 2007; Williams et al., 2005; Hughes et al., 2008; T. C. Stott, 2009)"},"citationItems":[{"id":771,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":771,"type":"article-journal","title":"On their own: The experiences of youth after foster care","container-title":"Child and Adolescent Social Work Journal","page":"419-440","volume":"7","issue":"5","source":"link..libaccess.lib.mcmaster.ca","abstract":"This study used multiple means to identify 55 young adults who had left foster care in recent years. The young adults who had all emancipated from foster care under the auspices of social services were most often identified by former foster parents, social workers, or other foster youth. This sample of former foster youth are often struggling with ill health, poor educations, severe housing problems, substance abuse, and criminal behavior. Yet the youth in this sample may be surviving more ably than the many former foster youth whom we could not reach.","DOI":"10.1007/BF00756380","ISSN":"0738-0151, 1573-2797","note":"00411","shortTitle":"On their own","journalAbbreviation":"Child Adolesc Soc Work J","language":"en","author":[{"family":"Barth","given":"Richard"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["1990",10,1]]}},"label":"page"},{"id":1088,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":1088,"type":"article-journal","title":"Are we helping foster care youth prepare for their future?","container-title":"Children and Youth Services Review","collection-title":"Special Double Issue Preparing Foster Youth for Adulthood","page":"213-229","volume":"16","issue":"3","source":"ScienceDirect","abstract":"This article summarizes the findings from The National Evaluation of Title IV-E Independent Living Programs for Youth in Foster Care, conducted by Westat, Inc. for the Department of Health and Human Services, Administration for Children, Youth, and Families. 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All rights reserved.","URL":"","note":"00009","shortTitle":"Preparing Our Kids for Education, Work and Life","language":"en_US","author":[{"family":"Hughes","given":"Della M."},{"family":"Condron","given":"Brian"},{"family":"Elliott","given":"Sara Plachta"},{"family":"Garton","given":"Nelli"},{"family":"Jackson","given":"Nancy"},{"family":"Pitchal","given":"Erik"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2008",6]]},"accessed":{"date-parts":[["2016",9,12]]}},"label":"page"},{"id":1093,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":1093,"type":"webpage","title":"Uncertain futures: Foster youth in transition to adulthood","URL":"","note":"00000","author":[{"family":"Mech","given":"E.V."},{"family":"Clark","given":"H.B."}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2003"]]},"accessed":{"date-parts":[["2016",9,12]]}},"label":"page"},{"id":1096,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":1096,"type":"article-journal","title":"Transition from care: Status and outcomes of youth who age out of foster care","container-title":"ResearchGate","page":"727-46","volume":"82","issue":"6","source":"","abstract":"This study shows that a significant portion of youth exiting the foster care system face serious difficulty transitioning to life on their own. Many live on the streets, lack the money to meet...","ISSN":"0009-4021","note":"00321 \nPMID: 14736032","shortTitle":"Transition from care","author":[{"family":"Reilly","given":"Thom"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2003",11,1]]}},"label":"page"},{"id":1120,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":1120,"type":"thesis","title":"The well-being and risk behaviors of young adults from foster care","publisher":"Arizona State University","publisher-place":"United States -- Arizona","number-of-pages":"332","genre":"Ph.D.","source":"ProQuest","event-place":"United States -- Arizona","URL":"","note":"00003","language":"English","author":[{"family":"Stott","given":"Tonia Christine"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2009"]]},"accessed":{"date-parts":[["2016",9,12]]}},"label":"page"},{"id":1113,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":1113,"type":"report","title":"Alaska foster care alumni study","publisher":"University of Alasaka Anchorage","publisher-place":"Anchorage","event-place":"Anchorage","note":"16","author":[{"family":"Williams","given":"J.R."},{"family":"Pope","given":"S.M."},{"family":"Sirles","given":"E.A."},{"family":"Lally","given":"E.M."}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2005"]]}},"label":"page"}],"schema":""} (Barth, 1990; Brandford, 2002; M.E. Courtney et al., 2007; Hughes et al., 2008; Mech & Clark, 2003; Reilly, 2003; T. C. Stott, 2009; Williams et al., 2005), and experience mental health problems ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"25o4shnpno","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Barth, 1990; Mark E. Courtney et al., 2001; M.E. Courtney et al., 2007; Reilly, 2003; T. C. Stott, 2009; Williams et al., 2005)","plainCitation":"(Barth, 1990; Mark E. Courtney et al., 2001; M.E. Courtney et al., 2007; Reilly, 2003; T. C. Stott, 2009; Williams et al., 2005)"},"citationItems":[{"id":771,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":771,"type":"article-journal","title":"On their own: The experiences of youth after foster care","container-title":"Child and Adolescent Social Work Journal","page":"419-440","volume":"7","issue":"5","source":"link..libaccess.lib.mcmaster.ca","abstract":"This study used multiple means to identify 55 young adults who had left foster care in recent years. The young adults who had all emancipated from foster care under the auspices of social services were most often identified by former foster parents, social workers, or other foster youth. This sample of former foster youth are often struggling with ill health, poor educations, severe housing problems, substance abuse, and criminal behavior. Yet the youth in this sample may be surviving more ably than the many former foster youth whom we could not reach.","DOI":"10.1007/BF00756380","ISSN":"0738-0151, 1573-2797","note":"00411","shortTitle":"On their own","journalAbbreviation":"Child Adolesc Soc Work J","language":"en","author":[{"family":"Barth","given":"Richard"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["1990",10,1]]}},"label":"page"},{"id":1104,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":1104,"type":"article-journal","title":"Foster youth transitions to adulthood: A longitudinal view of youth leaving care","container-title":"Child Welfare","page":"685-717","volume":"80","issue":"6","source":"ProQuest","abstract":"The Foster Youth Transitions to Adulthood Study is tracking the experiences of 141 young adults who left care in Wisconsin in 1995 and 1996. Courtney et al describe these youths and their experiences in the first 12 to 18 months after leaving care, and their findings suggest that the transition to independence is a difficult time for youth leaving the out-of-home care system.","ISSN":"00094021","note":"00715","shortTitle":"Foster youth transitions to adulthood","language":"English","author":[{"family":"Courtney","given":"Mark E."},{"family":"Piliavin","given":"Irving"},{"family":"Grogan-Kaylor","given":"Andrew"},{"family":"Nesmith","given":"Ande"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2001",12]]}},"label":"page"},{"id":1080,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":1080,"type":"article-journal","title":"Midwest evaluation of the adult functioning of former foster youth: Outcomes at age 21","container-title":"Social Work Faculty Publications and Presentations","URL":"","note":"00764","shortTitle":"Midwest Evaluation of the Adult Functioning of Former Foster Youth","author":[{"family":"Courtney","given":"M.E."},{"family":"Dworsky","given":"Amy"},{"family":"Cusick","given":"Gretchen"},{"family":"Havlicek","given":"Judy"},{"family":"Perez","given":"Alfred"},{"family":"Keller","given":"Thomas"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2007",12,1]]}},"label":"page"},{"id":1096,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":1096,"type":"article-journal","title":"Transition from care: Status and outcomes of youth who age out of foster care","container-title":"ResearchGate","page":"727-46","volume":"82","issue":"6","source":"","abstract":"This study shows that a significant portion of youth exiting the foster care system face serious difficulty transitioning to life on their own. Many live on the streets, lack the money to meet...","ISSN":"0009-4021","note":"00321 \nPMID: 14736032","shortTitle":"Transition from care","author":[{"family":"Reilly","given":"Thom"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2003",11,1]]}},"label":"page"},{"id":1120,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":1120,"type":"thesis","title":"The well-being and risk behaviors of young adults from foster care","publisher":"Arizona State University","publisher-place":"United States -- Arizona","number-of-pages":"332","genre":"Ph.D.","source":"ProQuest","event-place":"United States -- Arizona","URL":"","note":"00003","language":"English","author":[{"family":"Stott","given":"Tonia Christine"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2009"]]},"accessed":{"date-parts":[["2016",9,12]]}},"label":"page"},{"id":1113,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":1113,"type":"report","title":"Alaska foster care alumni study","publisher":"University of Alasaka Anchorage","publisher-place":"Anchorage","event-place":"Anchorage","note":"16","author":[{"family":"Williams","given":"J.R."},{"family":"Pope","given":"S.M."},{"family":"Sirles","given":"E.A."},{"family":"Lally","given":"E.M."}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2005"]]}},"label":"page"}],"schema":""} (Barth, 1990; Mark E. Courtney et al., 2001; M.E. Courtney et al., 2007; Reilly, 2003; T. C. Stott, 2009; Williams et al., 2005). Although these studies are from the United States population, studies in Canada and internationally have found similar results ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"erM1vdt5","properties":{"unsorted":true,"formattedCitation":"(Murray & Goddard, 2014; Stein, 2006; University of Victoria, School of Social Work, Research Intitiatives for Social Change Unit, & Rutman, 2007)","plainCitation":"(Murray & Goddard, 2014; Stein, 2006; University of Victoria, School of Social Work, Research Intitiatives for Social Change Unit, & Rutman, 2007)"},"citationItems":[{"id":950,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":950,"type":"article-journal","title":"Life after growing up in care: Informing policy and practice through research","container-title":"Australian Social Work","page":"102-117","volume":"67","issue":"1","source":"CrossRef","DOI":"10.1080/0312407X.2013.868010","ISSN":"0312-407X, 1447-0748","note":"00002","shortTitle":"Life after Growing Up in Care","language":"en","author":[{"family":"Murray","given":"Suellen"},{"family":"Goddard","given":"Jim"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2014",1,2]]}},"label":"page"},{"id":780,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":780,"type":"article-journal","title":"Research Review: Young people leaving care","container-title":"Child & Family Social Work","page":"273-279","volume":"11","issue":"3","source":"Wiley Online Library","abstract":"This paper reviews the international research on young people leaving care. Set in the context of a social exclusion framework, it explores young people’s accelerated and compressed transitions to adulthood, and discusses the development and classification of leaving care services in responding to their needs. It then considers the evidence from outcome studies and argues that adopting a resilience framework suggests that young people leaving care may fall into three groups: young people ‘moving on’, ‘survivors’ and ‘victims’. In concluding, it argues that these three pathways are associated with the quality of care young people receive, their transitions from care and the support they receive after care.","DOI":"10.1111/j.1365-2206.2006.00439.x","ISSN":"1365-2206","note":"00184","shortTitle":"Research Review","language":"en","author":[{"family":"Stein","given":"Mike"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2006",8,1]]}},"label":"page"},{"id":840,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":840,"type":"book","title":"When youth age out of care - where to from there?: Final report of a three year longitudinal study","publisher":"School of Social Work, University of Victoria","publisher-place":"Victoria","source":"Open WorldCat","event-place":"Victoria","ISBN":"978-1-55058-363-2","note":"00002","shortTitle":"When youth age out of care - where to from there?","language":"English","author":[{"literal":"University of Victoria"},{"literal":"School of Social Work"},{"literal":"Research Intitiatives for Social Change Unit"},{"family":"Rutman","given":"Deborah"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2007"]]}},"label":"page"}],"schema":""} (Murray & Goddard, 2014; Stein, 2006; University of Victoria, School of Social Work, Research Intitiatives for Social Change Unit, & Rutman, 2007). For example, in Ontario, only 44% of youth in and from care graduate from high school compared to 82 per cent of the general population ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"776SJYCS","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Youth Leaving Care Working Group, 2013)","plainCitation":"(Youth Leaving Care Working Group, 2013)"},"citationItems":[{"id":1042,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":1042,"type":"report","title":"Final Report of the Youth Leaving Care Working Group","page":"27","genre":"Final","URL":"","note":"00000","author":[{"literal":"Youth Leaving Care Working Group"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2013"]]},"accessed":{"date-parts":[["2014",4,17]]}}}],"schema":""} (Youth Leaving Care Working Group, 2013). In addition, they are over-represented in the youth criminal justice system, and are more likely to experience homelessness ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"vxX0YYbU","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Youth Leaving Care Working Group, 2013)","plainCitation":"(Youth Leaving Care Working Group, 2013)"},"citationItems":[{"id":1042,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":1042,"type":"report","title":"Final Report of the Youth Leaving Care Working Group","page":"27","genre":"Final","URL":"","note":"00000","author":[{"literal":"Youth Leaving Care Working Group"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2013"]]},"accessed":{"date-parts":[["2014",4,17]]}}}],"schema":""} (Youth Leaving Care Working Group, 2013). However, it would be erroneous to characterize youth leaving care as being one homogeneous group. Not every youth leaving care struggles, and some youth do as well or better than other youth in the general population. Indeed, various researchers have identified distinctive profiles of adolescents aging out of care. Although the number of subgroups and their characteristics vary from study to study, in general youth leaving care can be separated into three groups. The first group, characterized by Stein ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"LzZGv5PL","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(2008)","plainCitation":"(2008)"},"citationItems":[{"id":344,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":344,"type":"article-journal","title":"Resilience and young people leaving care","container-title":"Child Care in Practice","page":"35-44","volume":"14","issue":"1","ISSN":"13575279","author":[{"family":"Stein","given":"Mike"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2008",1,1]]}},"suppress-author":true}],"schema":""} (2008) as young people ‘moving on’ from care, is composed of youth that are generally doing well and comprises an estimated 4 out of every 10 youth leaving care ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"qa1gvR3z","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Berzin, 2010)","plainCitation":"(Berzin, 2010)"},"citationItems":[{"id":862,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":862,"type":"article-journal","title":"Vulnerability in the transition to adulthood: Defining risk based on youth profiles","container-title":"Children and Youth Services Review","page":"487-495","volume":"32","issue":"4","source":"ScienceDirect","abstract":"In spite of an extended transition to adulthood for many segments of the population, many youth still struggle considerably with transition outcomes. With data from the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth (N = 8984), this study uses latent class analysis to identify patterns of youth development in emerging adulthood based on education level and social outcomes. These classes are used to identify risk and protective factors for class membership. Four profiles of youth were identified with two groups showing positive outcomes and two groups struggling considerably. Bivariate and cumulative logit analysis shows that demographic characteristics, childhood home environment, and psychosocial resources predict class membership. Involvement in youth-serving government systems is associated with poorer outcomes and remains salient when considered with other risk factors. The emergence of this new developmental stage requires a reexamination of vulnerability and how we understand risk and resiliency during this period.","DOI":"10.1016/j.childyouth.2009.11.001","ISSN":"0190-7409","note":"00031","shortTitle":"Vulnerability in the transition to adulthood","journalAbbreviation":"Children and Youth Services Review","author":[{"family":"Berzin","given":"Stephanie Cosner"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2010",4]]}}}],"schema":""} (Berzin, 2010). These youth have experienced very little disruption during their time in care, instead having had a high degree of stability and continuity. They are most likely to have lived in a kinship home (i.e. placed with extended family) and to feel close to at least one relative. They have had some educational success and have enjoyed ‘normative life experiences’ such as participating in post-secondary education or being employed in a job which they enjoy. They have low levels of problem behaviours and have varied social supports and personal connections. ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"125r1s4nkb","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Berzin, 2010; Stein, 2008)","plainCitation":"(Berzin, 2010; Stein, 2008)"},"citationItems":[{"id":862,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":862,"type":"article-journal","title":"Vulnerability in the transition to adulthood: Defining risk based on youth profiles","container-title":"Children and Youth Services Review","page":"487-495","volume":"32","issue":"4","source":"ScienceDirect","abstract":"In spite of an extended transition to adulthood for many segments of the population, many youth still struggle considerably with transition outcomes. With data from the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth (N = 8984), this study uses latent class analysis to identify patterns of youth development in emerging adulthood based on education level and social outcomes. These classes are used to identify risk and protective factors for class membership. Four profiles of youth were identified with two groups showing positive outcomes and two groups struggling considerably. Bivariate and cumulative logit analysis shows that demographic characteristics, childhood home environment, and psychosocial resources predict class membership. Involvement in youth-serving government systems is associated with poorer outcomes and remains salient when considered with other risk factors. The emergence of this new developmental stage requires a reexamination of vulnerability and how we understand risk and resiliency during this period.","DOI":"10.1016/j.childyouth.2009.11.001","ISSN":"0190-7409","note":"00031","shortTitle":"Vulnerability in the transition to adulthood","journalAbbreviation":"Children and Youth Services Review","author":[{"family":"Berzin","given":"Stephanie Cosner"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2010",4]]}},"label":"page"},{"id":344,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":344,"type":"article-journal","title":"Resilience and young people leaving care","container-title":"Child Care in Practice","page":"35-44","volume":"14","issue":"1","ISSN":"13575279","author":[{"family":"Stein","given":"Mike"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2008",1,1]]}},"label":"page"}],"schema":""} (Berzin, 2010; Stein, 2008). The second group, characterized by Stein ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"uXrcTjrl","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(2008)","plainCitation":"(2008)"},"citationItems":[{"id":344,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":344,"type":"article-journal","title":"Resilience and young people leaving care","container-title":"Child Care in Practice","page":"35-44","volume":"14","issue":"1","ISSN":"13575279","author":[{"family":"Stein","given":"Mike"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2008",1,1]]}},"suppress-author":true}],"schema":""} (2008) as ‘surviving’, is made up of youth that are just getting by. These youth are estimated to represent about 2 out of every 10 youth leaving care ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"GJ8PVucG","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Berzin, 2010)","plainCitation":"(Berzin, 2010)"},"citationItems":[{"id":862,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":862,"type":"article-journal","title":"Vulnerability in the transition to adulthood: Defining risk based on youth profiles","container-title":"Children and Youth Services Review","page":"487-495","volume":"32","issue":"4","source":"ScienceDirect","abstract":"In spite of an extended transition to adulthood for many segments of the population, many youth still struggle considerably with transition outcomes. With data from the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth (N = 8984), this study uses latent class analysis to identify patterns of youth development in emerging adulthood based on education level and social outcomes. These classes are used to identify risk and protective factors for class membership. Four profiles of youth were identified with two groups showing positive outcomes and two groups struggling considerably. Bivariate and cumulative logit analysis shows that demographic characteristics, childhood home environment, and psychosocial resources predict class membership. Involvement in youth-serving government systems is associated with poorer outcomes and remains salient when considered with other risk factors. The emergence of this new developmental stage requires a reexamination of vulnerability and how we understand risk and resiliency during this period.","DOI":"10.1016/j.childyouth.2009.11.001","ISSN":"0190-7409","note":"00031","shortTitle":"Vulnerability in the transition to adulthood","journalAbbreviation":"Children and Youth Services Review","author":[{"family":"Berzin","given":"Stephanie Cosner"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2010",4]]}}}],"schema":""} (Berzin, 2010). They have predominately lived in traditional, non-relative foster homes and have experienced some disruption during their time in care, having changed foster homes between two to four times ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"qCHw4K8M","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Keller, Cusick, & Courtney, 2007)","plainCitation":"(Keller, Cusick, & Courtney, 2007)"},"citationItems":[{"id":813,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":813,"type":"article-journal","title":"Approaching the transition to adulthood: Distinctive profiles of adolescents aging out of the child welfare system","container-title":"The Social service review","page":"453-484","volume":"81","issue":"3","source":"PubMed Central","abstract":"The transition to adulthood is marked by new roles and responsibilities in such interrelated domains as education, employment, and family formation. This study investigates the capacity of adolescents on the verge of emancipation from the child welfare system to navigate this transition. To explore heterogeneity in adolescents’ preparation for independent living, person-oriented methods are applied to a large, representative sample of youth about to exit foster care. The analysis suggests four subpopulations defined by distinctive profiles on indicators reflecting multiple domains of life experience. Identifying the particular needs and challenges of subpopulations has implications for efforts to match adolescents aging out of the child welfare system with appropriate services.","DOI":"10.1086/519536","ISSN":"0037-7961","note":"00102 \nPMID: 20057913\nPMCID: PMC2802332","shortTitle":"Approaching the Transition to Adulthood","journalAbbreviation":"Soc Serv Rev","author":[{"family":"Keller","given":"Thomas E."},{"family":"Cusick","given":"Gretchen Ruth"},{"family":"Courtney","given":"Mark E."}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2007",9,1]]}}}],"schema":""} (Keller, Cusick, & Courtney, 2007). They tend to leave care quicker and with less preparation, often following a breakdown. They are more likely to experience continued instability following care including homelessness and relationship problems. They tend to see themselves as tough, independent, and self-sufficient for having survived the obstacles they have faced. This group is likely to ask for and benefit from supports following discharge, such as help with accommodations and finances ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"2fjocdrb6v","properties":{"unsorted":true,"formattedCitation":"(Berzin, 2010; Stein, 2008)","plainCitation":"(Berzin, 2010; Stein, 2008)"},"citationItems":[{"id":862,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":862,"type":"article-journal","title":"Vulnerability in the transition to adulthood: Defining risk based on youth profiles","container-title":"Children and Youth Services Review","page":"487-495","volume":"32","issue":"4","source":"ScienceDirect","abstract":"In spite of an extended transition to adulthood for many segments of the population, many youth still struggle considerably with transition outcomes. With data from the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth (N = 8984), this study uses latent class analysis to identify patterns of youth development in emerging adulthood based on education level and social outcomes. These classes are used to identify risk and protective factors for class membership. Four profiles of youth were identified with two groups showing positive outcomes and two groups struggling considerably. Bivariate and cumulative logit analysis shows that demographic characteristics, childhood home environment, and psychosocial resources predict class membership. Involvement in youth-serving government systems is associated with poorer outcomes and remains salient when considered with other risk factors. The emergence of this new developmental stage requires a reexamination of vulnerability and how we understand risk and resiliency during this period.","DOI":"10.1016/j.childyouth.2009.11.001","ISSN":"0190-7409","note":"00031","shortTitle":"Vulnerability in the transition to adulthood","journalAbbreviation":"Children and Youth Services Review","author":[{"family":"Berzin","given":"Stephanie Cosner"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2010",4]]}},"label":"page"},{"id":344,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":344,"type":"article-journal","title":"Resilience and young people leaving care","container-title":"Child Care in Practice","page":"35-44","volume":"14","issue":"1","ISSN":"13575279","author":[{"family":"Stein","given":"Mike"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2008",1,1]]}},"label":"page"}],"schema":""} (Berzin, 2010; Stein, 2008). The third group is composed of youth that are doing poorly, making up an estimated 4 out of 10 youth leaving care ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"PIJwvaYO","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Berzin, 2010)","plainCitation":"(Berzin, 2010)"},"citationItems":[{"id":862,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":862,"type":"article-journal","title":"Vulnerability in the transition to adulthood: Defining risk based on youth profiles","container-title":"Children and Youth Services Review","page":"487-495","volume":"32","issue":"4","source":"ScienceDirect","abstract":"In spite of an extended transition to adulthood for many segments of the population, many youth still struggle considerably with transition outcomes. With data from the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth (N = 8984), this study uses latent class analysis to identify patterns of youth development in emerging adulthood based on education level and social outcomes. These classes are used to identify risk and protective factors for class membership. Four profiles of youth were identified with two groups showing positive outcomes and two groups struggling considerably. Bivariate and cumulative logit analysis shows that demographic characteristics, childhood home environment, and psychosocial resources predict class membership. Involvement in youth-serving government systems is associated with poorer outcomes and remains salient when considered with other risk factors. The emergence of this new developmental stage requires a reexamination of vulnerability and how we understand risk and resiliency during this period.","DOI":"10.1016/j.childyouth.2009.11.001","ISSN":"0190-7409","note":"00031","shortTitle":"Vulnerability in the transition to adulthood","journalAbbreviation":"Children and Youth Services Review","author":[{"family":"Berzin","given":"Stephanie Cosner"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2010",4]]}}}],"schema":""} (Berzin, 2010). Stein ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"LBUJIcoa","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(2008)","plainCitation":"(2008)"},"citationItems":[{"id":344,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":344,"type":"article-journal","title":"Resilience and young people leaving care","container-title":"Child Care in Practice","page":"35-44","volume":"14","issue":"1","ISSN":"13575279","author":[{"family":"Stein","given":"Mike"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2008",1,1]]}},"suppress-author":true}],"schema":""} (2008) characterizes this group as ‘victims’. They are the most disadvantaged group with the most damaging pre-care experience. During their time in care, they experienced many placement changes and/or a high frequency of running behavior, contributing to disruptions in personal relationships. They are likely to leave care earlier, often following placement breakdown. They have a high rate of problem behavior, poor employment rates, and less academic success. They have a high degree of social alienation, loneliness, and isolation. PermanencyAs indicated above, one of the key variables between the three groups of youth transitioning to adulthood is their experience of stability and permanency while in care. It is an experience that disappointingly varies widely from youth to youth, despite permanency being one of the principal goals of child welfare in Ontario since the 1980s ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"LxDEhaPu","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(OACAS, 2016b)","plainCitation":"(OACAS, 2016b)"},"citationItems":[{"id":1189,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":1189,"type":"webpage","title":"Permanency – Ontario Association of Children's Aid Societies","container-title":"Ontario Association of Children's Aid Societies","URL":"","note":"00000","author":[{"literal":"OACAS"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2016"]]},"accessed":{"date-parts":[["2016",9,27]]}}}],"schema":""} (OACAS, 2016b). The Ontario Association of Children’s Aid Societies ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"FgYSoVhf","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(2016c)","plainCitation":"(2016c)"},"citationItems":[{"id":1069,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":1069,"type":"article","title":"Guide for Foster Parents Considering Legal Custody of a Child or Youth with Crown Wardship Status","publisher":"OACAS","URL":"","note":"00000","author":[{"family":"OACAS","given":""}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2016",7]]},"accessed":{"date-parts":[["2016",9,2]]}},"suppress-author":true}],"schema":""} (2016c) defines permanency as: an enduring family relationship that is safe and meant to last a lifetime; offers the legal rights and social status of full family membership; the child or youth has a sense of belonging and affiliation to a family/extended family with significant community connections and provides for physical, emotional, social, cognitive and spiritual well-being.The definition above reflects the two variations of permanency that have evolved in the child welfare field. The first is legal permanency. This is the original conceptualization of permanency and reflects the view that every child deserves to have a ‘forever’ or permanent life-time family which can exclusively be realized through adoption, guardianship, or family reunification, as obtained through formal legal sanction (i.e. court order) ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"22gab0jbk8","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Barth, 1999)","plainCitation":"(Barth, 1999)"},"citationItems":[{"id":155,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":155,"type":"article-journal","title":"After safety, what is the goal of child welfare services: permanency,family continuity or social benefit?","container-title":"International Journal of Social Welfare","page":"244","volume":"8","issue":"4","source":"EBSCOhost","archive":"sih","abstract":"Explores the rationale for expanding child welfare decision making criteria by adding longer-term outcomes and the likelihood that children will eventually generate social benefits. Policies that govern child welfare services; Application of the concept of permanency planning in child welfare services; Discussion on the concept of family continuity; Influence of the concepts of attachment and bonding on child welfare services.","ISSN":"13696866","call-number":"4001497","shortTitle":"After safety, what is the goal of child welfare services","journalAbbreviation":"International Journal of Social Welfare","author":[{"family":"Barth","given":"Richard"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["1999",10]]}}}],"schema":""} (Barth, 1999). This form of permanency is legally binding, and although legal permanence may break down over time, it arguably provides greater stability and better protection of children’s rights. The legal definition of permanency has historically been given privilege in both Canadian and United States child welfare legislation, such as the Adoption and Safe Families Act (ASFA). Due to this mandate, its use as a performance indicator as well as the fact that it is an objective measure and can be easily pulled from administrative records and quantified, legal permanency has received a great deal of attention in the scientific literature. Unsurprisingly, many studies of legal permanency are quantitative and rely on large-scale sampling, often at a district or state-wide level ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"pmuov4b79","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Schofield, Thoburn, Howell, & Dickens, 2007)","plainCitation":"(Schofield, Thoburn, Howell, & Dickens, 2007)"},"citationItems":[{"id":173,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":173,"type":"article-journal","title":"The search for stability and permanence: Modelling the pathways of long-stay looked after children","container-title":"British Journal of Social Work","page":"619-642","volume":"37","issue":"4","source":"EBSCOhost","archive":"sih","abstract":"This paper presents findings from a study of children looked after by 24 local authorities. It combines analysis of statistical data with analysis of qualitative and quantitative data from a questionnaire survey of a targeted sub-sample of children who had been looked after for 4 years or more. The paper highlights a complex picture of continuity and discontinuity in attempts to achieve stability and permanence in a range of birth family, foster care, adoption, residential and leaving care placements for long-stay children. Some long-stay children are moving smoothly and in a planned way towards a family for life, while some experience long periods in stable but temporary placements or have a number of moves prior to finding stability and a sense of belonging. A further group of children experience stability or moves while looked after, without having a family to belong to when they move into adult life. The paper discusses the difficulty with the Government's current long-stay performance measure in capturing the difference between stability in placement and planned permanence for children and families. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]","ISSN":"00453102","call-number":"26026818","shortTitle":"The Search For Stability and Permanence","journalAbbreviation":"British Journal of Social Work","author":[{"family":"Schofield","given":"Gillian"},{"family":"Thoburn","given":"June"},{"family":"Howell","given":"Darren"},{"family":"Dickens","given":"Jonathan"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2007",6]]}}}],"schema":""} (Schofield, Thoburn, Howell, & Dickens, 2007) . The alternative conceptualization of permanency is emotional permanency. This definition of permanency evolved in reaction to concerns that focusing solely on legal permanency, specifically adoption and guardianship, led to rigidity in case planning and ignored a child’s connection to his or her biological family and cultural identity ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"rnal9fgap","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Fein & Maluccio, 1992)","plainCitation":"(Fein & Maluccio, 1992)"},"citationItems":[{"id":275,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":275,"type":"article-journal","title":"Permanency planning: Another remedy in jeopardy?","container-title":"Social Service Review","page":"335-348","volume":"66","issue":"3","source":"JSTOR","abstract":"The course of the child welfare reform permanency planning is discussed. Background, achievements, and unanticipated effects of permanency planning are reviewed, and some directions for thinking about the current crisis in child welfare are suggested.","DOI":"10.2307/30012464","ISSN":"0037-7961","note":"ArticleType: research-article / Full publication date: Sep., 1992 / Copyright ? 1992 The University of Chicago Press","shortTitle":"Permanency Planning","journalAbbreviation":"Social Service Review","author":[{"family":"Fein","given":"Edith"},{"family":"Maluccio","given":"Anthony N."}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["1992",9,1]]}}}],"schema":""} (Fein & Maluccio, 1992). Emotional permanency refers to the child’s sense of permanency. This represents a more inclusive approach as permanency may take place in the context of adoption, guardianship, re-unification with birth parents, long-term foster care, or some other stable continuous placement. In this definition, the ‘setting’ for permanency is of less importance that the child’s perception of it. Due to its subjective nature and the fact that it is not easily assessable in administrative records, emotional permanency does not lend itself as readily to quantitative study. Emotional permanency has been conceptualized as consisting of two dimensions: ‘felt’ security/sense of belonging, and the presence and quality of supportive relationships.Felt Security/Sense of BelongingResearch on ‘felt’ security/sense of belonging as a measure of permanency with youth at its most basic level seeks to understand why some children and youth in care and after care have relatively good outcomes despite difficult prior life experiences, while others struggle and do so poorly. Corollary questions include whether long-term foster care can meet a youth’s needs for emotional security and permanency during their time in care and beyond ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"pic8ubjin","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Cashmore, 2006; Christiansen, Havnen, Havik, & Anderssen, 2012; Frey, Cushing, Freundlich, & Brenner, 2008; Schofield, 2002)","plainCitation":"(Cashmore, 2006; Christiansen, Havnen, Havik, & Anderssen, 2012; Frey, Cushing, Freundlich, & Brenner, 2008; Schofield, 2002)"},"citationItems":[{"id":229,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":229,"type":"article-journal","title":"Predicting after-care outcomes: The importance of ‘felt’ security","container-title":"Child & Family Social Work","page":"232-241","volume":"11","issue":"3","abstract":"Young people who ‘age out of care’ generally do not have the con-\ntinuing source of emotional, social and ?nancial support that is\navailable to most young people in their transition to early adulthood.\nThey therefore face the challenges of making various transitions with\nfewer resources and less support, and at an earlier age and in a less\ngraduated way than young people of the same age in the general\npopulation. Some, however, manage this process more successfully\nthan others. The current study examines the links between stability,\nperceived or ‘felt’ security and later outcomes for young people 4–\n5 years after leaving care. It is based on a four-wave longitudinal\nstudy over 5 years of 47 young people leaving care in New South\nWales, Australia. Felt security in care, and continuity and social\nsupport beyond care were the main signi?cant predictors of these\nyoung people’s outcomes 4–5 years after leaving care. While stability\nin care was important, this may be as a means to an end–building a\nsense of security, belonging and a network of social support.","ISSN":"13567500","shortTitle":"Predicting after-care outcomes","author":[{"family":"Cashmore","given":"Judy"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2006"]]}}},{"id":24,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":24,"type":"article-journal","title":"Cautious belonging: Relationships in long-term foster-care","container-title":"British Journal of Social Work","source":"bjsw..libaccess.lib.mcmaster.ca","abstract":"Long-term foster-care represents a frame for childhood and family life with distinct fea-\ntures and multiple challenges. This qualitative study concerns forty-three Norwegian\nyoung persons who have stayed in their foster placement for at least four years. Rela-\ntionships between them and their foster families were explored through interviews\nwith the young persons, their foster-carers, parents and social workers. The overall\npicture is that the foster families provided the children with a secure environment\nand an experience of belonging to the family. Most young persons also had a sense of\nbelonging to their birth families. Nearly all were likely to stay with their foster-carers\nbeyond their eighteenth birthday and both parts anticipated future contact. However,\na number of foster-carers expressed cautious expectations about the character of their\nfuture contact, due to their understanding that the nature of the relationship depended\non the young persons’ own choice. The study calls into question whether child welfare\npolicy and practice fully acknowledge and make the best out of the potential of long-\nterm foster-care for offering children lifelong support and belonging.","URL":"","DOI":"10.1093/bjsw/bcr198","ISSN":"0045-3102, 1468-263X","note":"00009","shortTitle":"Cautious Belonging","journalAbbreviation":"Br J Soc Work","language":"en","author":[{"family":"Christiansen","given":"?ivin"},{"family":"Havnen","given":"Karen J. S."},{"family":"Havik","given":"Toril"},{"family":"Anderssen","given":"Norman"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2012",1,10]]},"accessed":{"date-parts":[["2012",10,6]]}}},{"id":147,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":147,"type":"article-journal","title":"Achieving permanency for youth in foster care: assessing and strengthening emotional security","container-title":"Child & Family Social Work","page":"218-226","volume":"13","issue":"2","source":"EBSCOhost","archive":"sih","abstract":"For some youth in foster care, the closest family or family-like relationships are with the foster parents with whom they have lived for extended periods of time. Nonetheless, child welfare agencies often do not explore these relationships and the potential they may hold for youth for legal permanence through adoption or guardianship. Recognizing that social workers often lack resources to help them initiate permanency conversations, Casey Family Services, a direct service child welfare agency in the USA, developed a tool that social workers can use to explore youth's sense of emotional security with their foster parents and foster parents' sense of claiming and attachment with youth in their care. The research literature that suggests that emotional security is a critical component of successful permanence provided the foundation for the development of the Belonging and Emotional Security Tool (BEST). When used with youth and foster parents, the BEST was found to advance meaningful permanency conversations. The authors provide case examples of its use and discuss future directions for using the BEST and broadening its application. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]","DOI":"10.1111/j.1365-2206.2007.00539.x","ISSN":"13567500","call-number":"31544739","shortTitle":"Achieving permanency for youth in foster care","journalAbbreviation":"Child & Family Social Work","author":[{"family":"Frey","given":"Lauren"},{"family":"Cushing","given":"Gretta"},{"family":"Freundlich","given":"Madelyn"},{"family":"Brenner","given":"Eliot"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2008",5]]}}},{"id":165,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":165,"type":"article-journal","title":"The significance of a secure base: a psychosocial model of long-term foster care","container-title":"Child & Family Social Work","page":"259-272","volume":"7","issue":"4","source":"EBSCOhost","archive":"sih","abstract":"ABSTRACT Long-term foster care has been a much neglected area of social work practice and research. Yet there are obvious challenges that need to be understood when building a family for life in foster care. Is it possible for foster families, where there are no biological or legal ties between carers and children, to provide care, concern and family membership not only through childhood but also into adult life? The study on which this paper is based set out to explore that question by investigating the experiences of 40 adults, aged 18–30, who grew up in foster families. Qualitative interviews were conducted, transcribed and analysed. Theoretical frameworks from attachment and resilience were brought together with concepts such as ‘belonging’ and ‘family membership’ to make sense of the narratives provided. An integrated and dynamic psychosocial model of long-term foster care was developed, which emphasizes the significance of a secure base and has some important implications for practice. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]","DOI":"10.1046/j.1365-2206.2002.00254.x","ISSN":"13567500","call-number":"7704063","shortTitle":"The significance of a secure base","journalAbbreviation":"Child & Family Social Work","author":[{"family":"Schofield","given":"Gillian"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2002",11]]}}}],"schema":""} (Cashmore, 2006; Christiansen, Havnen, Havik, & Anderssen, 2012; Frey, Cushing, Freundlich, & Brenner, 2008; Schofield, 2002), what influence the biological family, foster family, and the youth perspective of ‘family’ have on the youth’s ‘felt’ security and sense of belonging vis a vis permanency ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"5udfxCzK","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Ellingsen, 2011; Hedin, 2012; Merritt & Franke, 2010; T. Stott & Gustavsson, 2010)","plainCitation":"(Ellingsen, 2011; Hedin, 2012; Merritt & Franke, 2010; T. Stott & Gustavsson, 2010)"},"citationItems":[{"id":235,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":235,"type":"article-journal","title":"Congruence and incongruence in the perception of ‘family’ among foster parents, birth parents and their adolescent (foster) children","container-title":"Child & Family Social Work","page":"427-437","volume":"17","issue":"4","abstract":"Over recent decades, listening to children’s voices and viewing chil-\ndren as competent actors has gathered momentum in research as well\nas in practice. Acknowledging children’s perspectives requires sensi-\ntive listeners who are willing, deliberately and as realistically as\npossible, to reconstruct children’s ways of seeing. In our study, based\nin Norway, we investigated the views of 22 adolescents in long-term\nfoster care and 15 of their birth parents and 21 of their foster parents.\nUsing Q methodology, we explored congruence and incongruence in\nthe perception of ‘family’ among foster parents, birth parents and\ntheir adolescent (foster) children. We found three family perspectives\namong the adolescents. Within two of these perspectives, there seem\nto be more congruent understandings of the children’s perspectives\namong the parent groups. We discuss some main implications in light\nof these ?ndings. In Norway, as in many other countries, the policy of\nchild welfare is that children ?rst and foremost should grow up with\ntheir birth family. When out-of-home placements are necessary, a\nbasic principle is that children should remain in contact with their\nbirth family.","ISSN":"13567500","author":[{"family":"Ellingsen","given":"Ingunn T."}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2011"]]}}},{"id":294,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":294,"type":"article-journal","title":"A sense of belonging in a changeable everyday life – a follow-up study of young people in kinship, network, and traditional foster families","container-title":"Child & Family Social Work","page":"no–no","source":"Wiley Online Library","abstract":"This in-depth follow-up study of 15 foster youth shows the importance of an ‘open foster family’, open to letting the foster youth into the family life and to cooperating with the adolescent's birth family. Previous findings about the importance of negotiations, mutual rituals, and having fun together in foster families for the creation of social bonds and belonging are strengthened in the follow-up interview. A lack of these mutual practices is observed prior to disruptions. Most adolescents still living with the same foster family feel a sense of belonging to both their foster and birth families, especially when both families cooperate. This is most evident in kinship families. Over time, adolescents in traditional foster families have also strengthened their social bonds to the foster family, which makes the difference to youth in network foster families less pronounced than in the previous study. Despite life changes, above all changing schools and peers, most adolescents reveal personal agency by still coping with their situation. However, therapeutic support is now more common than 1 year ago, for girls in particular. Methods used are interviews, network maps and text responses (‘beepers’).","DOI":"10.1111/j.1365-2206.2012.00887.x","ISSN":"1365-2206","note":"00008","language":"en","author":[{"family":"Hedin","given":"Lena"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2012"]]}}},{"id":81,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":81,"type":"article-journal","title":"Should I stay or should I go? Children's placement preferences longitudinally","container-title":"Journal of Social Service Research","page":"46-67","volume":"36","issue":"1","source":"EBSCOhost","archive":"swh","abstract":"Perceptions of permanency from the child's perspective can aid in giving voices to children impacted by foster care, thus promoting their personal sense of empowerment. This research represents a longitudinal assessment of how children living in foster care receive permanency;specifically, their placement preferences while living in temporary foster care. Analyses were conducted on a subset of 2,671 children from the National Survey of Child and Adolescent Well-Being (NSCAW). Utilizing attachment and social capital constructs, children's preferences were predicted usingGeneralized Ordered Logistic regression analyses. Results demonstrated differences in children's perceptions and preferences for permanency at three waves of data collection. (Journal abstract)","ISSN":"01488376","call-number":"79323","shortTitle":"Should I stay or should I go?","journalAbbreviation":"Journal of Social Service Research","author":[{"family":"Merritt","given":"D.H."},{"family":"Franke","given":"T.M."}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2010"]]}}},{"id":8,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":8,"type":"article-journal","title":"Balancing permanency and stability for youth in foster care","container-title":"Children and Youth Services Review","page":"619-625","volume":"32","issue":"4","source":"EBSCOhost","archive":"swh","abstract":"Youth aging out of the foster care system are at risk for poor outcomes. Little is known about the etiology of these outcomes. However, placement instability may be one contributor. Permanency planning as a policy was well-intentioned. However, for adolescents likely to age out ofcare, the policy may actually contribute to placement instability. A review of the elements of permanency reveals a complex concept which emphasizes continuity of relationships. Federal permanency legislation and state policy may be in conflict with this goal, especially for youth who age out ofcare. The authors review the challenges faced by youth aging out of care, their placement histories, permanency planning as a policy and practice, and suggest modifictions to permanency planning to facilitate the development and maintenance of the stable social networks essential for successfultransitions to adulthood. (Journal abstract)","ISSN":"01907409","call-number":"80162","journalAbbreviation":"Children and Youth Services Review","author":[{"family":"Stott","given":"T."},{"family":"Gustavsson","given":"N."}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2010"]]}}}],"schema":""} (Ellingsen, 2011; Hedin, 2012; Merritt & Franke, 2010; T. Stott & Gustavsson, 2010), and what link exists between ‘felt’ security and post-care outcomes. These questions are central to child welfare given that regardless of initiatives to increase legal permanency; there will continue to be a need for long-term foster care, with either kin or non-relatives, to provide placements for those youth where adoption or guardianship is not an option. In these situations, the child welfare system has an obligation to ensure a satisfying, stable, long-term family- setting for each child. The concept of ‘felt’ security is derived from attachment theory ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"20n1be3kb9","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Bowlby, 1969)","plainCitation":"(Bowlby, 1969)"},"citationItems":[{"id":446,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":446,"type":"chapter","title":"Attachment and Loss","container-title":"Attachment and Loss: Vol. 1.","collection-title":"Attachment","collection-number":"1","publisher":"Hogarth Press","publisher-place":"London","event-place":"London","author":[{"family":"Bowlby","given":"J."}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["1969"]]}}}],"schema":""} (Bowlby, 1969). ‘Felt’ security develops from a youth experiencing predictable, sensitive care that addresses physical, social, intellectual, identity, and emotional needs, and results in a youth feeling valued for their entire self, and that they are loved unconditionally ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"r7ms2pra3","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Schofield, 2002)","plainCitation":"(Schofield, 2002)"},"citationItems":[{"id":165,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":165,"type":"article-journal","title":"The significance of a secure base: a psychosocial model of long-term foster care","container-title":"Child & Family Social Work","page":"259-272","volume":"7","issue":"4","source":"EBSCOhost","archive":"sih","abstract":"ABSTRACT Long-term foster care has been a much neglected area of social work practice and research. Yet there are obvious challenges that need to be understood when building a family for life in foster care. Is it possible for foster families, where there are no biological or legal ties between carers and children, to provide care, concern and family membership not only through childhood but also into adult life? The study on which this paper is based set out to explore that question by investigating the experiences of 40 adults, aged 18–30, who grew up in foster families. Qualitative interviews were conducted, transcribed and analysed. Theoretical frameworks from attachment and resilience were brought together with concepts such as ‘belonging’ and ‘family membership’ to make sense of the narratives provided. An integrated and dynamic psychosocial model of long-term foster care was developed, which emphasizes the significance of a secure base and has some important implications for practice. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]","DOI":"10.1046/j.1365-2206.2002.00254.x","ISSN":"13567500","call-number":"7704063","shortTitle":"The significance of a secure base","journalAbbreviation":"Child & Family Social Work","author":[{"family":"Schofield","given":"Gillian"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2002",11]]}}}],"schema":""} (Schofield, 2002). As adults, youth that have experienced ‘felt’ security tend to perceive themselves as worthy of care and to perceive others as responsive and trustworthy ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"ao6aask27","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Frey et al., 2008)","plainCitation":"(Frey et al., 2008)"},"citationItems":[{"id":147,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":147,"type":"article-journal","title":"Achieving permanency for youth in foster care: assessing and strengthening emotional security","container-title":"Child & Family Social Work","page":"218-226","volume":"13","issue":"2","source":"EBSCOhost","archive":"sih","abstract":"For some youth in foster care, the closest family or family-like relationships are with the foster parents with whom they have lived for extended periods of time. Nonetheless, child welfare agencies often do not explore these relationships and the potential they may hold for youth for legal permanence through adoption or guardianship. Recognizing that social workers often lack resources to help them initiate permanency conversations, Casey Family Services, a direct service child welfare agency in the USA, developed a tool that social workers can use to explore youth's sense of emotional security with their foster parents and foster parents' sense of claiming and attachment with youth in their care. The research literature that suggests that emotional security is a critical component of successful permanence provided the foundation for the development of the Belonging and Emotional Security Tool (BEST). When used with youth and foster parents, the BEST was found to advance meaningful permanency conversations. The authors provide case examples of its use and discuss future directions for using the BEST and broadening its application. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]","DOI":"10.1111/j.1365-2206.2007.00539.x","ISSN":"13567500","call-number":"31544739","shortTitle":"Achieving permanency for youth in foster care","journalAbbreviation":"Child & Family Social Work","author":[{"family":"Frey","given":"Lauren"},{"family":"Cushing","given":"Gretta"},{"family":"Freundlich","given":"Madelyn"},{"family":"Brenner","given":"Eliot"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2008",5]]}}}],"schema":""} (Frey et al., 2008). Several feelings and behaviours have been suggested as indicators of ‘felt’ security – such as a youth feeling that the foster parents want to talk when something important happens, or that the foster parent is someone they feel close to or with whom they enjoy spending time. ‘Felt’ security is frequently used as an indicator of relationship quality in the research ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"UAyLLDrH","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Frey et al., 2008; Merritt & Franke, 2010; Schofield, 2002)","plainCitation":"(Frey et al., 2008; Merritt & Franke, 2010; Schofield, 2002)"},"citationItems":[{"id":147,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":147,"type":"article-journal","title":"Achieving permanency for youth in foster care: assessing and strengthening emotional security","container-title":"Child & Family Social Work","page":"218-226","volume":"13","issue":"2","source":"EBSCOhost","archive":"sih","abstract":"For some youth in foster care, the closest family or family-like relationships are with the foster parents with whom they have lived for extended periods of time. Nonetheless, child welfare agencies often do not explore these relationships and the potential they may hold for youth for legal permanence through adoption or guardianship. Recognizing that social workers often lack resources to help them initiate permanency conversations, Casey Family Services, a direct service child welfare agency in the USA, developed a tool that social workers can use to explore youth's sense of emotional security with their foster parents and foster parents' sense of claiming and attachment with youth in their care. The research literature that suggests that emotional security is a critical component of successful permanence provided the foundation for the development of the Belonging and Emotional Security Tool (BEST). When used with youth and foster parents, the BEST was found to advance meaningful permanency conversations. The authors provide case examples of its use and discuss future directions for using the BEST and broadening its application. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]","DOI":"10.1111/j.1365-2206.2007.00539.x","ISSN":"13567500","call-number":"31544739","shortTitle":"Achieving permanency for youth in foster care","journalAbbreviation":"Child & Family Social Work","author":[{"family":"Frey","given":"Lauren"},{"family":"Cushing","given":"Gretta"},{"family":"Freundlich","given":"Madelyn"},{"family":"Brenner","given":"Eliot"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2008",5]]}}},{"id":81,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":81,"type":"article-journal","title":"Should I stay or should I go? Children's placement preferences longitudinally","container-title":"Journal of Social Service Research","page":"46-67","volume":"36","issue":"1","source":"EBSCOhost","archive":"swh","abstract":"Perceptions of permanency from the child's perspective can aid in giving voices to children impacted by foster care, thus promoting their personal sense of empowerment. This research represents a longitudinal assessment of how children living in foster care receive permanency;specifically, their placement preferences while living in temporary foster care. Analyses were conducted on a subset of 2,671 children from the National Survey of Child and Adolescent Well-Being (NSCAW). Utilizing attachment and social capital constructs, children's preferences were predicted usingGeneralized Ordered Logistic regression analyses. Results demonstrated differences in children's perceptions and preferences for permanency at three waves of data collection. (Journal abstract)","ISSN":"01488376","call-number":"79323","shortTitle":"Should I stay or should I go?","journalAbbreviation":"Journal of Social Service Research","author":[{"family":"Merritt","given":"D.H."},{"family":"Franke","given":"T.M."}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2010"]]}}},{"id":165,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":165,"type":"article-journal","title":"The significance of a secure base: a psychosocial model of long-term foster care","container-title":"Child & Family Social Work","page":"259-272","volume":"7","issue":"4","source":"EBSCOhost","archive":"sih","abstract":"ABSTRACT Long-term foster care has been a much neglected area of social work practice and research. Yet there are obvious challenges that need to be understood when building a family for life in foster care. Is it possible for foster families, where there are no biological or legal ties between carers and children, to provide care, concern and family membership not only through childhood but also into adult life? The study on which this paper is based set out to explore that question by investigating the experiences of 40 adults, aged 18–30, who grew up in foster families. Qualitative interviews were conducted, transcribed and analysed. Theoretical frameworks from attachment and resilience were brought together with concepts such as ‘belonging’ and ‘family membership’ to make sense of the narratives provided. An integrated and dynamic psychosocial model of long-term foster care was developed, which emphasizes the significance of a secure base and has some important implications for practice. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]","DOI":"10.1046/j.1365-2206.2002.00254.x","ISSN":"13567500","call-number":"7704063","shortTitle":"The significance of a secure base","journalAbbreviation":"Child & Family Social Work","author":[{"family":"Schofield","given":"Gillian"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2002",11]]}}}],"schema":""} (Frey et al., 2008; Merritt & Franke, 2010; Schofield, 2002). For example, Frey ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"2e4psr2456","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(2008)","plainCitation":"(2008)"},"citationItems":[{"id":147,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":147,"type":"article-journal","title":"Achieving permanency for youth in foster care: assessing and strengthening emotional security","container-title":"Child & Family Social Work","page":"218-226","volume":"13","issue":"2","source":"EBSCOhost","archive":"sih","abstract":"For some youth in foster care, the closest family or family-like relationships are with the foster parents with whom they have lived for extended periods of time. Nonetheless, child welfare agencies often do not explore these relationships and the potential they may hold for youth for legal permanence through adoption or guardianship. Recognizing that social workers often lack resources to help them initiate permanency conversations, Casey Family Services, a direct service child welfare agency in the USA, developed a tool that social workers can use to explore youth's sense of emotional security with their foster parents and foster parents' sense of claiming and attachment with youth in their care. The research literature that suggests that emotional security is a critical component of successful permanence provided the foundation for the development of the Belonging and Emotional Security Tool (BEST). When used with youth and foster parents, the BEST was found to advance meaningful permanency conversations. The authors provide case examples of its use and discuss future directions for using the BEST and broadening its application. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]","DOI":"10.1111/j.1365-2206.2007.00539.x","ISSN":"13567500","call-number":"31544739","shortTitle":"Achieving permanency for youth in foster care","journalAbbreviation":"Child & Family Social Work","author":[{"family":"Frey","given":"Lauren"},{"family":"Cushing","given":"Gretta"},{"family":"Freundlich","given":"Madelyn"},{"family":"Brenner","given":"Eliot"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2008",5]]}},"suppress-author":true}],"schema":""} (2008) describes thirteen items that relate to the emotional quality of the relationship for the youth and for foster parents. The presence of these indicators suggests a greater level of ‘felt’ security.A youth’s sense of belonging is closely associated with ‘felt’ security. In their seminal work on belonging, Baumeister & Leary ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"CHqAU5G3","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(1995)","plainCitation":"(1995)"},"citationItems":[{"id":1313,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":1313,"type":"article-journal","title":"The need to belong: Desire for interpersonal attachments as a fundamental human motivation","container-title":"Psychological Bulletin","page":"497-529","volume":"117","issue":"3","note":"11820","author":[{"family":"Baumeister","given":"Roy F","suffix":""},{"family":"Leary","given":"Mark R."}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["1995"]]}},"suppress-author":true}],"schema":""} (1995) posited that the need to belong is a fundamental human need that drives human beings to form and maintain at least a minimum number of lasting, positive, and significant interpersonal relationships. Satisfying this drive requires frequent positive personal contacts or interactions with the other person, and the perception that there is an interpersonal bond or relationship characterized by stability, affective concern, and continuation into the future [i.e. persistent caring] ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"SJYmU14B","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Baumeister & Leary, 1995)","plainCitation":"(Baumeister & Leary, 1995)"},"citationItems":[{"id":1313,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":1313,"type":"article-journal","title":"The need to belong: Desire for interpersonal attachments as a fundamental human motivation","container-title":"Psychological Bulletin","page":"497-529","volume":"117","issue":"3","note":"11820","author":[{"family":"Baumeister","given":"Roy F","suffix":""},{"family":"Leary","given":"Mark R."}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["1995"]]}}}],"schema":""} (Baumeister & Leary, 1995). Individuals may experience a multiplicity of belonging (i.e. belonging in multiple relationships) and in relation to other individuals, groups, systems/nations, or to place (i.e. geographic) ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"1r3atj7942","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Antonsich, 2010; Mahar, Cobigo, & Stuart, 2013; Yuval-Davis, 2006)","plainCitation":"(Antonsich, 2010; Mahar, Cobigo, & Stuart, 2013; Yuval-Davis, 2006)"},"citationItems":[{"id":1229,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":1229,"type":"article-journal","title":"Searching for belonging - an analytical framework","container-title":"Geography Compass","page":"644-659","volume":"4","issue":"6","source":"CrossRef","DOI":"10.1111/j.1749-8198.2009.00317.x","ISSN":"17498198, 17498198","note":"00164","shortTitle":"Searching for Belonging - An Analytical Framework","language":"en","author":[{"family":"Antonsich","given":"Marco"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2010",6,4]]}},"label":"page"},{"id":1227,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":1227,"type":"article-journal","title":"Conceptualizing belonging","container-title":"Disability and Rehabilitation","page":"1026-1032","volume":"35","issue":"12","source":"CrossRef","DOI":"10.3109/09638288.2012.717584","ISSN":"0963-8288, 1464-5165","note":"00025","language":"en","author":[{"family":"Mahar","given":"Alyson L."},{"family":"Cobigo","given":"Virginie"},{"family":"Stuart","given":"Heather"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2013",6]]}},"label":"page"},{"id":1318,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":1318,"type":"article-journal","title":"Belonging and the politics of belonging","container-title":"Patterns of Prejudice","page":"197-214","volume":"40","issue":"3","source":"CrossRef","DOI":"10.1080/00313220600769331","ISSN":"0031-322X, 1461-7331","note":"00591","language":"en","author":[{"family":"Yuval-Davis","given":"Nira"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2006",7]]}},"label":"page"}],"schema":""} (Antonsich, 2010; Mahar, Cobigo, & Stuart, 2013; Yuval-Davis, 2006). Belonging also involves one’s social and economic locations (e.g. belonging to particular gender, race, class, nation, etc.) as well as one’s identifications and emotional attachments to collectivities and groups (e.g. ethnic, racial, cultural, religious) ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"l0xGhHGE","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Yuval-Davis, 2006)","plainCitation":"(Yuval-Davis, 2006)"},"citationItems":[{"id":1318,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":1318,"type":"article-journal","title":"Belonging and the politics of belonging","container-title":"Patterns of Prejudice","page":"197-214","volume":"40","issue":"3","source":"CrossRef","DOI":"10.1080/00313220600769331","ISSN":"0031-322X, 1461-7331","note":"00591","language":"en","author":[{"family":"Yuval-Davis","given":"Nira"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2006",7]]}}}],"schema":""} (Yuval-Davis, 2006). Within the child welfare system, belonging develops within the context of loving relationships and predictable, sensitive care, which in turn leads to ‘felt’ security ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"qHVhfHA5","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Frey et al., 2008)","plainCitation":"(Frey et al., 2008)"},"citationItems":[{"id":147,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":147,"type":"article-journal","title":"Achieving permanency for youth in foster care: assessing and strengthening emotional security","container-title":"Child & Family Social Work","page":"218-226","volume":"13","issue":"2","source":"EBSCOhost","archive":"sih","abstract":"For some youth in foster care, the closest family or family-like relationships are with the foster parents with whom they have lived for extended periods of time. Nonetheless, child welfare agencies often do not explore these relationships and the potential they may hold for youth for legal permanence through adoption or guardianship. Recognizing that social workers often lack resources to help them initiate permanency conversations, Casey Family Services, a direct service child welfare agency in the USA, developed a tool that social workers can use to explore youth's sense of emotional security with their foster parents and foster parents' sense of claiming and attachment with youth in their care. The research literature that suggests that emotional security is a critical component of successful permanence provided the foundation for the development of the Belonging and Emotional Security Tool (BEST). When used with youth and foster parents, the BEST was found to advance meaningful permanency conversations. The authors provide case examples of its use and discuss future directions for using the BEST and broadening its application. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]","DOI":"10.1111/j.1365-2206.2007.00539.x","ISSN":"13567500","call-number":"31544739","shortTitle":"Achieving permanency for youth in foster care","journalAbbreviation":"Child & Family Social Work","author":[{"family":"Frey","given":"Lauren"},{"family":"Cushing","given":"Gretta"},{"family":"Freundlich","given":"Madelyn"},{"family":"Brenner","given":"Eliot"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2008",5]]}}}],"schema":""} (Frey et al., 2008). As Yuval-Davis ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"xH2jxWQn","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(2006, p. 204)","plainCitation":"(2006, p. 204)"},"citationItems":[{"id":1318,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":1318,"type":"article-journal","title":"Belonging and the politics of belonging","container-title":"Patterns of Prejudice","page":"197-214","volume":"40","issue":"3","source":"CrossRef","DOI":"10.1080/00313220600769331","ISSN":"0031-322X, 1461-7331","note":"00591","language":"en","author":[{"family":"Yuval-Davis","given":"Nira"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2006",7]]}},"locator":"204","label":"page","suppress-author":true}],"schema":""} (2006, p. 204) alludes, at its basic level, “belonging is about emotional attachment, about feeling 'at home' and … about feeling 'safe'”. A strong sense of belonging has been linked to better social and psychological functioning ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"oSpb7GWu","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Hagerty, Williams, Coyne, & Early, 1996)","plainCitation":"(Hagerty, Williams, Coyne, & Early, 1996)"},"citationItems":[{"id":733,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":733,"type":"article-journal","title":"Sense of belonging and indicators of social and psychological functioning","container-title":"Archives of Psychiatric Nursing","page":"235-244","volume":"10","issue":"4","source":"ScienceDirect","abstract":"Sense of belonging has recently been described and defined as one specific interpersonal process that influences health. The purpose of this study was to examine the relationships between sense of belonging and personal characteristics and selected indicators of social and psychological functioning in men and women. Using a sample of 379 community college students, sense of belonging was examined in relation to social support, conflict, involvement in community activities, attendance at religious services, loneliness, depression, anxiety, history of psychiatric treatment, and suicidality. Results indicated that sense of belonging is closely related to indicators of both social and psychological functioning. These relationships were generally stronger for women than for men. It appears that sense of belonging is a useful concept pertinent to exploration of social and psychological functioning.","DOI":"10.1016/S0883-9417(96)80029-X","ISSN":"0883-9417","note":"00225","journalAbbreviation":"Archives of Psychiatric Nursing","author":[{"family":"Hagerty","given":"Bonnie M."},{"family":"Williams","given":"Reg A."},{"family":"Coyne","given":"James C."},{"family":"Early","given":"Margaret R."}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["1996",8]]}}}],"schema":""} (Hagerty, Williams, Coyne, & Early, 1996), and individuals with a greater sense of belonging tend to be better able to cope with stress, exhibit less depressive symptoms, and are less likely to use drugs and alcohol ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"PAaMM1IC","properties":{"formattedCitation":"{\\rtf (Wilczy\\uc0\\u324{}ska, Januszek, & Bargiel-Matusiewicz, 2015)}","plainCitation":"(Wilczyńska, Januszek, & Bargiel-Matusiewicz, 2015)"},"citationItems":[{"id":1240,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":1240,"type":"article-journal","title":"The need of belonging and sense of belonging versus effectiveness of coping","container-title":"Polish Psychological Bulletin","volume":"46","issue":"1","source":"CrossRef","URL":"","DOI":"10.1515/ppb-2015-0008","ISSN":"1641-7844","note":"00000","author":[{"family":"Wilczyńska","given":"Agnieszka"},{"family":"Januszek","given":"Maciej"},{"family":"Bargiel-Matusiewicz","given":"Kamilla"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2015",1,1]]},"accessed":{"date-parts":[["2016",10,6]]}}}],"schema":""} (Wilczyńska, Januszek, & Bargiel-Matusiewicz, 2015). Conversely, a low sense of belonging has been correlated with higher levels of mental and physical illness and a greater risk of behavioural problems ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"DhyzA4uA","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Baumeister & Leary, 1995)","plainCitation":"(Baumeister & Leary, 1995)"},"citationItems":[{"id":1313,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":1313,"type":"article-journal","title":"The need to belong: Desire for interpersonal attachments as a fundamental human motivation","container-title":"Psychological Bulletin","page":"497-529","volume":"117","issue":"3","note":"11820","author":[{"family":"Baumeister","given":"Roy F","suffix":""},{"family":"Leary","given":"Mark R."}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["1995"]]}}}],"schema":""} (Baumeister & Leary, 1995). Individuals with a lower sense of belonging or whose efforts to belong have been thwarted and thus feel excluded may tend to behave more aggressively and less pro-socially; thereby creating a viscous circle of further exclusion ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"nzuZaxxd","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Thau, Aquino, & Poortvliet, 2007)","plainCitation":"(Thau, Aquino, & Poortvliet, 2007)"},"citationItems":[{"id":1235,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":1235,"type":"article-journal","title":"Self-defeating behaviors in organizations: The relationship between thwarted belonging and interpersonal work behaviors.","container-title":"Journal of Applied Psychology","page":"840-847","volume":"92","issue":"3","source":"CrossRef","DOI":"10.1037/0021-9010.92.3.840","ISSN":"1939-1854, 0021-9010","note":"00119","shortTitle":"Self-defeating behaviors in organizations","language":"en","author":[{"family":"Thau","given":"Stefan"},{"family":"Aquino","given":"Karl"},{"family":"Poortvliet","given":"P. Marijn"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2007"]]}}}],"schema":""} (Thau, Aquino, & Poortvliet, 2007). Both belonging and security in loving relationships are key to the emotional well-being of youth in foster care ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"Ozf42XsT","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Schofield, 2002)","plainCitation":"(Schofield, 2002)"},"citationItems":[{"id":165,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":165,"type":"article-journal","title":"The significance of a secure base: a psychosocial model of long-term foster care","container-title":"Child & Family Social Work","page":"259-272","volume":"7","issue":"4","source":"EBSCOhost","archive":"sih","abstract":"ABSTRACT Long-term foster care has been a much neglected area of social work practice and research. Yet there are obvious challenges that need to be understood when building a family for life in foster care. Is it possible for foster families, where there are no biological or legal ties between carers and children, to provide care, concern and family membership not only through childhood but also into adult life? The study on which this paper is based set out to explore that question by investigating the experiences of 40 adults, aged 18–30, who grew up in foster families. Qualitative interviews were conducted, transcribed and analysed. Theoretical frameworks from attachment and resilience were brought together with concepts such as ‘belonging’ and ‘family membership’ to make sense of the narratives provided. An integrated and dynamic psychosocial model of long-term foster care was developed, which emphasizes the significance of a secure base and has some important implications for practice. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]","DOI":"10.1046/j.1365-2206.2002.00254.x","ISSN":"13567500","call-number":"7704063","shortTitle":"The significance of a secure base","journalAbbreviation":"Child & Family Social Work","author":[{"family":"Schofield","given":"Gillian"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2002",11]]}}}],"schema":""} (Schofield, 2002).Following a review of the relevant literature on ‘felt’ security/sense of belonging as dimensions of permanency in relation to outcomes, several themes have become apparent. The first theme is that a sense of belonging may be a stronger predictor of successful outcomes post-care than ‘stability in foster care’ ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"25jo6d1unc","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Cashmore, 2006; Christiansen et al., 2012; Schofield et al., 2007)","plainCitation":"(Cashmore, 2006; Christiansen et al., 2012; Schofield et al., 2007)"},"citationItems":[{"id":229,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":229,"type":"article-journal","title":"Predicting after-care outcomes: The importance of ‘felt’ security","container-title":"Child & Family Social Work","page":"232-241","volume":"11","issue":"3","abstract":"Young people who ‘age out of care’ generally do not have the con-\ntinuing source of emotional, social and ?nancial support that is\navailable to most young people in their transition to early adulthood.\nThey therefore face the challenges of making various transitions with\nfewer resources and less support, and at an earlier age and in a less\ngraduated way than young people of the same age in the general\npopulation. Some, however, manage this process more successfully\nthan others. The current study examines the links between stability,\nperceived or ‘felt’ security and later outcomes for young people 4–\n5 years after leaving care. It is based on a four-wave longitudinal\nstudy over 5 years of 47 young people leaving care in New South\nWales, Australia. Felt security in care, and continuity and social\nsupport beyond care were the main signi?cant predictors of these\nyoung people’s outcomes 4–5 years after leaving care. While stability\nin care was important, this may be as a means to an end–building a\nsense of security, belonging and a network of social support.","ISSN":"13567500","shortTitle":"Predicting after-care outcomes","author":[{"family":"Cashmore","given":"Judy"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2006"]]}}},{"id":24,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":24,"type":"article-journal","title":"Cautious belonging: Relationships in long-term foster-care","container-title":"British Journal of Social Work","source":"bjsw..libaccess.lib.mcmaster.ca","abstract":"Long-term foster-care represents a frame for childhood and family life with distinct fea-\ntures and multiple challenges. This qualitative study concerns forty-three Norwegian\nyoung persons who have stayed in their foster placement for at least four years. Rela-\ntionships between them and their foster families were explored through interviews\nwith the young persons, their foster-carers, parents and social workers. The overall\npicture is that the foster families provided the children with a secure environment\nand an experience of belonging to the family. Most young persons also had a sense of\nbelonging to their birth families. Nearly all were likely to stay with their foster-carers\nbeyond their eighteenth birthday and both parts anticipated future contact. However,\na number of foster-carers expressed cautious expectations about the character of their\nfuture contact, due to their understanding that the nature of the relationship depended\non the young persons’ own choice. The study calls into question whether child welfare\npolicy and practice fully acknowledge and make the best out of the potential of long-\nterm foster-care for offering children lifelong support and belonging.","URL":"","DOI":"10.1093/bjsw/bcr198","ISSN":"0045-3102, 1468-263X","note":"00009","shortTitle":"Cautious Belonging","journalAbbreviation":"Br J Soc Work","language":"en","author":[{"family":"Christiansen","given":"?ivin"},{"family":"Havnen","given":"Karen J. S."},{"family":"Havik","given":"Toril"},{"family":"Anderssen","given":"Norman"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2012",1,10]]},"accessed":{"date-parts":[["2012",10,6]]}}},{"id":173,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":173,"type":"article-journal","title":"The search for stability and permanence: Modelling the pathways of long-stay looked after children","container-title":"British Journal of Social Work","page":"619-642","volume":"37","issue":"4","source":"EBSCOhost","archive":"sih","abstract":"This paper presents findings from a study of children looked after by 24 local authorities. It combines analysis of statistical data with analysis of qualitative and quantitative data from a questionnaire survey of a targeted sub-sample of children who had been looked after for 4 years or more. The paper highlights a complex picture of continuity and discontinuity in attempts to achieve stability and permanence in a range of birth family, foster care, adoption, residential and leaving care placements for long-stay children. Some long-stay children are moving smoothly and in a planned way towards a family for life, while some experience long periods in stable but temporary placements or have a number of moves prior to finding stability and a sense of belonging. A further group of children experience stability or moves while looked after, without having a family to belong to when they move into adult life. The paper discusses the difficulty with the Government's current long-stay performance measure in capturing the difference between stability in placement and planned permanence for children and families. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]","ISSN":"00453102","call-number":"26026818","shortTitle":"The Search For Stability and Permanence","journalAbbreviation":"British Journal of Social Work","author":[{"family":"Schofield","given":"Gillian"},{"family":"Thoburn","given":"June"},{"family":"Howell","given":"Darren"},{"family":"Dickens","given":"Jonathan"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2007",6]]}}}],"schema":""} (Cashmore, 2006; Christiansen et al., 2012; Schofield et al., 2007). This is noteworthy as stability is commonly used as an outcome measure for the child welfare system in Ontario while a ‘sense of belonging’ is not. The second theme is that despite the privilege given to the legal permanency options of reunification, adoption and guardianship, it is possible for youth to achieve emotional permanency and a sense of belonging in long-term foster care depending on the extent the youth is willing and able to proclaim the foster family as his/her sole or dual family and the extent to which the foster family is willing and able to claim the youth and his/her biological family as ‘kin’ ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"1b1l3pk0ct","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Christiansen et al., 2012; Ellingsen, 2011; Hedin, 2012; Merritt & Franke, 2010)","plainCitation":"(Christiansen et al., 2012; Ellingsen, 2011; Hedin, 2012; Merritt & Franke, 2010)"},"citationItems":[{"id":24,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":24,"type":"article-journal","title":"Cautious belonging: Relationships in long-term foster-care","container-title":"British Journal of Social Work","source":"bjsw..libaccess.lib.mcmaster.ca","abstract":"Long-term foster-care represents a frame for childhood and family life with distinct fea-\ntures and multiple challenges. This qualitative study concerns forty-three Norwegian\nyoung persons who have stayed in their foster placement for at least four years. Rela-\ntionships between them and their foster families were explored through interviews\nwith the young persons, their foster-carers, parents and social workers. The overall\npicture is that the foster families provided the children with a secure environment\nand an experience of belonging to the family. Most young persons also had a sense of\nbelonging to their birth families. Nearly all were likely to stay with their foster-carers\nbeyond their eighteenth birthday and both parts anticipated future contact. However,\na number of foster-carers expressed cautious expectations about the character of their\nfuture contact, due to their understanding that the nature of the relationship depended\non the young persons’ own choice. The study calls into question whether child welfare\npolicy and practice fully acknowledge and make the best out of the potential of long-\nterm foster-care for offering children lifelong support and belonging.","URL":"","DOI":"10.1093/bjsw/bcr198","ISSN":"0045-3102, 1468-263X","note":"00009","shortTitle":"Cautious Belonging","journalAbbreviation":"Br J Soc Work","language":"en","author":[{"family":"Christiansen","given":"?ivin"},{"family":"Havnen","given":"Karen J. S."},{"family":"Havik","given":"Toril"},{"family":"Anderssen","given":"Norman"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2012",1,10]]},"accessed":{"date-parts":[["2012",10,6]]}}},{"id":235,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":235,"type":"article-journal","title":"Congruence and incongruence in the perception of ‘family’ among foster parents, birth parents and their adolescent (foster) children","container-title":"Child & Family Social Work","page":"427-437","volume":"17","issue":"4","abstract":"Over recent decades, listening to children’s voices and viewing chil-\ndren as competent actors has gathered momentum in research as well\nas in practice. Acknowledging children’s perspectives requires sensi-\ntive listeners who are willing, deliberately and as realistically as\npossible, to reconstruct children’s ways of seeing. In our study, based\nin Norway, we investigated the views of 22 adolescents in long-term\nfoster care and 15 of their birth parents and 21 of their foster parents.\nUsing Q methodology, we explored congruence and incongruence in\nthe perception of ‘family’ among foster parents, birth parents and\ntheir adolescent (foster) children. We found three family perspectives\namong the adolescents. Within two of these perspectives, there seem\nto be more congruent understandings of the children’s perspectives\namong the parent groups. We discuss some main implications in light\nof these ?ndings. In Norway, as in many other countries, the policy of\nchild welfare is that children ?rst and foremost should grow up with\ntheir birth family. When out-of-home placements are necessary, a\nbasic principle is that children should remain in contact with their\nbirth family.","ISSN":"13567500","author":[{"family":"Ellingsen","given":"Ingunn T."}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2011"]]}}},{"id":294,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":294,"type":"article-journal","title":"A sense of belonging in a changeable everyday life – a follow-up study of young people in kinship, network, and traditional foster families","container-title":"Child & Family Social Work","page":"no–no","source":"Wiley Online Library","abstract":"This in-depth follow-up study of 15 foster youth shows the importance of an ‘open foster family’, open to letting the foster youth into the family life and to cooperating with the adolescent's birth family. Previous findings about the importance of negotiations, mutual rituals, and having fun together in foster families for the creation of social bonds and belonging are strengthened in the follow-up interview. A lack of these mutual practices is observed prior to disruptions. Most adolescents still living with the same foster family feel a sense of belonging to both their foster and birth families, especially when both families cooperate. This is most evident in kinship families. Over time, adolescents in traditional foster families have also strengthened their social bonds to the foster family, which makes the difference to youth in network foster families less pronounced than in the previous study. Despite life changes, above all changing schools and peers, most adolescents reveal personal agency by still coping with their situation. However, therapeutic support is now more common than 1 year ago, for girls in particular. Methods used are interviews, network maps and text responses (‘beepers’).","DOI":"10.1111/j.1365-2206.2012.00887.x","ISSN":"1365-2206","note":"00008","language":"en","author":[{"family":"Hedin","given":"Lena"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2012"]]}}},{"id":81,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":81,"type":"article-journal","title":"Should I stay or should I go? Children's placement preferences longitudinally","container-title":"Journal of Social Service Research","page":"46-67","volume":"36","issue":"1","source":"EBSCOhost","archive":"swh","abstract":"Perceptions of permanency from the child's perspective can aid in giving voices to children impacted by foster care, thus promoting their personal sense of empowerment. This research represents a longitudinal assessment of how children living in foster care receive permanency;specifically, their placement preferences while living in temporary foster care. Analyses were conducted on a subset of 2,671 children from the National Survey of Child and Adolescent Well-Being (NSCAW). Utilizing attachment and social capital constructs, children's preferences were predicted usingGeneralized Ordered Logistic regression analyses. Results demonstrated differences in children's perceptions and preferences for permanency at three waves of data collection. (Journal abstract)","ISSN":"01488376","call-number":"79323","shortTitle":"Should I stay or should I go?","journalAbbreviation":"Journal of Social Service Research","author":[{"family":"Merritt","given":"D.H."},{"family":"Franke","given":"T.M."}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2010"]]}}}],"schema":""} (Christiansen et al., 2012; Ellingsen, 2011; Hedin, 2012; Merritt & Franke, 2010). A third theme is that a youth’s ‘felt’ security/belonging is maximized when the worker and foster parent are clear and direct with the youth at the outset about the anticipated long-term nature of the placement so that the youth feels free to invest emotionally in the foster family ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"19kp6tmdcs","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Cashmore, 2006; Christiansen et al., 2012)","plainCitation":"(Cashmore, 2006; Christiansen et al., 2012)"},"citationItems":[{"id":229,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":229,"type":"article-journal","title":"Predicting after-care outcomes: The importance of ‘felt’ security","container-title":"Child & Family Social Work","page":"232-241","volume":"11","issue":"3","abstract":"Young people who ‘age out of care’ generally do not have the con-\ntinuing source of emotional, social and ?nancial support that is\navailable to most young people in their transition to early adulthood.\nThey therefore face the challenges of making various transitions with\nfewer resources and less support, and at an earlier age and in a less\ngraduated way than young people of the same age in the general\npopulation. Some, however, manage this process more successfully\nthan others. The current study examines the links between stability,\nperceived or ‘felt’ security and later outcomes for young people 4–\n5 years after leaving care. It is based on a four-wave longitudinal\nstudy over 5 years of 47 young people leaving care in New South\nWales, Australia. Felt security in care, and continuity and social\nsupport beyond care were the main signi?cant predictors of these\nyoung people’s outcomes 4–5 years after leaving care. While stability\nin care was important, this may be as a means to an end–building a\nsense of security, belonging and a network of social support.","ISSN":"13567500","shortTitle":"Predicting after-care outcomes","author":[{"family":"Cashmore","given":"Judy"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2006"]]}}},{"id":24,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":24,"type":"article-journal","title":"Cautious belonging: Relationships in long-term foster-care","container-title":"British Journal of Social Work","source":"bjsw..libaccess.lib.mcmaster.ca","abstract":"Long-term foster-care represents a frame for childhood and family life with distinct fea-\ntures and multiple challenges. This qualitative study concerns forty-three Norwegian\nyoung persons who have stayed in their foster placement for at least four years. Rela-\ntionships between them and their foster families were explored through interviews\nwith the young persons, their foster-carers, parents and social workers. The overall\npicture is that the foster families provided the children with a secure environment\nand an experience of belonging to the family. Most young persons also had a sense of\nbelonging to their birth families. Nearly all were likely to stay with their foster-carers\nbeyond their eighteenth birthday and both parts anticipated future contact. However,\na number of foster-carers expressed cautious expectations about the character of their\nfuture contact, due to their understanding that the nature of the relationship depended\non the young persons’ own choice. The study calls into question whether child welfare\npolicy and practice fully acknowledge and make the best out of the potential of long-\nterm foster-care for offering children lifelong support and belonging.","URL":"","DOI":"10.1093/bjsw/bcr198","ISSN":"0045-3102, 1468-263X","note":"00009","shortTitle":"Cautious Belonging","journalAbbreviation":"Br J Soc Work","language":"en","author":[{"family":"Christiansen","given":"?ivin"},{"family":"Havnen","given":"Karen J. S."},{"family":"Havik","given":"Toril"},{"family":"Anderssen","given":"Norman"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2012",1,10]]},"accessed":{"date-parts":[["2012",10,6]]}}}],"schema":""} (Cashmore, 2006; Christiansen et al., 2012). Finally, the literature suggests that developing a sense of belonging is a challenge for youth both in and aging out of care ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"infit4ghb","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Mulkerns & Owen, 2008; Samuels, 2009)","plainCitation":"(Mulkerns & Owen, 2008; Samuels, 2009)"},"citationItems":[{"id":760,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":760,"type":"article-journal","title":"Identity development in emancipated young adults following foster care","container-title":"Smith College Studies in Social Work","page":"427-449","volume":"78","issue":"4","source":"CrossRef","DOI":"10.1080/00377310802378594","ISSN":"0037-7317, 1553-0426","language":"en","author":[{"family":"Mulkerns","given":"Heather"},{"family":"Owen","given":"Carol"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2008",10]]}},"label":"page"},{"id":645,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":645,"type":"article-journal","title":"Ambiguous loss of home: The experience of familial (im)permanence among young adults with foster care backgrounds","container-title":"Children and Youth Services Review","page":"1229-1239","volume":"31","issue":"12","source":"CrossRef","DOI":"10.1016/j.childyouth.2009.05.008","ISSN":"01907409","shortTitle":"Ambiguous loss of home","language":"en","author":[{"family":"Samuels","given":"Gina Miranda"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2009",12]]}},"label":"page"}],"schema":""} (Mulkerns & Owen, 2008; Samuels, 2009). For many youth, the feelings of loneliness upon exiting the system are compounded by feelings of not belonging, and attempts by youth to reconnect with their biological families to find where they belong do not always result in experiencing connectedness ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"6KVDJwJS","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Samuels, 2009)","plainCitation":"(Samuels, 2009)"},"citationItems":[{"id":645,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":645,"type":"article-journal","title":"Ambiguous loss of home: The experience of familial (im)permanence among young adults with foster care backgrounds","container-title":"Children and Youth Services Review","page":"1229-1239","volume":"31","issue":"12","source":"CrossRef","DOI":"10.1016/j.childyouth.2009.05.008","ISSN":"01907409","shortTitle":"Ambiguous loss of home","language":"en","author":[{"family":"Samuels","given":"Gina Miranda"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2009",12]]}}}],"schema":""} (Samuels, 2009).Research Methodology:Overview of Methodological Approach:The starting point for my research was my observation that some youth transitioning to adulthood seemed to have a sense of belonging (either in their relationship with their long-term foster parents, through a renewal of their relationships with their biological or extended families, with friends, and/or with community) and tended to have relatively good outcomes. Although this observation could be approached from a positivist perspective by asking questions such as ‘what youth have a sense of belonging?’, and ‘what factors determine whether a youth has a sense of belonging?’, there is another level to this observation beyond the ‘what’ that cannot be reached using a positivist approach. To gain a deeper sense of this observation, I decided to look at the ‘how’ of this observation qualitatively by utilizing an interpretive approach to explore youth’s’ experience of belonging before, during, and after their transition to adulthood. This was accomplished with a grounded theory approach.Grounded theory is a research method that aims “to explore basic social processes and to understand the multiplicity of interactions that produces variation in that process” ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"2Ir86PiZ","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Heath & Cowley, 2004, p. 142)","plainCitation":"(Heath & Cowley, 2004, p. 142)"},"citationItems":[{"id":1374,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":1374,"type":"article-journal","title":"Developing a grounded theory approach: A comparison of Glaser and Strauss","container-title":"International Journal of Nursing Studies","page":"141-150","volume":"41","issue":"2","source":"CrossRef","DOI":"10.1016/S0020-7489(03)00113-5","ISSN":"00207489","note":"00572","shortTitle":"Developing a grounded theory approach","language":"en","author":[{"family":"Heath","given":"Helen"},{"family":"Cowley","given":"Sarah"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2004",2]]}},"locator":"142","label":"page"}],"schema":""} (Heath & Cowley, 2004, p. 142). The exploration involves an ongoing reciprocity between data collection, analysis, and theory development ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"kslZ8xd1","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Corbin & Strauss, 1990)","plainCitation":"(Corbin & Strauss, 1990)"},"citationItems":[{"id":1336,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":1336,"type":"article-journal","title":"Grounded theory research: Procedures, canon, and evaluative criteria","URL":"","note":"00000","author":[{"family":"Corbin","given":"Juliet"},{"family":"Strauss","given":"Anselm"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["1990"]]},"accessed":{"date-parts":[["2016",12,7]]}}}],"schema":""} (Corbin & Strauss, 1990). With its origins in Pragmatism and Symbolic Interactionism, Grounded Theory maintains that first, as phenomena are constantly changing in response to conditions, the research process must adapt accordingly, and second, that participants have agency in how they interpret and ultimately respond to those conditions, and to the consequences of their actions ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"i4QVqVcH","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Corbin & Strauss, 1990)","plainCitation":"(Corbin & Strauss, 1990)"},"citationItems":[{"id":1336,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":1336,"type":"article-journal","title":"Grounded theory research: Procedures, canon, and evaluative criteria","URL":"","note":"00000","author":[{"family":"Corbin","given":"Juliet"},{"family":"Strauss","given":"Anselm"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["1990"]]},"accessed":{"date-parts":[["2016",12,7]]}}}],"schema":""} (Corbin & Strauss, 1990). In grounded theory method, sensitizing concepts are concepts that draw attention to important features of social interaction and give the researcher a general sense of reference and guidance in approaching a topic ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"0rZLoMqz","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Bowen, 2006)","plainCitation":"(Bowen, 2006)"},"citationItems":[{"id":1403,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":1403,"type":"article-journal","title":"Grounded theory and sensitizing concepts","container-title":"International journal of qualitative methods","page":"12–23","volume":"5","issue":"3","source":"Google Scholar","note":"00728","author":[{"family":"Bowen","given":"Glenn A."}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2006"]]}}}],"schema":""} (Bowen, 2006). Sensitizing concepts are the initial ideas that serve as a starting point for research and lead the researcher to ask particular kinds of questions about the topic, thereby providing a loose frame of reference from which to base exploration ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"Jv4Bef1t","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Charmaz, 2006)","plainCitation":"(Charmaz, 2006)"},"citationItems":[{"id":1408,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":1408,"type":"book","title":"Constructing grounded theory","publisher":"Sage Publications","publisher-place":"London ; Thousand Oaks, Calif","number-of-pages":"208","source":"Library of Congress ISBN","event-place":"London ; Thousand Oaks, Calif","ISBN":"978-0-7619-7352-2","call-number":"H61.24 .C45 2006","note":"21157","author":[{"family":"Charmaz","given":"Kathy"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2006"]]}}}],"schema":""} (Charmaz, 2006). Using inductive reasoning, a researcher following the grounded theory method discovers patterns and themes in the data during the analysis ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"BXdeHsVC","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Bowen, 2006)","plainCitation":"(Bowen, 2006)"},"citationItems":[{"id":1403,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":1403,"type":"article-journal","title":"Grounded theory and sensitizing concepts","container-title":"International journal of qualitative methods","page":"12–23","volume":"5","issue":"3","source":"Google Scholar","note":"00728","author":[{"family":"Bowen","given":"Glenn A."}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2006"]]}}}],"schema":""} (Bowen, 2006). According to Strauss & Corbin ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"SthKgoV0","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(1994)","plainCitation":"(1994)"},"citationItems":[{"id":1398,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":1398,"type":"chapter","title":"Grounded theory methodology: An overview","container-title":"Handbook of qualitative research","publisher":"SAGE Publications Ltd.","publisher-place":"California","page":"273-285","edition":"1","event-place":"California","URL":"","note":"00000","author":[{"family":"Strauss","given":"A."},{"family":"Corbin","given":"J."}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["1994"]]},"accessed":{"date-parts":[["2017",1,10]]}},"suppress-author":true}],"schema":""} (1994), the primary goal of the grounded theory method is to generate theory that is “’conceptually dense’ – that is, with many conceptual relationships” ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"LyzcXPcd","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(1994, p. 278)","plainCitation":"(1994, p. 278)"},"citationItems":[{"id":1398,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":1398,"type":"chapter","title":"Grounded theory methodology: An overview","container-title":"Handbook of qualitative research","publisher":"SAGE Publications Ltd.","publisher-place":"California","page":"273-285","edition":"1","event-place":"California","URL":"","note":"00000","author":[{"family":"Strauss","given":"A."},{"family":"Corbin","given":"J."}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["1994"]]},"accessed":{"date-parts":[["2017",1,10]]}},"locator":"278","label":"page","suppress-author":true}],"schema":""} (p. 278) and that reflect patterns of action and interaction between and among various types of social actors. Good grounded theory is thick, clear in purpose, and well integrated ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"H5grUBH9","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Glaser & Strauss, 2009)","plainCitation":"(Glaser & Strauss, 2009)"},"citationItems":[{"id":1449,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":1449,"type":"book","title":"The discovery of grounded theory: Strategies for qualitative research","publisher":"Aldine","publisher-place":"New Brunswick","number-of-pages":"271","edition":"4. paperback printing","source":"Gemeinsamer Bibliotheksverbund ISBN","event-place":"New Brunswick","ISBN":"978-0-202-30260-7","note":"88174 \nOCLC: 553535517","shortTitle":"The discovery of grounded theory","language":"eng","author":[{"family":"Glaser","given":"Barney G."},{"family":"Strauss","given":"Anselm L."}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2009"]]}}}],"schema":""} (Glaser & Strauss, 2009). Unlike other research methods, which leave analysis until the end of the research process, in the grounded theory method data analysis begins as soon as the first bit of data is collected, and guides the next interviews and observations ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"HLBRIQJQ","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Corbin & Strauss, 1990)","plainCitation":"(Corbin & Strauss, 1990)"},"citationItems":[{"id":1336,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":1336,"type":"article-journal","title":"Grounded theory research: Procedures, canon, and evaluative criteria","URL":"","note":"00000","author":[{"family":"Corbin","given":"Juliet"},{"family":"Strauss","given":"Anselm"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["1990"]]},"accessed":{"date-parts":[["2016",12,7]]}}}],"schema":""} (Corbin & Strauss, 1990). The process of theory generation continues until theoretical saturation is reached (i.e. the point where the theory generated explains every variation in the data) ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"brgadMf4","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(McGhee, Marland, & Atkinson, 2007)","plainCitation":"(McGhee, Marland, & Atkinson, 2007)"},"citationItems":[{"id":1379,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":1379,"type":"article-journal","title":"Grounded theory research: Literature reviewing and reflexivity","container-title":"Journal of Advanced Nursing","page":"334-342","volume":"60","issue":"3","source":"CrossRef","DOI":"10.1111/j.1365-2648.2007.04436.x","ISSN":"03092402","note":"00000","shortTitle":"Grounded theory research","language":"en","author":[{"family":"McGhee","given":"Gerry"},{"family":"Marland","given":"Glenn R."},{"family":"Atkinson","given":"Jacqueline"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2007",9,28]]}}}],"schema":""} (McGhee, Marland, & Atkinson, 2007). This process involves the use of ‘constant comparative analysis’ wherein the data gathered is coded into emergent themes or categories, and constantly revisited after the initial coding until it is clear no new themes are emerging ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"GJg6tChB","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Hewitt-Taylor, 2001)","plainCitation":"(Hewitt-Taylor, 2001)"},"citationItems":[{"id":1392,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":1392,"type":"article-journal","title":"Use of constant comparative analysis in qualitative research","container-title":"Nursing Standard","page":"39–42","volume":"15","issue":"42","source":"Google Scholar","note":"00220","author":[{"family":"Hewitt-Taylor","given":"Jaquelina"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2001"]]}}}],"schema":""} (Hewitt-Taylor, 2001). Constant comparative analysis requires that these themes be ‘grounded’ in the data, however, there is some tension between the objectivist and constructionist schools of grounded theory method with regards to whether the data from participants and the generated theory exist as an objective ‘fact’ or whether data are created mutually from the interplay between participant and the researcher ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"Ajc9vSdB","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Charmaz, 2006)","plainCitation":"(Charmaz, 2006)"},"citationItems":[{"id":1408,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":1408,"type":"book","title":"Constructing grounded theory","publisher":"Sage Publications","publisher-place":"London ; Thousand Oaks, Calif","number-of-pages":"208","source":"Library of Congress ISBN","event-place":"London ; Thousand Oaks, Calif","ISBN":"978-0-7619-7352-2","call-number":"H61.24 .C45 2006","note":"21157","author":[{"family":"Charmaz","given":"Kathy"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2006"]]}}}],"schema":""} (Charmaz, 2006). One’s school of thought has an impact on research design including elements such as when to conduct the research review, the acknowledgement of the researcher’s influence on the process, and role of reflexivity. Based on my own thoughts with regards to epistemology, I adopted a constructionist view of the grounded theory method, following a path that is close to Strauss’ approach as described in Grounded Theory Research: Procedures, Canon, and Evaluative Criteria ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"oLmTduen","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Corbin & Strauss, 1990)","plainCitation":"(Corbin & Strauss, 1990)"},"citationItems":[{"id":1336,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":1336,"type":"article-journal","title":"Grounded theory research: Procedures, canon, and evaluative criteria","URL":"","note":"00000","author":[{"family":"Corbin","given":"Juliet"},{"family":"Strauss","given":"Anselm"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["1990"]]},"accessed":{"date-parts":[["2016",12,7]]}}}],"schema":""} (Corbin & Strauss, 1990). In order to become familiar with the literature and gain awareness of any gaps in the previous research on belonging, I conducted a review of the literature prior to collecting data. This review sensitized me to the reciprocal nature of belonging and the negotiation that it entails, and enabled me to design questions that explore these concepts. Acknowledging that my analysis will be unavoidably influenced by the mutuality of the research process and shaped by my prior understanding of belonging, assumptions, ideas, and position, I engaged in a process of reflexivity throughout my research in order to be mindful of my potential impact on the data ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"UZ1HEmt1","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(McGhee et al., 2007)","plainCitation":"(McGhee et al., 2007)"},"citationItems":[{"id":1379,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":1379,"type":"article-journal","title":"Grounded theory research: Literature reviewing and reflexivity","container-title":"Journal of Advanced Nursing","page":"334-342","volume":"60","issue":"3","source":"CrossRef","DOI":"10.1111/j.1365-2648.2007.04436.x","ISSN":"03092402","note":"00000","shortTitle":"Grounded theory research","language":"en","author":[{"family":"McGhee","given":"Gerry"},{"family":"Marland","given":"Glenn R."},{"family":"Atkinson","given":"Jacqueline"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2007",9,28]]}}}],"schema":""} (McGhee et al., 2007). Reflexivity requires making explicit our self-awareness of our own role as researchers and the decisions we make about who, what, and how we conduct research. One means of actualizing this was by using memo-writing, a technique wherein researchers write analytic notes to themselves. These notes capture comparisons and connections made, develop questions, increase the level of abstraction ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"bEZmjAlG","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Charmaz, 2006)","plainCitation":"(Charmaz, 2006)"},"citationItems":[{"id":1408,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":1408,"type":"book","title":"Constructing grounded theory","publisher":"Sage Publications","publisher-place":"London ; Thousand Oaks, Calif","number-of-pages":"208","source":"Library of Congress ISBN","event-place":"London ; Thousand Oaks, Calif","ISBN":"978-0-7619-7352-2","call-number":"H61.24 .C45 2006","note":"21157","author":[{"family":"Charmaz","given":"Kathy"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2006"]]}}}],"schema":""} (Charmaz, 2006), and “help to ensure that categories are inductively derived from the data in the field and not forced into the shape of preconceived notions held by the researcher” ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"lyNyAdjn","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(McGhee et al., 2007, p. 335)","plainCitation":"(McGhee et al., 2007, p. 335)"},"citationItems":[{"id":1379,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":1379,"type":"article-journal","title":"Grounded theory research: Literature reviewing and reflexivity","container-title":"Journal of Advanced Nursing","page":"334-342","volume":"60","issue":"3","source":"CrossRef","DOI":"10.1111/j.1365-2648.2007.04436.x","ISSN":"03092402","note":"00000","shortTitle":"Grounded theory research","language":"en","author":[{"family":"McGhee","given":"Gerry"},{"family":"Marland","given":"Glenn R."},{"family":"Atkinson","given":"Jacqueline"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2007",9,28]]}},"locator":"335","label":"page"}],"schema":""} (McGhee et al., 2007, p. 335).Theoretical Perspective:I approached my research design from a Life Course perspective. The Life Course perspective premises that individual lives are influenced by their historical context and that “developmental processes and outcomes are shaped by the social trajectories that people follow” ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"NDZsEhG2","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Elder, 1994, p. 5)","plainCitation":"(Elder, 1994, p. 5)"},"citationItems":[{"id":1262,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":1262,"type":"article-journal","title":"Time, human agency, and social change: Perspectives on the life course","container-title":"Social Psychology Quarterly","page":"4","volume":"57","issue":"1","source":"CrossRef","DOI":"10.2307/2786971","ISSN":"01902725","note":"01516","shortTitle":"Time, Human Agency, and Social Change","author":[{"family":"Elder","given":"G. H."}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["1994",3]]}},"locator":"5","label":"page"}],"schema":""} (Elder, 1994, p. 5). As Elder ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"OUf7unqs","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(1998)","plainCitation":"(1998)"},"citationItems":[{"id":1428,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":1428,"type":"article-journal","title":"The life course as developmental theory","container-title":"Child development","page":"1–12","volume":"69","issue":"1","source":"Google Scholar","note":"01670","author":[{"family":"Elder","given":"G. H."}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["1998"]]}},"suppress-author":true}],"schema":""} (1998) maintains, this relationship is reciprocal, in that developmental processes and outcomes, in turn, shape individual’s social trajectories. Life Course perspective is concerned with how people’s lives are influenced by their chronological age, relationships, life transitions, and the societal context in which they live ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"JGJUdmLV","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Hutchison, 2010)","plainCitation":"(Hutchison, 2010)"},"citationItems":[{"id":1410,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":1410,"type":"book","title":"A life course perspective","publisher":"Sage Publications","volume":"4","source":"Google Scholar","note":"00075","author":[{"family":"Hutchison","given":"Elizabeth D."}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2010"]]}}}],"schema":""} (Hutchison, 2010); as such, it offers a way of studying the pathways people take through their lives. These pathways typically relate to the social trajectories of work, education, and family ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"2wwsnDLm","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Elder, 1998)","plainCitation":"(Elder, 1998)"},"citationItems":[{"id":1428,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":1428,"type":"article-journal","title":"The life course as developmental theory","container-title":"Child development","page":"1–12","volume":"69","issue":"1","source":"Google Scholar","note":"01670","author":[{"family":"Elder","given":"G. H."}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["1998"]]}}}],"schema":""} (Elder, 1998) and may be continuous or entail a variety of twists and turns. Concepts from the life course perspective, specifically turning points, linked lives, trajectories, life events, and agency and resiliency served as sensitizing concepts and provided a framework for my questions. For example, the question: “Thinking back to when you lived with ____, if you had a problem or concern, who would you go to for advice or help? What made you feel close to this person? How has this changed since you moved out (or turned 18)?” is drawn from the life course perspective concepts of linked lives and agency. Recruitment:I recruited participants for this research study using purposive sampling involving both a targeted referral strategy as well as direct advertising. First, I approached Directors of two Children’s Aid Societies in southwestern Ontario to obtain their permission for agency participation in the study. Once permission was granted, I provided designates at both children’s aid societies with an introductory email and letter of information. Designates were asked to forward the email to children’s services workers who were working with youth that were on Continued Care and Support for Youth (CCSY) or had recently turned 21 years old and aged-out of CCSY. The introductory email described the nature of the study, and requested that workers provide the letter of information to any youth on CCSY. In addition, I provided designates with posters to be displayed in areas that may be frequented by the targeted group. These posters described the study and provided contact information. Youth were asked to call, text, or email the cell phone number or email address provided in the letter of information if they were interested in participating in the study or if they had any questions or concerns.Participants:All participants were former Crown Wards between the ages of 18 and 22 who were currently or previously on Continued Care and Support for Youth (CCSY). The CCSY program is a Ministry-mandated program wherein agencies provide a minimum living allowance and other supports to former youth with Crown Ward status who are between the ages of 18 to 21. Three of the participants identified as female and one as male, and all were Caucasian. Although none had any biological children, one participant (TheVoice) who was 21 and had transitioned out of care, was fostering one of her kin through the Children’s Aid Society. In terms of education, each had completed Grade 12 and had some post-secondary education or were planning to attend post-secondary. In terms of their foster care experience, the participants had been in care between 10 to 18 years (an average of 12 years) living in an average of five different foster homes during this time (ranging from 2 to 9 placements). Two of the participants were residing in their own living situation while the other two continued to reside with their foster parents. Each of the participants identified their current (or most recent) foster family as being home, having resided with their foster family from between 3 to 12 years (average of 8 years).Data Collection:Prior to the interview, participants were provided with the Letter of Information/Consent and a copy of the interview guide. Interviews ranged from approximately one to two hours in length, and varied depending on the participant. Interviews occurred at a time that was convenient for each participant in accordance with his or her schedule. All interviews occurred in the general area of Southwestern Ontario. As the interviews were staggered in accordance with the tenets of grounded theory rather than being completed all on the same day, the specific locations varied depending on where the youth was residing. Interviews took place in public spaces that were agreeable to the youth and offered some vestige of privacy. Interviews were conducted by the student researcher and took place face-to-face in person using the general interview guide designed for the study. Participants were also asked to complete a one-page demographic questionnaire. All interviews were audiotaped and transcribed by the student researcher.AnalysisData analysis commenced following completion of the first interview, using the constant comparative method (CCM) of data analysis originally described by Glaser and Strauss ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"nUJPhJLa","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(1990)","plainCitation":"(1990)"},"citationItems":[{"id":1336,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":1336,"type":"article-journal","title":"Grounded theory research: Procedures, canon, and evaluative criteria","URL":"","note":"00000","author":[{"family":"Corbin","given":"Juliet"},{"family":"Strauss","given":"Anselm"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["1990"]]},"accessed":{"date-parts":[["2016",12,7]]}},"suppress-author":true}],"schema":""} (1990) and further elaborated by Strauss & Corbin ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"rWtftKnR","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(1990; 1994)","plainCitation":"(1990; 1994)"},"citationItems":[{"id":1336,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":1336,"type":"article-journal","title":"Grounded theory research: Procedures, canon, and evaluative criteria","URL":"","note":"00000","author":[{"family":"Corbin","given":"Juliet"},{"family":"Strauss","given":"Anselm"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["1990"]]},"accessed":{"date-parts":[["2016",12,7]]}},"label":"page","suppress-author":true},{"id":1398,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":1398,"type":"chapter","title":"Grounded theory methodology: An overview","container-title":"Handbook of qualitative research","publisher":"SAGE Publications Ltd.","publisher-place":"California","page":"273-285","edition":"1","event-place":"California","URL":"","note":"00000","author":[{"family":"Strauss","given":"A."},{"family":"Corbin","given":"J."}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["1994"]]},"accessed":{"date-parts":[["2017",1,10]]}},"label":"page","suppress-author":true}],"schema":""} (1994). CCM involves a process of joint coding and analysis with the explicit purpose of generating a theory that is “integrated, consistent, plausible, close to the data – and at the same time is in a form clear enough to be readily, if only partially, operationalized for testing in quantitative research” ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"rMNryfIz","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Glaser & Strauss, 2009, p. 102)","plainCitation":"(Glaser & Strauss, 2009, p. 102)"},"citationItems":[{"id":1449,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":1449,"type":"book","title":"The discovery of grounded theory: Strategies for qualitative research","publisher":"Aldine","publisher-place":"New Brunswick","number-of-pages":"271","edition":"4. paperback printing","source":"Gemeinsamer Bibliotheksverbund ISBN","event-place":"New Brunswick","ISBN":"978-0-202-30260-7","note":"88174 \nOCLC: 553535517","shortTitle":"The discovery of grounded theory","language":"eng","author":[{"family":"Glaser","given":"Barney G."},{"family":"Strauss","given":"Anselm L."}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2009"]]}},"locator":"102","label":"page"}],"schema":""} (Glaser & Strauss, 2009, p. 102). The first step in CCM involves ‘qualitative coding’ wherein segments of the interview are studied and labelled in a manner that “simultaneously categorizes, summarizes, and accounts for” ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"oK5r7bJ0","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Charmaz, 2006, p. 43)","plainCitation":"(Charmaz, 2006, p. 43)"},"citationItems":[{"id":1408,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":1408,"type":"book","title":"Constructing grounded theory","publisher":"Sage Publications","publisher-place":"London ; Thousand Oaks, Calif","number-of-pages":"208","source":"Library of Congress ISBN","event-place":"London ; Thousand Oaks, Calif","ISBN":"978-0-7619-7352-2","call-number":"H61.24 .C45 2006","note":"21157","author":[{"family":"Charmaz","given":"Kathy"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2006"]]}},"locator":"43","label":"page"}],"schema":""} (Charmaz, 2006, p. 43) the experience expressed in the segment. Analysis of the first interview proceeded on a paragraph-by-paragraph basis, a level of complexity that was deemed to be sufficiently detailed while not being overly burdensome (such as word-by-word coding). Utilizing the technique suggested by Turner ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"0eQ2XRJg","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(1981)","plainCitation":"(1981)"},"citationItems":[{"id":1344,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":1344,"type":"article-journal","title":"Some practical aspects of qualitative data analysis: One way of organising the cognitive processes associated with the generation of grounded theory","container-title":"Quality and quantity","page":"225–247","volume":"15","issue":"3","source":"Google Scholar","note":"00573","shortTitle":"Some practical aspects of qualitative data analysis","author":[{"family":"Turner","given":"Barry A."}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["1981"]]}},"suppress-author":true}],"schema":""} (1981), each paragraph was numbered consecutively and explored to discover what concepts or categories could encompass the elements of the experience found therein. A spreadsheet program (Microsoft Excel) was utilized to organize concepts and their examples. This proved to be helpful as the software made it possible to scroll through the concepts easily while the search function enabled the researcher to find specific concepts or examples by typing in search words. Analysis continued until every relevant and/or significant element of the experience was logged. As the analysis continued, experiences were constantly compared and contrasted against each other and those that possessed similar features were labeled as the same concept ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"ztFSnbcn","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Corbin & Strauss, 1990)","plainCitation":"(Corbin & Strauss, 1990)"},"citationItems":[{"id":1336,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":1336,"type":"article-journal","title":"Grounded theory research: Procedures, canon, and evaluative criteria","URL":"","note":"00000","author":[{"family":"Corbin","given":"Juliet"},{"family":"Strauss","given":"Anselm"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["1990"]]},"accessed":{"date-parts":[["2016",12,7]]}}}],"schema":""} (Corbin & Strauss, 1990). After the second interview, a spider diagram was developed which enveloped the rudimentary emerging elements of the theory into a visual representation. As further interviews were conducted, concepts with similar elements were grouped together while concepts of similar types were separated into categories, resulting in an ongoing process of comparing, linking, and separating. Concepts that appeared to form a group or cluster were cross-referenced on the spreadsheet and each experience was compared with previous experiences in the same interview and experiences in different interviews ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"Zu74KQ1Z","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Glaser & Strauss, 2009)","plainCitation":"(Glaser & Strauss, 2009)"},"citationItems":[{"id":1449,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":1449,"type":"book","title":"The discovery of grounded theory: Strategies for qualitative research","publisher":"Aldine","publisher-place":"New Brunswick","number-of-pages":"271","edition":"4. paperback printing","source":"Gemeinsamer Bibliotheksverbund ISBN","event-place":"New Brunswick","ISBN":"978-0-202-30260-7","note":"88174 \nOCLC: 553535517","shortTitle":"The discovery of grounded theory","language":"eng","author":[{"family":"Glaser","given":"Barney G."},{"family":"Strauss","given":"Anselm L."}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2009"]]}}}],"schema":""} (Glaser & Strauss, 2009). Additional categories were noted until the interview process was concluded, at which point abstract definitions were developed for the categories ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"SYu9fooT","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Turner, 1981)","plainCitation":"(Turner, 1981)"},"citationItems":[{"id":1344,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":1344,"type":"article-journal","title":"Some practical aspects of qualitative data analysis: One way of organising the cognitive processes associated with the generation of grounded theory","container-title":"Quality and quantity","page":"225–247","volume":"15","issue":"3","source":"Google Scholar","note":"00573","shortTitle":"Some practical aspects of qualitative data analysis","author":[{"family":"Turner","given":"Barry A."}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["1981"]]}}}],"schema":""} (Turner, 1981). While developing categories, attention was given to other potential categories that might also be related, and links between categories were noted ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"IxnxV0BC","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Turner, 1981)","plainCitation":"(Turner, 1981)"},"citationItems":[{"id":1344,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":1344,"type":"article-journal","title":"Some practical aspects of qualitative data analysis: One way of organising the cognitive processes associated with the generation of grounded theory","container-title":"Quality and quantity","page":"225–247","volume":"15","issue":"3","source":"Google Scholar","note":"00573","shortTitle":"Some practical aspects of qualitative data analysis","author":[{"family":"Turner","given":"Barry A."}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["1981"]]}}}],"schema":""} (Turner, 1981). As linkages emerged, categories were collapsed into more general/abstract categories and a conceptual framework emerged ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"skRBZVmc","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Stern, 1980)","plainCitation":"(Stern, 1980)"},"citationItems":[{"id":1338,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":1338,"type":"article-journal","title":"Grounded theory methodology: Its uses and processes","container-title":"Image","page":"20–23","volume":"12","issue":"1","source":"Google Scholar","note":"00891","shortTitle":"Grounded theory methodology","author":[{"family":"Stern","given":"Phyllis Noerager"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["1980"]]}}}],"schema":""} (Stern, 1980). EthicsThis research study was completed in accordance with the McMaster University guidelines on ethical conduct for research involving humans. LimitationsA primary limitation of this study is its small sample size (only four participants), which prevented it from reaching theoretical saturation. The small sample size reflects both the difficulty in reaching relevant participants as well as issues with the timing of the study itself. First, due to the nature of the study, it was necessary to interview young adults who had experienced stability during care and had recently aged-out of care. Given that agency contact with young adults generally ceases at age 21 once they are discharged from care and there is no mechanism to remain in contact unless the young adult requests continued involvement, there was only a small subset of youth leaving care that was assessable to be interviewed. Furthermore, young adults that were both willing and available to take part in an interview made up an even smaller subset of this population. In general, this subset tends to be accessed repeatedly by researchers and Children’s Aid Societies’ wishing to “hear the voices of youth.” The size of this subset is out of proportion to its voice and the result is a small subset of young adults that speaks for the larger group. Second, it seems that the majority of the young adults who have experienced stability and are between the ages of 18 and 21 were also attending post-secondary education, and the timing of my interviews conflicted with studying and writing exams. Furthermore, some workers were hesitant to refer these young adults out of concern that answering the research questions might reopen old wounds and have a detrimental effect on their examinations. As a result of the inability to reach theoretical saturation, I was unable to reach the depth of analysis necessary to fully develop theory regarding belonging during the transition to adulthood.Consequently, a primary suggestion for future research design would be to increase sample size until theoretical saturation could be achieved. This could be accomplished by ensuring that interviews take place between May and September when young adults are generally not attending school, by having youth that meet the research criteria ‘refer’ other youth to the study who also meet the criteria, and by soliciting participants from a greater number of children’s aid societies thereby broadening the sample. For the explicit purpose of expanding the current study in order to reach theoretical saturation, another approach would be to solicit participants from formal youth advocacy groups such as YouthCan and the Office of the Children’s Advocate. Findings and Discussion:Five categories emerged from the data. The first category, Lack of Control was related to the emotional context of children as they are removed from their birth families and placed in foster care. The second and third categories, Realizing a Stable, Loving and Secure Home and Navigating Multiple Attachments each related to perceptual shifts that children in care experienced, provided that certain conditions were met. The fourth category, Gaining a Sense of Belonging related to the processes by which youth came to experience a sense of belonging. Finally, the fifth category, Successful Transition to Adulthood reflected properties that contributed to young adults experiencing successful outcomes during the transition to adulthood.Lack of ControlOne category that emerged was Lack of Control, which reflected how little control each young adult felt over their lives as children in the care of the children’s aid society. Youth spoke emotionally about the lack of control they felt during their time in care. Having a sense of control or mastery over one’s life as a whole enables an individual to cope with those particular life stresses that are beyond control whereas individuals that do not develop a sense of mastery may instead experience powerlessness or alienation ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"XtSJpEXO","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Rotter, 1966)","plainCitation":"(Rotter, 1966)"},"citationItems":[{"id":1582,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":1582,"type":"article-journal","title":"Generalized expectancies for internal versus external control of reinforcement.","container-title":"Psychological monographs: General and applied","page":"1","volume":"80","issue":"1","source":"Google Scholar","note":"25059","author":[{"family":"Rotter","given":"Julian B."}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["1966"]]}}}],"schema":""} (Rotter, 1966). Properties associated with a Lack of Control included parentification/adultication, removal from parental home, judgement from others, and lack of information.Parentification/adultication and the desire to continue exerting influence and control over one’s living situation presents challenges to children when they enter foster care. Many of these youth entered care after living in situations where they worked hard to exert influence over their environment, in order to have a sense of safety. Some youth spoke about taking on parenting roles in their birth homes; often striving to take care of younger siblings amidst difficult circumstances. For example, TheVoice talked about how she used to make her brother breakfast, using whatever food she could find in the house, when her mother was unable to get out of bed due to her depression. Often this ‘breakfast’ consisted of dry cereal with water, as they did not have any milk. In describing her caregiving role, TheVoice commented “I was already an adult from a young age”. A second property in this category was removal from parental home. The youths’ sense of having a lack of control commenced with their abrupt removal from their homes and their parents’ care, continued into their initial foster home placements, and culminated when they were each made crown wards and permanently removed from their parents’ custody. This sense of being out of control after being removed from the parental home pervaded many dimensions of their lives, such as education [“I had no control over which school I went to” (TheVoice], mental health [“I was forced to take meds that I didn’t want to take” (TheVoice)], the kind and degree of support they received, access with their parents, and where and with whom they would live. The lack of control and the emotional strain it posed is described by Rachel:I really didn’t have too much power … I was a crown ward so CAS made most of my decisions, told me where to visit, when to visit, where to go, when to go. I think not having really too much say in the fact really ... [a heavy silence ensued] … I struggled with it”While listening to this experience, I could hear the sadness in Rachel’s voice as recounting this lack of control took her back to an unhappy time in her life.A third property of Lack of Control is judgement from others. In addition to feeling that they had little control over tangible areas of their lives, the young adults expressed how many intangibilities were also beyond their control. These included: the judgements others made about them based on preconceived notions of what it means to be a ‘foster kid’, the resulting stigmatization, and the laying bare of their very personal life stories. Kools ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"yB5k7Syp","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(1997, p. 267)","plainCitation":"(1997, p. 267)"},"citationItems":[{"id":382,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":382,"type":"article-journal","title":"Adolescent identity development in foster care","container-title":"Family Relations","page":"263-271","volume":"46","issue":"3","source":"JSTOR","abstract":"This study examined the impact of long-term foster care on adolescents. Dimensional analysis was used to investigate adolescent perceptions of impact. Foster care was found to have a negative impact on identity development. The institutional structure of group foster care, diminished status, and stereotypical view of the foster child, contribute to devaluation of the adolescent's self by others. Suggestions for clinical practice and program development are made to reduce devaluating experiences and promote normative adolescent development.","DOI":"10.2307/585124","ISSN":"0197-6664","note":"00128 \nArticleType: research-article / Full publication date: Jul., 1997 / Copyright ? 1997 National Council on Family Relations","journalAbbreviation":"Family Relations","author":[{"family":"Kools","given":"Susan M."}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["1997",7,1]]}},"locator":"267","label":"page","suppress-author":true}],"schema":""} (1997, p. 267) defines stigmatization as “the devaluation of one’s personal identity by others through biased assumptions, description or identification in negative, stereotypical terms, and behavioural expectations and treatment in accordance with these biases or labels”. Stigmatization can have a negative impact on one’s sense of self, interpersonal relationships, and the development of independence. Specifically, foster youth that have experienced stigmatization may have lowered feelings of self-worth, social isolation, a lack of family connection, low self-confidence, and a lack of future orientation. ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"YBa8snNK","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Kools, 1997)","plainCitation":"(Kools, 1997)"},"citationItems":[{"id":382,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":382,"type":"article-journal","title":"Adolescent identity development in foster care","container-title":"Family Relations","page":"263-271","volume":"46","issue":"3","source":"JSTOR","abstract":"This study examined the impact of long-term foster care on adolescents. Dimensional analysis was used to investigate adolescent perceptions of impact. Foster care was found to have a negative impact on identity development. The institutional structure of group foster care, diminished status, and stereotypical view of the foster child, contribute to devaluation of the adolescent's self by others. Suggestions for clinical practice and program development are made to reduce devaluating experiences and promote normative adolescent development.","DOI":"10.2307/585124","ISSN":"0197-6664","note":"00128 \nArticleType: research-article / Full publication date: Jul., 1997 / Copyright ? 1997 National Council on Family Relations","journalAbbreviation":"Family Relations","author":[{"family":"Kools","given":"Susan M."}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["1997",7,1]]}}}],"schema":""} (Kools, 1997). The youth in my study described the school environment as being particularly problematic – they spoke about being bullied [“the older boys would make fun of me and my sister” (Jill)], having teachers evaluate them more stringently because they were foster kids, and being frequently suspended. In addition, a couple of youth spoke about how being in care made it difficult to access an appropriate educational setting without feeling they had to ‘prove’ themselves to the school administration:They had to literally sit down at a table and decide whether I … was welcome [and] a good fit … they know I’m a foster kid and automatically, they think I’m a hooligan.The perception of being treated differently because of being a ‘foster kid’ led TheVoice to guard her in-care status from certain teachers. Despite this effort, she felt that “everybody in my school knew I was a foster kid so that caused me a lot of conflict … and being treated differently.” A fourth property of a Lack of Control is lack of information. Youth expressed how they felt a lack of control over the amount and nature of personal information possessed by the Children’s Aid Society about them and shared with others while they were given little information themselves about their situation in care. As the Society is the legal guardian, information pertaining to a particular child in care may be shared with school officials, foster parents, therapists, family court judges, and others involved with the child in order to provide for their appropriate care, without the child’s consent or knowledge. Some of this information may be details that the children themselves are unaware of or not privy to (such as suspected sexual abuse or incidences of domestic violence between parents) or that they would not want anyone else to know due to shame or embarrassment (such as childhood enuresis or suicidal ideation). Even when information is not shared outside of the agency, intimate details of children’s experiences are documented in the case file; their lives “recorded in notes”, leading TheVoice to disclose “I felt like the CAS knew more about me than I did … I always felt like people know more [about me and my life] than me.”For these young adults, the life event of being taken into foster care was a turning point that launched them on a different trajectory. This trajectory was further shaped by a cascade of additional life events such as a change in schools, change in recreation activities, change in residence, changes in personal habits, changes in friendships, and changes in the amount of family contact; changes that were unanticipated, atypical, and uncontrollable. This altered trajectory, which led several of the young adults down the pathway of school suspensions, issues with peers, risk-taking behaviour, and foster care disruption, could have ultimately led to placement in a group home or shelter, homelessness, dropping out of school, teen pregnancy, and addiction; in short, the negative outcomes discussed earlier. The fact that each of the young adults interviewed experienced good outcomes in spite of this life event, speaks to their resiliency and the presence of other turning points that changed their life trajectories for the better.Realizing a Stable, Loving, and Secure HomeThe naming of this category comes from TheVoice, who described the kind of home she hoped to provide for her foster son, the kind of foster home she experienced with her own foster parents. This category relates to attachment theory as developed by Bowlby ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"5vDVCiVM","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(1969)","plainCitation":"(1969)"},"citationItems":[{"id":446,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":446,"type":"chapter","title":"Attachment and Loss","container-title":"Attachment and Loss: Vol. 1.","collection-title":"Attachment","collection-number":"1","publisher":"Hogarth Press","publisher-place":"London","event-place":"London","author":[{"family":"Bowlby","given":"J."}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["1969"]]}},"suppress-author":true}],"schema":""} (1969), particularly the idea of having a secure base and the notion of felt security. Each of the young adults in my study shared how they came to realize their foster home and foster parents as stable, loving, and secure. Several properties were associated with this category and reflected qualities of the foster parents: present and engaged, acceptance, and love and encouragement. Foster parents that were perceived as being present and engaged were not only aware of the child’s inner life but also expressed care about how the child was feeling. They were both physically and emotionally involved. Youth spoke about how foster parents were “there, always right there,” how “she could tell something was bothering me and she would try to pry it out of me,” and how “they always showed they cared.” Being present and engaged appears to be foundational to realizing a stable, loving, and secure home as none of the other characteristics could come to fruition unless the foster parent was physically present and emotionally engaged.A second property associated with this category was acceptance, specifically the youth’s perception that the foster parents accepted them in spite of their behaviour. In their interviews, youth gave many examples of how their foster parents had an understanding of the motivation or rationale for their behaviour, even though they themselves were unaware. This capacity to separate behaviour from individual worth – to disapprove of the behaviour but not the child – contributed to the child feeling safe and valued as a person. As Jill commented, “every time I got into trouble, they didn’t treat me as a bad person.” For foster children that struggle to exert control over their environment, acceptance and understanding by foster parents are critical if there is any chance of developing a secure base. Although children in care have little control over where they go to live, they have absolute control over where they don’t live, and can engage in testing behaviours that appear designed to break down a placement. For example, TheVoice related how two years into her foster placement, she started testing her foster parents “and they still didn’t shove … still loved me … still wanted to keep me … that’s kind of when I settled in”. Similarly, TheWall shared how his foster parents responded to his testing behaviour and what it meant to him:‘We're going to be here, we're not leaving you'. Because they felt that it was because they were leaving that I was always doing this. It slowed down after they told me that."When foster parents were able to pass the test of a child’s self-sabotaging behaviours and not take it personally, it reaffirmed to the child that they mattered, they were worthy, and they were valued as a person. This further contributed to the child realizing a stable, loving, and secure home.A third property associated with this category was love and encouragement and reflects the degree to which the child perceived that the foster parents offered affection and support. Youth spoke about experiencing love and encouragement from the time they first moved into the home, in the form of welcoming. For example, Jill happily remembered being shown to her new room and how “there were stars on the ceiling, a nice new bed with a stuffed animal” while TheVoice recollected how her foster parents gave her a silver locket with their picture in it as a welcome gift. Youth gave many examples of how their foster parents expressed love for them; verbally [“they always told me they loved me”(TheVoice)]; by noticeably worrying about them [“I know they feared for me … that I’d get pregnant at a young age”(Jill)]; and by protecting them [“if it wasn’t for them … protecting me through all that hard stuff … [they] just did everything they could”(Jill)]. In addition to offering love, youth also recounted numerous incidents of their foster parents giving them encouragement and cheering them on. For example, Jill described how her foster parents:Always pushed me even when I told them I was stupid and can’t do it … they’d keep pushing me through school no matter what … they kept building me up.Although this offer of love and encouragement may not have initially been believed or accepted, the consistent offering in itself, within the context of present and engaged foster parents who were understanding and accepting … who “never stopped loving me even when I hurt their feelings”(TheVoice) … had a restorative effect on their sense of self-worth and enabled the realization of a stable, loving, and secure home. Navigating Multiple AttachmentsAnother category that emerged from my study was the challenges youth faced in navigating multiple attachments to the birth family and their foster family. Similar to what children of divorce experience during a custody and access dispute ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"55hwNrUW","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Elkin, 1987)","plainCitation":"(Elkin, 1987)"},"citationItems":[{"id":1562,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":1562,"type":"article-journal","title":"Joint custody: Affirming that parents and families are forever","container-title":"Social Work","page":"18-24","volume":"32","issue":"1","note":"00000","author":[{"family":"Elkin","given":"Meyer"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["1987"]]}}}],"schema":""} (Elkin, 1987), children in care face a landscape of shifting relationships between the family they were born into and the family they were placed with. Successful navigation of these relationships results in children resolving any issues of divided loyalty, and feeling free to be attached to and identify as part of their foster family while maintaining a healthy connection to their birth family, according to their own terms. Properties of this category include influence of immediate birth family, influence of extended birth family, and influence of foster family. The immediate birth family may exert either a negative or a positive influence on successful navigation. One negative influence occurs when the birth parent(s) pressure the child to be loyal to them alone and to reject the foster parents’ offers of affection or love. For example, Jill described how her mother “kind of started giving me trouble for trying to show them love” and how she would tell Jill and her sister that their foster parents were not good enough for them. Actively sabotaging the child’s attachment to the foster parents appears to originate from the birth parents’ fears that their child’s love is a limited quantity, believing that if the child expresses attachment to the foster parent, it means they no longer love them. Another negative influence on successful navigation occurs when birth parents reject the child by engaging in negative and hurtful behaviour during access visits. Jill spoke about the negative interactions she had with her mother during visits and how her mother would be mean to her, make fun of her, “and not really be a good parent.” Similarly, TheVoice disclosed how her relationship with her mother brought her a lot of sadness, and how she would be more upset and have more issues when she came back from visits. Perhaps an even greater negative influence occurs when parents withdraw from their relationship with their child by missing visits or ultimately terminating contact. Each of the youth in my study related how they were deeply affected by their parents’ gradual withdrawal from visiting them, and how it made them question if they were worthy of being loved. For Jill, this rejection translated into anger: When I was young and our parents would cancel our visits … I’d be so mad … I would bike ride all around … I’d even ride right past his house just to see if he was lying. Most times he was … he just didn’t want to see [me].Rachel, whose mother accepted a no-contact order, felt betrayed and confused:I of course, losing a mother, it was a little traumatic for me. But I was very confused because she had . . . betrayed me in a way that I never thought a mother should or would. And so I really really struggled with . . . am I supposed to be missing her? Am I supposed to be visiting her? How am I not to have any contact with my mother? My birth mother?While a child may suffer from a loss of self-worth at this rejection, decreased contact with the birth parents may reduce the sense of divided loyalty, thereby facilitating attachment to the foster parents by default, provided that the child views the foster family as a safe, loving, and secure home. However, if the child experiences rejection from their birth family and does not see the foster family as a viable attachment alternative (essentially rejecting the foster family), the child will be left with no attachments, and may be at risk of developing an attachment disorder. Birth families, especially the extended birth family, can exert a strong positive influence on children’s ability to successfully navigate multiple attachments. Youth gave several examples where their parents accepted their foster parents’ relationship with them, held their foster parents in a positive regard, and expressed gratitude for the care they provided. This appeared more likely to occur once parents had resigned themselves to the children being in care, often after litigation had concluded and the children had been made Crown Wards. In cases where the birth parents engage in pressuring or rejecting behaviours, the extended birth family can play a critical role in getting children on track, by helping them to maintain a sense of connection to their roots while giving them permission to attach to their foster parents. TheVoice, who maintained regular visits with her aunt and grandmother, described how this relationship “made me feel like my family wanted a sense of connection with me … like I was still loved and cared about by them.” TheVoice further related how her extended family served an instrumental role in helping her to build her sense of identity and by answering questions she had about her mother in a manner that was open and honest, thereby helping her to overcome feeling rejected. When the extended family accepts the child’s relationship with the foster parents while continuing to maintain its connection with the child, it essentially gives the child permission to be attached to the foster parents as well as the birth family, increasing the likelihood of the child successfully navigating multiple attachments.Foster parents can also exert both a positive or negative influence on successful navigation. In addition to the positive influence of providing a secure, stable, and loving home, foster parents exert a positive influence when they demonstrate an acceptance of the child’s need for a continued relationship with the birth family. This acceptance can be communicated by ‘including’ the birth family through formalized ‘inclusive fostering’ arrangements or informally by the foster parents facilitating access and building a positive working relationship with the birth family. Accepting the child’s need for a continued relationship can be very difficult for foster parents, particularly when the child has disclosed about the abuse and neglect they experienced or when the child acts out after visits, leading foster parents to feel anger towards the birth family and wanting to reduce access in order to protect the child. TheVoice illustrated this dynamic when she observed: “I guess they never really understood why I had a relationship with somebody that caused me so much emotional harm.” If foster parents are unable to manager their negative feelings towards the birth family and are unable to tolerate the child’s negative behaviour following visits, they are more likely to discourage access. This can take the form of putting in road blocks (such as suddenly being unable to transport the child to visits or supervise them), speaking disparagingly about the parents, or enticing the child to choose to spend time with the foster family instead of with the parents (such as scheduling fun family events to occur at the same time as visits, so that the child chooses the ‘fun’ event instead). By de-valuing the birth family and the child’s contact with them, the foster parent also de-values the child and negatively influences their successful navigation.While the influence of the birth family and the foster family can make navigating multiple attachments easier or harder, the manner in which they are navigated is ultimately determined by the child. As Rachel experienced:my grandmother really really tried her best to show me in any way that you can show a 7 year old that your family is not just blood, it's really who you make it to be.Youth in my study gave many examples of how they demonstrated agency in navigating their multiple attachments. Some of the youth, such as Rachel, opted to cut off contact with particular members of their birth families who were a negative influence while maintaining a relationship with those who accepted them and their attachment to their foster parents. Other youth, such as TheWall, decided to keep a strong connection to both their birth family and their foster parents by using various strategies to keep the peace, such as not referring to the foster mom as “mom” during visits and avoiding talking about things that reminded the parents of how they were ‘taken’. Jill spoke about how her sister, who was initially placed with her, was unable to navigate having multiple attachments and rejected the foster parents, instead choosing loyalty to her mother and pressuring Jill to be loyal to her as well. Jill further noted “when my sister left, I found I could actually be myself” and was able to attach to her foster parents. Gaining a Sense of BelongingNot surprisingly, the dominant category to emerge from the data was how youth had gained a sense of belonging. Properties associated with this category included family rituals, solidarity, family relationships, family identity, and family culture ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"6K55YBp1","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Schofield, 2002)","plainCitation":"(Schofield, 2002)"},"citationItems":[{"id":165,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":165,"type":"article-journal","title":"The significance of a secure base: a psychosocial model of long-term foster care","container-title":"Child & Family Social Work","page":"259-272","volume":"7","issue":"4","source":"EBSCOhost","archive":"sih","abstract":"ABSTRACT Long-term foster care has been a much neglected area of social work practice and research. Yet there are obvious challenges that need to be understood when building a family for life in foster care. Is it possible for foster families, where there are no biological or legal ties between carers and children, to provide care, concern and family membership not only through childhood but also into adult life? The study on which this paper is based set out to explore that question by investigating the experiences of 40 adults, aged 18–30, who grew up in foster families. Qualitative interviews were conducted, transcribed and analysed. Theoretical frameworks from attachment and resilience were brought together with concepts such as ‘belonging’ and ‘family membership’ to make sense of the narratives provided. An integrated and dynamic psychosocial model of long-term foster care was developed, which emphasizes the significance of a secure base and has some important implications for practice. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]","DOI":"10.1046/j.1365-2206.2002.00254.x","ISSN":"13567500","call-number":"7704063","shortTitle":"The significance of a secure base","journalAbbreviation":"Child & Family Social Work","author":[{"family":"Schofield","given":"Gillian"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2002",11]]}}}],"schema":""} (Schofield, 2002). Youth’s interpretation of the significance of each property varied while the data suggested that family rituals and solidarity may have a formative influence on family relationships, family culture, and ultimately, gaining a sense of belonging. Belonging to a family meant participating in family rituals, in particular being welcomed to, and an integral part of, family events, rituals, and celebrations. The youth in my study each related numerous examples of how they had been included in the ‘life’ of the family. Being included started with the simple act of being invited (either with the rest of the family or as an individual) and involved events ranging from mundane occurrences such as dinner at grandma’s house to expensive and elaborate family vacations to Disneyland or the Tropics. TheWall described what impact this inclusion had on him:I felt like their son pretty much. Because they took me on trips and all that. But my few other foster homes never would. They’d always send me to a different foster home when they went away.The contrast between his perceived level of inclusion at his current foster home and his previous foster homes is striking in its effect on his sense of belonging. Being included as part of the foster family was particularly important at Christmas, which is usually a time of year where foster children feel the loss of their birth family most pointedly. Each of the youth described how they were included in Christmas celebrations and in one case where the foster parents created a new Christmas tradition in her honour. Being included is about being granted equal opportunity to take part in family life – the same opportunity granted to any other family member.The property of solidarity, as conceptualized by Schofield ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"3fvwg1KO","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(2002)","plainCitation":"(2002)"},"citationItems":[{"id":165,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":165,"type":"article-journal","title":"The significance of a secure base: a psychosocial model of long-term foster care","container-title":"Child & Family Social Work","page":"259-272","volume":"7","issue":"4","source":"EBSCOhost","archive":"sih","abstract":"ABSTRACT Long-term foster care has been a much neglected area of social work practice and research. Yet there are obvious challenges that need to be understood when building a family for life in foster care. Is it possible for foster families, where there are no biological or legal ties between carers and children, to provide care, concern and family membership not only through childhood but also into adult life? The study on which this paper is based set out to explore that question by investigating the experiences of 40 adults, aged 18–30, who grew up in foster families. Qualitative interviews were conducted, transcribed and analysed. Theoretical frameworks from attachment and resilience were brought together with concepts such as ‘belonging’ and ‘family membership’ to make sense of the narratives provided. An integrated and dynamic psychosocial model of long-term foster care was developed, which emphasizes the significance of a secure base and has some important implications for practice. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]","DOI":"10.1046/j.1365-2206.2002.00254.x","ISSN":"13567500","call-number":"7704063","shortTitle":"The significance of a secure base","journalAbbreviation":"Child & Family Social Work","author":[{"family":"Schofield","given":"Gillian"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2002",11]]}},"suppress-author":true}],"schema":""} (2002) is operationalized by the foster family recognizing the foster child as ‘kin’, with the same rights, privileges, and responsibilities as any other family member. Youth in my study experienced solidarity in terms of being treated “as their own” by both the foster family and the extended foster family during their time in care and into adulthood. Youth spoke about being treated as good as or better than the foster family’s biological children, and that “there wasn’t a favourite in the house, we were all favourites” (Jill). One of the tenets of solidarity is reciprocal trust and support wherein family members rely that each member will fulfill their promises, provide support, and reciprocate in turn. For example, Rachel described her adult foster sister “having me watch their home … just trusting me in ways that you could do with a family member, that you should be able to do with a family member.” The property of family relationships refers to the way in which the youth and foster parent identified themselves in terms of a familial relationship, and was operationalized in the idea of ‘claiming’ and ‘proclaiming’ family membership. This involved how youth, foster parents, and the foster family talked about the family and how the youth belonged with it. It involved the youth laying claim to their place in the family, and the family proclaiming the youth’s place in it ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"javdf20tg","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Christiansen et al., 2012; Frey et al., 2008)","plainCitation":"(Christiansen et al., 2012; Frey et al., 2008)"},"citationItems":[{"id":24,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":24,"type":"article-journal","title":"Cautious belonging: Relationships in long-term foster-care","container-title":"British Journal of Social Work","source":"bjsw..libaccess.lib.mcmaster.ca","abstract":"Long-term foster-care represents a frame for childhood and family life with distinct fea-\ntures and multiple challenges. This qualitative study concerns forty-three Norwegian\nyoung persons who have stayed in their foster placement for at least four years. Rela-\ntionships between them and their foster families were explored through interviews\nwith the young persons, their foster-carers, parents and social workers. The overall\npicture is that the foster families provided the children with a secure environment\nand an experience of belonging to the family. Most young persons also had a sense of\nbelonging to their birth families. Nearly all were likely to stay with their foster-carers\nbeyond their eighteenth birthday and both parts anticipated future contact. However,\na number of foster-carers expressed cautious expectations about the character of their\nfuture contact, due to their understanding that the nature of the relationship depended\non the young persons’ own choice. The study calls into question whether child welfare\npolicy and practice fully acknowledge and make the best out of the potential of long-\nterm foster-care for offering children lifelong support and belonging.","URL":"","DOI":"10.1093/bjsw/bcr198","ISSN":"0045-3102, 1468-263X","note":"00009","shortTitle":"Cautious Belonging","journalAbbreviation":"Br J Soc Work","language":"en","author":[{"family":"Christiansen","given":"?ivin"},{"family":"Havnen","given":"Karen J. S."},{"family":"Havik","given":"Toril"},{"family":"Anderssen","given":"Norman"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2012",1,10]]},"accessed":{"date-parts":[["2012",10,6]]}}},{"id":147,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":147,"type":"article-journal","title":"Achieving permanency for youth in foster care: assessing and strengthening emotional security","container-title":"Child & Family Social Work","page":"218-226","volume":"13","issue":"2","source":"EBSCOhost","archive":"sih","abstract":"For some youth in foster care, the closest family or family-like relationships are with the foster parents with whom they have lived for extended periods of time. Nonetheless, child welfare agencies often do not explore these relationships and the potential they may hold for youth for legal permanence through adoption or guardianship. Recognizing that social workers often lack resources to help them initiate permanency conversations, Casey Family Services, a direct service child welfare agency in the USA, developed a tool that social workers can use to explore youth's sense of emotional security with their foster parents and foster parents' sense of claiming and attachment with youth in their care. The research literature that suggests that emotional security is a critical component of successful permanence provided the foundation for the development of the Belonging and Emotional Security Tool (BEST). When used with youth and foster parents, the BEST was found to advance meaningful permanency conversations. The authors provide case examples of its use and discuss future directions for using the BEST and broadening its application. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]","DOI":"10.1111/j.1365-2206.2007.00539.x","ISSN":"13567500","call-number":"31544739","shortTitle":"Achieving permanency for youth in foster care","journalAbbreviation":"Child & Family Social Work","author":[{"family":"Frey","given":"Lauren"},{"family":"Cushing","given":"Gretta"},{"family":"Freundlich","given":"Madelyn"},{"family":"Brenner","given":"Eliot"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2008",5]]}}}],"schema":""} (Christiansen et al., 2012; Frey et al., 2008). This was reflected in the use of family-centric labels, such as “mom” and “son” when speaking directly to one another, when thinking about each other, or when describing their relationship to others. Youth in my study expressed a strong sense of family relationship. While not every youth referred to their foster parents as “mom” or “dad” in face-to-face conversations, each of them described their relationship in terms of family: “I see her as a mom more than anything” (Rachel), and used those terms when describing their relationship to others. Most noticeable was the way in which the limiting prefix “foster” had been dropped from their vocabulary – no longer did they refer to their caregivers as foster mom and foster dad when describing their relationship but rather just ‘mom’ and ‘dad’. It was also evident that their foster parents referred to them in the same way. According to Christiansen et al. ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"Ntijxoc4","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(2012)","plainCitation":"(2012)"},"citationItems":[{"id":24,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":24,"type":"article-journal","title":"Cautious belonging: Relationships in long-term foster-care","container-title":"British Journal of Social Work","source":"bjsw..libaccess.lib.mcmaster.ca","abstract":"Long-term foster-care represents a frame for childhood and family life with distinct fea-\ntures and multiple challenges. This qualitative study concerns forty-three Norwegian\nyoung persons who have stayed in their foster placement for at least four years. Rela-\ntionships between them and their foster families were explored through interviews\nwith the young persons, their foster-carers, parents and social workers. The overall\npicture is that the foster families provided the children with a secure environment\nand an experience of belonging to the family. Most young persons also had a sense of\nbelonging to their birth families. Nearly all were likely to stay with their foster-carers\nbeyond their eighteenth birthday and both parts anticipated future contact. However,\na number of foster-carers expressed cautious expectations about the character of their\nfuture contact, due to their understanding that the nature of the relationship depended\non the young persons’ own choice. The study calls into question whether child welfare\npolicy and practice fully acknowledge and make the best out of the potential of long-\nterm foster-care for offering children lifelong support and belonging.","URL":"","DOI":"10.1093/bjsw/bcr198","ISSN":"0045-3102, 1468-263X","note":"00009","shortTitle":"Cautious Belonging","journalAbbreviation":"Br J Soc Work","language":"en","author":[{"family":"Christiansen","given":"?ivin"},{"family":"Havnen","given":"Karen J. S."},{"family":"Havik","given":"Toril"},{"family":"Anderssen","given":"Norman"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2012",1,10]]},"accessed":{"date-parts":[["2012",10,6]]}},"suppress-author":true}],"schema":""} (2012), this act of claiming and proclaiming family relationship is seen as a test, a demonstration, and/or a confirmation of a stronger affiliation to the youth and the foster parents. When discussing their family relationship, youth recounted the first time that they had called their foster parents ‘mom’ and ‘dad’, and how their foster parents’ had reacted by affirming their relationship. For example:Just one day out of the blue I looked at them [and thought] "you are actually my parents, you're not just these people who brought me in to protect me from my own birth parents, you brought me in as your kid”, so from there I just started calling them mom and dad. …They were ... shocked as far as I can tell because they looked at me a little funny and kind of wanted to cry. … [I] wanted them to be my forever home, people that I could come back do when done college or have my things. (Jill)Developing a family relationship did not happen overnight, but rather appeared to be a gradual cognitive and emotional process that resulted from successfully navigating multiple attachments (thereby reducing any feeling of guilt for calling the foster parents ‘mom and dad’), feeling included, and being treated as kin. The property of family identity reflects the extent to which youth identified as, and was identified by others as, belonging to a particular family. Family identity links both relationship belonging (as reflected in the family relationship dimension), and place belonging (feeling at home in a particular neighbourhood, community or location). Being seen as part of a particular family by the community legitimizes a youth’s sense of belonging – adding objective reinforcement to their subjective reality. Youth gave numerous examples of how their local community acknowledged them as belonging to their foster family. For example, TheVoice described how: I felt very safe, it was a very safe environment. I always felt at peace being there. … I felt very accepted . . . actually, and I think most of them knew I was a foster kid too but I felt very accepted. As Antonsich ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"YGsxu3mr","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(2010)","plainCitation":"(2010)"},"citationItems":[{"id":1229,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":1229,"type":"article-journal","title":"Searching for belonging - an analytical framework","container-title":"Geography Compass","page":"644-659","volume":"4","issue":"6","source":"CrossRef","DOI":"10.1111/j.1749-8198.2009.00317.x","ISSN":"17498198, 17498198","note":"00164","shortTitle":"Searching for Belonging - An Analytical Framework","language":"en","author":[{"family":"Antonsich","given":"Marco"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2010",6,4]]}},"suppress-author":true}],"schema":""} (2010) points out, to feel ‘at home’ in a place is both a personal and social matter, as belonging requires negotiating the boundary separating one from the other and/or us from them . . . what is termed “the politics of belonging” ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"lgBaErKG","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Yuval-Davis, 2006)","plainCitation":"(Yuval-Davis, 2006)"},"citationItems":[{"id":1318,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":1318,"type":"article-journal","title":"Belonging and the politics of belonging","container-title":"Patterns of Prejudice","page":"197-214","volume":"40","issue":"3","source":"CrossRef","DOI":"10.1080/00313220600769331","ISSN":"0031-322X, 1461-7331","note":"00591","language":"en","author":[{"family":"Yuval-Davis","given":"Nira"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2006",7]]}}}],"schema":""} (Yuval-Davis, 2006). Belonging entails two opposite sides: a side that claims belonging and a side that has the power of granting belonging through an ongoing process of negotiation. Belonging must be reciprocal – not only must the youth feel they belong with the foster family, but the foster family must also feel the youth belongs with them, and accepts them, in a shared identity ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"4kuha2h4p","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Schofield et al., 2007)","plainCitation":"(Schofield et al., 2007)"},"citationItems":[{"id":173,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":173,"type":"article-journal","title":"The search for stability and permanence: Modelling the pathways of long-stay looked after children","container-title":"British Journal of Social Work","page":"619-642","volume":"37","issue":"4","source":"EBSCOhost","archive":"sih","abstract":"This paper presents findings from a study of children looked after by 24 local authorities. It combines analysis of statistical data with analysis of qualitative and quantitative data from a questionnaire survey of a targeted sub-sample of children who had been looked after for 4 years or more. The paper highlights a complex picture of continuity and discontinuity in attempts to achieve stability and permanence in a range of birth family, foster care, adoption, residential and leaving care placements for long-stay children. Some long-stay children are moving smoothly and in a planned way towards a family for life, while some experience long periods in stable but temporary placements or have a number of moves prior to finding stability and a sense of belonging. A further group of children experience stability or moves while looked after, without having a family to belong to when they move into adult life. The paper discusses the difficulty with the Government's current long-stay performance measure in capturing the difference between stability in placement and planned permanence for children and families. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]","ISSN":"00453102","call-number":"26026818","shortTitle":"The Search For Stability and Permanence","journalAbbreviation":"British Journal of Social Work","author":[{"family":"Schofield","given":"Gillian"},{"family":"Thoburn","given":"June"},{"family":"Howell","given":"Darren"},{"family":"Dickens","given":"Jonathan"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2007",6]]}}}],"schema":""} (Schofield et al., 2007). Family identity reflects the role of the neighbourhood and community in this dynamic.A final property is family culture. This property involves how youth ‘adopted’ the values, norms, and expectations of their foster family. Examples of shared values cited by youth in my study included positive values, such as honesty, working hard, being responsible, and keeping commitments as well as moral prohibitions against pre-marital sex and co-habitation. Shared norms included working (as opposed to being on social assistance), making family a priority (as opposed to putting oneself first), and graduating high school (as opposed to dropping out). Shared expectations included pursuing a post-secondary education, and giving back to the community. For the youth in my study, examples of how they had adopted their foster families’ cultures were intertwined with examples of how they had disowned those of their birth families. For example, Jill related how:If I chose my mom, my birth mom over my parents, I would have become pregnant at a young age . . . the outcome would have been completely different. I wouldn't have done college, I wouldn't even have graduated from high school because my mom wouldn't force me to . . . because she doesn't understand how education affects people nowadays.Most youth described how they looked to their birth families’ culture as an object lesson in what ‘not’ to do in order to be a successful adult or parent. Although the adoption of a shared family culture may not be inevitable, it does appear to be encouraged by the presence of the other properties of belonging.Being included in family rituals and experiencing solidarity through being treated as one of the family supported the development of close familial relationships, thereby creating a sense of belonging. Youth’s subjective sense of belonging was legitimized by objective reality when neighbours and the local community identified them as belonging to the family. Finally, sense of belonging was perpetuated by the development of a shared family culture wherein youth adopted the norms, values, and expectations of their foster families. Youth expressed feeling fortunate that they were able to belong to the foster family and were appreciative of the opportunity given them by foster parents who went above and beyond their expectations. Jill expressed this appreciation:They didn't have to take us kids on. They didn't have to be foster parents, they chose to be. And they didn't have to be half of what they were. So I hope that one day I can be at least somewhat what they'd be. This appreciation was particularly noted around transition points, where the foster family literally and figuratively stood in the place vacated by the birth family. Rachel described the importance of having her foster family there for her grade eight graduation: What greatly impacted me was the sense of a real family, you know, having the ideal mother, brothers, dad, sister. Just having that . . . so picture-perfect frame made me feel as though I am a real normal kid. I don't have a cracked-up mother or an alcohol abusive father. I have a normal family for once and I think that's what made me feel as if I was normal and I belong with them. Because I am a normal kid, I guess.The feeling of normalcy that comes from belonging to a family had a positive impact on youth’s self-worth, and resiliency. Youth contrasted their experience with that of their siblings who were unable to manage multiple attachments, underwent repeated placement breakdowns, and who continued down the trajectory established by their birth family.Although each youth in my study demonstrated a strong sense of belonging to their foster families, there was an underlying awkwardness – almost like a residual sense of ‘otherness’ that possibly came from not being biologically related, and which would occasionally be expressed to the foster parents. For example, Rachel recounted going to her paternal foster grandmother’s funeral:There was a time at the funeral where, you know, immediate family sits up at the front during the service . . . I wasn't sure where I stood in a situation like that, so I had sat at the back with my foster aunt and uncle. After the funeral, they had come up to me. . . 'why did you sit back there?' I said 'I wasn't really sure where I should sit, seeing as it was immediate family.', he [foster father] said ' what do you think you are?' So, um . . . I think that showed me that he really does feel I'm one of his, even though it's his mother that just passed away. I think little things like that just definitely shows that it is mutual, reciprocal feelings. I've never really experienced anything with them that showed me otherwise. When foster parents’ acknowledge this awkwardness and reaffirm that youth are indeed, not just family but ‘immediate family’, youth’s sense of belonging is reinforced.Successful Transition to AdulthoodThe young adults in my study had similar positive outcomes in their transitions to adulthood in terms of normative life experiences, educational success, and levels of emotional support and connection. Each placed a high importance on education and were planning to attend, attending, or had completed post-secondary education. These outcomes place them within the ‘moving on’ group of young adults leaving care described by Stein ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"cybGQnQK","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(2008)","plainCitation":"(2008)"},"citationItems":[{"id":344,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":344,"type":"article-journal","title":"Resilience and young people leaving care","container-title":"Child Care in Practice","page":"35-44","volume":"14","issue":"1","ISSN":"13575279","author":[{"family":"Stein","given":"Mike"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2008",1,1]]}},"suppress-author":true}],"schema":""} (2008) above. The category Successful Transition to Adulthood was comprised of three properties: agency in relationships, extended transition, opportunities for self-efficacy, and strength in adversity.Agency in relationships reflects how the agency that youth developed in successfully navigating multiple attachments within the context of gaining a sense of belonging empowered them to create healthy and harmonious relationships with their birth and foster parents as adults. The transition to adulthood marked a turning point in terms of these relationships. Turning 18 meant that these young adults were no longer considered children by the Child and Family Services Act and the Children’s Aid Society, freeing them from prior terms and conditions regarding access. The young adults described the agency that arose from being able to dictate the degree and nature of contact with their birth parents without the constraints imposed by the Society. As Rachel recounted:I’m allowed to not talk to my family when I want to, I’m allowed to tell them whatever I want to say without feeling like I’m going to hurt somebody’s feelings.This new-found agency contrasted with the lack of control over access experienced prior to adulthood, when the Society and the courts determined the frequency, duration, location, and participants involved in access. In addition to being able to control access, being a fully-grown adult also brought with it a sense of physical safety during access; for example, TheWall commented:Now I’m an adult. It shows that I can freely go to my parents and not feel afraid that they’re going to do something. For some youth, re-negotiating their relationship with their birth parents also presented an opportunity for the birth parents and young adult to begin redressing some of the past emotional wounds, such as birth parents withdrawing from access, and to start re-building their relationship. Despite having a troubled relationship in the past, some birth parents became emotional and instrumental supports to the young adults, such as providing a place to stay or having them over for meals.Despite their agency in negotiating their relationships, some young adults felt conflicting emotions regarding their birth parents’ presence in their lives, expressing how occasionally this connection could be a hindrance especially in cases where the young adult still felt a sense of responsibility for the birth parents. For example, Jill related how “I’ll drop everything just to help … even if that puts me in a bad place.” These young adults utilized the support of their foster parents to help them with this dilemma, who provided them with a sense of perspective, such as reminding them that they are not the parent and are not responsible for their birth parents.Transitioning to adulthood also entailed a re-negotiation of the young adults’ relationship with their foster parents. Whereas the family relationship had previously been based on parent-child dynamics, the young adults related how the relationship had changed to reflect their new status as adults. Despite being equal in terms of status, the young adults continued to acknowledge and respect their foster parents’ authority. The young adults described how this relationship started changing during late adolescence, a period of time that Jill recounts as “trying to be an adult but … acting like a young teenager” and where parental authority collided with her sense of being grown up enough to do what she wants. In relating their struggles for autonomy during late adolescence, these young adults recounted experiences that were refreshingly ‘normal’ and within the range of adolescent behaviour and parental response that one would expect in a typical family. Even in instances where the parental response could be described as ‘tough love’, such as kicking a youth out for not following the rules, young adults acknowledged being given the opportunity to make amends and return home, and saw it as a natural consequence of their disobedient behaviour rather than a rejection. The young adults’ desire to have a more reciprocal relationship with their foster parents and to be treated as adults was reflected in their efforts to ‘act’ like adults. This was evident in behaviours such as keeping commitments made to their foster parents, expressing appreciation for their ongoing support, and by providing reciprocating support and physical assistance to their foster parents, such as helping out with household chores that their foster parents were no longer able to do themselves. Interspersed through these young adults’ accounts of this changing relationship was a continued desire to make their foster parents proud through their accomplishments and their efforts.The change in relationships with their birth parents and foster parents had some impact on the degree of closeness young adults felt with the foster parents. Whereas most youth reported feeling closer emotionally despite being further apart geographically, TheWall found that having a re-negotiated and renewed relationship with his birth family coupled with having his own car, led to him being closer to his birth family while regretfully feeling that he was growing apart from his foster mother. Another property of Successful Transition to Adulthood is an extended transition. Gaining a sense of belonging gave the young adults a chance to have an extended transition to adulthood, created the perception and the realization of a ‘safety net’ being in place, and increased the availability of support and their willingness to utilize it.The young adults in my study had a transition to adulthood more akin to their cohorts in the normative population than to the majority of youth leaving care in terms of timing. Although legislatively, young people become adults at age 18 in Canada and can vote or be tried as adults, societal and symbolic norms (such as gaining full-time employment, living independently, getting married, and having children) that traditionally signified adulthood are largely being delayed until the mid to late twenties ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"VwGR4qZG","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Gaudet, Policy Research Initiative (Canada), & Depository Services Program (Canada), 2007)","plainCitation":"(Gaudet, Policy Research Initiative (Canada), & Depository Services Program (Canada), 2007)"},"citationItems":[{"id":1187,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":1187,"type":"book","title":"Emerging adulthood: A new stage in the life course - implications for policy development","publisher":"Policy Research Initiative","publisher-place":"Ottawa, Ont.","source":"Open WorldCat","event-place":"Ottawa, Ont.","URL":"","ISBN":"978-0-662-05196-1","note":"00000 \nOCLC: 311783843","shortTitle":"Emerging adulthood","language":"English","author":[{"family":"Gaudet","given":"Stéphanie"},{"literal":"Policy Research Initiative (Canada)"},{"literal":"Depository Services Program (Canada)"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2007"]]},"accessed":{"date-parts":[["2016",9,27]]}}}],"schema":""} (Gaudet, Policy Research Initiative (Canada), & Depository Services Program (Canada), 2007). Several social and economic realities have contributed to this extended transition to adulthood. First, more young people are attending post-secondary and for longer periods ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"uNotF0sv","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Clark, 2010)","plainCitation":"(Clark, 2010)"},"citationItems":[{"id":1174,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":1174,"type":"report","title":"Delayed transitions of young adults","collection-title":"Canadian Social Trends","publisher":"Statistics Canada","page":"9","abstract":"Description","URL":"","note":"00000","number":"84","language":"eng","author":[{"family":"Clark","given":"Warren"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2010",5,17]]},"accessed":{"date-parts":[["2016",9,22]]}}}],"schema":""} (Clark, 2010). Second, a steep rise in tuition fees and student debt means young people are increasingly financially reliant on their parents and may feel unready for the other markers of adulthood such as marriage and home-ownership ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"giBDuenG","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Clark, 2010)","plainCitation":"(Clark, 2010)"},"citationItems":[{"id":1174,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":1174,"type":"report","title":"Delayed transitions of young adults","collection-title":"Canadian Social Trends","publisher":"Statistics Canada","page":"9","abstract":"Description","URL":"","note":"00000","number":"84","language":"eng","author":[{"family":"Clark","given":"Warren"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2010",5,17]]},"accessed":{"date-parts":[["2016",9,22]]}}}],"schema":""} (Clark, 2010). Finally, young people entering the work force find a predominance of part-time and/or temporary jobs, creating a feeling of economic insecurity and contributing to many young people delaying moving out on their own ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"8ViLGMeC","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Clark, 2010)","plainCitation":"(Clark, 2010)"},"citationItems":[{"id":1174,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":1174,"type":"report","title":"Delayed transitions of young adults","collection-title":"Canadian Social Trends","publisher":"Statistics Canada","page":"9","abstract":"Description","URL":"","note":"00000","number":"84","language":"eng","author":[{"family":"Clark","given":"Warren"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2010",5,17]]},"accessed":{"date-parts":[["2016",9,22]]}}}],"schema":""} (Clark, 2010). While the timing of the transition to adulthood for the young adults in my study was extended, most youth leaving care find a transition that is abrupt and one directional ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"aVAw51aw","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Stein, 2008)","plainCitation":"(Stein, 2008)"},"citationItems":[{"id":344,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":344,"type":"article-journal","title":"Resilience and young people leaving care","container-title":"Child Care in Practice","page":"35-44","volume":"14","issue":"1","ISSN":"13575279","author":[{"family":"Stein","given":"Mike"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2008",1,1]]}}}],"schema":""} (Stein, 2008) and where they are “under pressure to do more, sooner, and with fewer internal and external resources than their peers” ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"exa5p91u","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(University of Victoria et al., 2007)","plainCitation":"(University of Victoria et al., 2007)"},"citationItems":[{"id":840,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":840,"type":"book","title":"When youth age out of care - where to from there?: Final report of a three year longitudinal study","publisher":"School of Social Work, University of Victoria","publisher-place":"Victoria","source":"Open WorldCat","event-place":"Victoria","ISBN":"978-1-55058-363-2","note":"00002","shortTitle":"When youth age out of care - where to from there?","language":"English","author":[{"literal":"University of Victoria"},{"literal":"School of Social Work"},{"literal":"Research Intitiatives for Social Change Unit"},{"family":"Rutman","given":"Deborah"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2007"]]}}}],"schema":""} (University of Victoria et al., 2007). Unlike the young adults in my study, who have had the opportunity to move back and forth from living on their own to residing with family, most youth leaving care generally do not have the option of returning to their foster home once they leave and are discharged from care. Given their lack of opportunity to vary the timing of their transition to adulthood, most youth leaving care are at a disadvantage in their capacity to respond to these social and economic realities. Gaining a sense of belonging gave the young adults in my study the chance to respond to these realities by extending the timing of their transition to adulthood, resulting in a timing of transition that is similar to their cohorts.A second property of a Successful Transition to Adulthood is opportunities for self-efficacy. The extended transition to adulthood provided greater opportunities to develop a sense of self-efficacy during expected role transitions, for example, entering the work force, or leaving home, by creating the perception and the realization that a ‘safety net’ is in place. Self-efficacy refers to one's belief in one's ability to succeed in specific situations or accomplish a task ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"6xy0DJWc","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Bandura, 1977)","plainCitation":"(Bandura, 1977)"},"citationItems":[{"id":1567,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":1567,"type":"article-journal","title":"Self-efficacy: Towards a unifying theory of behavioral change","container-title":"Psychological review","page":"191","volume":"84","issue":"2","source":"Google Scholar","note":"55667","shortTitle":"Self-efficacy","author":[{"family":"Bandura","given":"Albert"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["1977"]]}}}],"schema":""} (Bandura, 1977). By virtue of their sense of belonging, the young adults in my study felt they had both the right to ask their foster parents for support and the realistic expectation that support would be provided, thereby building the perception that they would be successful. It was not a question of “will they help me?” but rather “how will they help me?” The young adults were able to ask for help without fearing rejection and without worrying whether it was their place to ask. The young adults described instances where support or assistance was provided without even having to ask, as their foster parents and the extended foster family were present and engaged in the young adults’ lives and were cognizant of their needs. Much like how an acrobat uses a net while practicing a new routine, having a sense of belonging provided the young adults with the anticipation that a safety net will be there for them if they ‘fall’, thereby giving them the freedom to experiment with adulthood, attempt new skills, have diverse experiences, and take chances. This anticipation became reality when they inevitably fell and the safety net was there to catch them, both keeping them from hitting the ground and boosting them up.A key factor in the provision and utilization of a safety net and its associated supports was the philosophical perception of adulthood as being a time of interdependence as opposed to independence, a perception that was perhaps shared by both the young adults and their foster parents. This perception contrasts with that of the child welfare system which generally defines adults as being independent, self-sufficient, and autonomous at the time of leaving care, a perception which Propp, Ortega, & NewHeart ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"D3c4WTmW","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(2003)","plainCitation":"(2003)"},"citationItems":[{"id":553,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":553,"type":"article-journal","title":"Independence or interdependence: Rethinking the transition from ward of the court to adulthood","container-title":"Families in Society: The Journal of Contemporary Social Services","page":"259-266","volume":"84","issue":"2","source":"MetaPress","abstract":"Youth who transition out of foster care are often overlooked and unprepared for a life outside of the child welfare system. As youth begin to grow up in the foster care system, they are encouraged to move toward the goal of self-sufficiency. This article examines the idea of self-sufficiency as it relates to youth transitioning from the foster care system and proposes a different approach to the state of transition, an approach called interdependent living. Through this examination, the authors suggest a way to reshape practice approaches by emphasizing the values of interdependence, connection, and collaboration. Together these values lead to an empowerment model of practice for youth who transition from foster care.","DOI":"10.1606/1044-3894.102","note":"00073","shortTitle":"Independence or Interdependence","author":[{"family":"Propp","given":"Jennifer"},{"family":"Ortega","given":"Debora"},{"family":"NewHeart","given":"Forest"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2003",1,1]]}},"suppress-author":true}],"schema":""} (2003) critique as not reflecting how life actually works and what studies have shown leads to psychological health. Unlike most youth leaving care, the young adults in my study were not given the message that they must be self-sufficient, mature, independent adults by 18 years of age or 21 at the latest. Instead, they were sheltered, protected, encouraged, and supported to take on adult roles at their own pace, and were even actively discouraged from taking on adult roles and responsibilities for which their foster parents felt they were unready. Needing help and asking for help were not seen as failures, moral weaknesses, or signs of immaturity. Instead, needing help was treated simply as part of growing up and getting help was seen as an entitlement that came with belonging to a family and the community. Viewing adults as interdependent rather than independent enabled the young adults to be okay with asking for help when they needed it, rather than feeling they had to ‘go it alone’ in order to be perceived as an adult by their foster parents. The final property of this category was strength in adversity. Gaining a sense of belonging, in particular through the realization of a secure, loving, and stable home, empowered the young adults in my study to find the strength to persevere in their aspirations in spite of the adversity they experienced in their lives. For the purposes of this study, strength in adversity equates to resiliency, defined as “qualities that foster a process of successful adaptation and transformation despite risk and adversity.” ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"jTaqp67g","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Benard, 1995, p. 2)","plainCitation":"(Benard, 1995, p. 2)"},"citationItems":[{"id":556,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":556,"type":"article-journal","title":"Fostering resilience in children","source":"eric..libaccess.lib.mcmaster.ca","abstract":"|This digest summarizes studies that provide evidence that youth with multiple and severe risks in their lives can develop into confident and competent adults; and discusses the critical role schools can play in this process of development. Resilience is the term used to describe a set of qualities that foster a process of successful adaptation and transformation despite risk. An innate capacity for resilience helps children develop social competence, problem-solving skills, a critical consciousness, autonomy, and a sense of purpose. Research shows that certain characteristics of family, school, and community environments may alter or even reverse expected negative outcomes and enable children to manifest resilience despite risk. These \"protective factors\" can be grouped into three major categories: (1) caring and supportive relationships; (2) positive and high expectations; and (3) opportunities for meaningful participation. First, the presence of at least one caring person","URL":"","language":"en","author":[{"family":"Benard","given":"Bonnie"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["1995",8]]},"accessed":{"date-parts":[["2014",4,7]]}},"locator":"2","label":"page"}],"schema":""} (Benard, 1995, p. 2) Studies by Rutter ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"7qLcPkd3","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(1985)","plainCitation":"(1985)"},"citationItems":[{"id":1573,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":1573,"type":"article-journal","title":"Resilience in the face of adversity: Protective factors and resistance to psychiatric disorder","container-title":"British Journal of Psychiatry","page":"598-611","volume":"147","note":"00000","author":[{"family":"Rutter","given":"Michael"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["1985"]]}},"suppress-author":true}],"schema":""} (1985) and Garmezy ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"yaZNaqd0","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Hawley & DeHaan, 1996)","plainCitation":"(Hawley & DeHaan, 1996)"},"citationItems":[{"id":669,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":669,"type":"article-journal","title":"Toward a definition of family resilience: Integrating life-span and family perspectives","container-title":"Family process","page":"283–298","volume":"35","issue":"3","source":"Google Scholar","shortTitle":"Toward a definition of family resilience","author":[{"family":"Hawley","given":"Dale R."},{"family":"DeHaan","given":"Laura"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["1996"]]}}}],"schema":""} (as cited in Hawley & DeHaan, 1996) have found that gaining a sense of belonging acts as a protective factor for positive development in that it serves as a buffer between an individual and stressful life events thereby altering or reversing expected negative outcomes. Belonging, in other words, can be seen as a way finder that helps an individual to acquire and maintain the desired life trajectory during times of adversity, thereby contributing to successful outcomes. The protective aspects of belonging relate to caring and connectedness, specifically adolescents’ experience of being “connected to at least one caring, competent adult in a loving, nurturing relationship.” ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"gd7dGiN0","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Resnick, Harris, & Blum, 1993, p. S6)","plainCitation":"(Resnick, Harris, & Blum, 1993, p. S6)"},"citationItems":[{"id":1215,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":1215,"type":"article-journal","title":"The impact of caring and connectedness on adolescent health and well-being","container-title":"Journal of Paediatrics and Child Health","page":"S3–S9","volume":"29","issue":"s1","source":"Google Scholar","note":"00580","author":[{"family":"Resnick","given":"Michael D."},{"family":"Harris","given":"L. J."},{"family":"Blum","given":"Robert W."}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["1993"]]}},"locator":"S6","label":"page"}],"schema":""} (Resnick, Harris, & Blum, 1993, p. S6) As described above, the young adults in my study were linked in a web of positive adult relationships, and gave many examples of how these caring connections had helped them through stressful situations and kept them on track. Including both aspects of buoyancy and bouncing-back, resilience has been described as entailing normal development under difficult circumstances ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"PWfwqJRs","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Gilligan, 1997)","plainCitation":"(Gilligan, 1997)"},"citationItems":[{"id":1356,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":1356,"type":"article-journal","title":"Beyond permanence? The importance of resilience in child placement practice and planning","container-title":"Adoption & Fostering","page":"12–20","volume":"21","issue":"1","source":"Google Scholar","note":"00158","shortTitle":"Beyond permanence?","author":[{"family":"Gilligan","given":"Robbie"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["1997"]]}}}],"schema":""} (Gilligan, 1997). In addition to acting as a protective factor, gaining a sense of belonging fosters resiliency in three ways: by providing a secure base, building self-esteem, and creating a sense of self-efficacy. First, gaining a sense of belonging fosters resiliency by providing a secure base which encourages and renders safe exploration of the wider world ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"hIhp5viQ","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Bowlby, 1969)","plainCitation":"(Bowlby, 1969)"},"citationItems":[{"id":446,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":446,"type":"chapter","title":"Attachment and Loss","container-title":"Attachment and Loss: Vol. 1.","collection-title":"Attachment","collection-number":"1","publisher":"Hogarth Press","publisher-place":"London","event-place":"London","author":[{"family":"Bowlby","given":"J."}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["1969"]]}}}],"schema":""} (Bowlby, 1969). This secure base is established through the realization of a stable, loving, and secure home and the creation of supportive social networks as developed through family solidarity and family identity. Second, gaining a sense of belonging fosters resilience by building youths’ self-esteem. Gilligan ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"ioKATu6I","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(1997)","plainCitation":"(1997)"},"citationItems":[{"id":1356,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":1356,"type":"article-journal","title":"Beyond permanence? The importance of resilience in child placement practice and planning","container-title":"Adoption & Fostering","page":"12–20","volume":"21","issue":"1","source":"Google Scholar","note":"00158","shortTitle":"Beyond permanence?","author":[{"family":"Gilligan","given":"Robbie"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["1997"]]}},"suppress-author":true}],"schema":""} (1997) defines self-esteem a sense of worthiness and competency that is reflected in how youth compare ‘how they are’ to ‘how they would like to be’. Gaining a sense of belonging builds self-esteem through the presence of secure and harmonious family relationships and by providing the supports that enable youth to succeed in accomplishing valued tasks ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"QD1E8JJa","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Gilligan, 1997)","plainCitation":"(Gilligan, 1997)"},"citationItems":[{"id":1356,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":1356,"type":"article-journal","title":"Beyond permanence? The importance of resilience in child placement practice and planning","container-title":"Adoption & Fostering","page":"12–20","volume":"21","issue":"1","source":"Google Scholar","note":"00158","shortTitle":"Beyond permanence?","author":[{"family":"Gilligan","given":"Robbie"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["1997"]]}}}],"schema":""} (Gilligan, 1997). Finally, gaining a sense of belonging fosters resilience by strengthening youth’s sense of self-efficacy. Also known as ‘self-directedness’, the term refers to one’s beliefs about what one is capable of accomplishing and feeling that what one does makes a difference ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"TvUao2Ph","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Stein, 2005)","plainCitation":"(Stein, 2005)"},"citationItems":[{"id":933,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":933,"type":"article-journal","title":"Resilience and young people leaving care: Overcoming the odds","abstract":"A literature review exploring the factors affecting young people leaving care as they move to adulthood and independence. As young people leave care they face a variety of challenges. Some meet and overcome these challenges, yet others struggle. This review found a gap in the literature on resilience among young people leaving care. It therefore draws upon research studies completed in the last twenty years which have captured the experiences, views and reflections of the young people themselves. In reviewing the research evidence, the report captures the different stages or contexts of young peoples' experiences: - their journeys through care, including an exploration of stability, continuity and attachment, identity, education, leisure and preparation, - their transitions from care, - their lives after care, - the impact of 'leaving care' policy.","URL":"","note":"00091","shortTitle":"Resilience and Young People Leaving Care","author":[{"family":"Stein","given":"Mike"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2005"]]},"accessed":{"date-parts":[["2015",5,22]]}}}],"schema":""} (Stein, 2005). Gaining a sense of belonging strengthens self-efficacy by providing safe opportunities to plan, solve problems and feel competent, and by helping to develop self-awareness ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"jqNQ71xg","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Stein, 2005)","plainCitation":"(Stein, 2005)"},"citationItems":[{"id":933,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":933,"type":"article-journal","title":"Resilience and young people leaving care: Overcoming the odds","abstract":"A literature review exploring the factors affecting young people leaving care as they move to adulthood and independence. As young people leave care they face a variety of challenges. Some meet and overcome these challenges, yet others struggle. This review found a gap in the literature on resilience among young people leaving care. It therefore draws upon research studies completed in the last twenty years which have captured the experiences, views and reflections of the young people themselves. In reviewing the research evidence, the report captures the different stages or contexts of young peoples' experiences: - their journeys through care, including an exploration of stability, continuity and attachment, identity, education, leisure and preparation, - their transitions from care, - their lives after care, - the impact of 'leaving care' policy.","URL":"","note":"00091","shortTitle":"Resilience and Young People Leaving Care","author":[{"family":"Stein","given":"Mike"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2005"]]},"accessed":{"date-parts":[["2015",5,22]]}}}],"schema":""} (Stein, 2005).The young adults in my study each experienced more than their share of adversity during their lives, such as being exposed to abuse and/or neglect in their birth families, being taken into care, having placements disrupt and break down, and being stigmatized for being in-care. In spite of adverse life events, these young adults demonstrated resiliency and achieved successful outcomes. According to Benard ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"A1KwpcE6","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(1995)","plainCitation":"(1995)"},"citationItems":[{"id":556,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":556,"type":"article-journal","title":"Fostering resilience in children","source":"eric..libaccess.lib.mcmaster.ca","abstract":"|This digest summarizes studies that provide evidence that youth with multiple and severe risks in their lives can develop into confident and competent adults; and discusses the critical role schools can play in this process of development. Resilience is the term used to describe a set of qualities that foster a process of successful adaptation and transformation despite risk. An innate capacity for resilience helps children develop social competence, problem-solving skills, a critical consciousness, autonomy, and a sense of purpose. Research shows that certain characteristics of family, school, and community environments may alter or even reverse expected negative outcomes and enable children to manifest resilience despite risk. These \"protective factors\" can be grouped into three major categories: (1) caring and supportive relationships; (2) positive and high expectations; and (3) opportunities for meaningful participation. First, the presence of at least one caring person","URL":"","language":"en","author":[{"family":"Benard","given":"Bonnie"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["1995",8]]},"accessed":{"date-parts":[["2014",4,7]]}},"suppress-author":true}],"schema":""} (1995), resiliency manifests itself through a feeling of autonomy, a sense of purpose, hopes and dreams for the future, and a desire to make a difference by helping others. The young adults’ feeling of autonomy was associated with their perception of the meaning of adulthood, which differed from previous studies of youth leaving care wherein youth indicated that being an adult was tied to self-sufficiency and ‘being able to take care of yourself’. ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"a290q3rdqul","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Goodkind, Schelbe, & Shook, 2011; Horrocks, 2002; Propp et al., 2003)","plainCitation":"(Goodkind, Schelbe, & Shook, 2011; Horrocks, 2002; Propp et al., 2003)"},"citationItems":[{"id":816,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":816,"type":"article-journal","title":"Why youth leave care: Understandings of adulthood and transition successes and challenges among youth aging out of child welfare","container-title":"Children and Youth Services Review","page":"1039-1048","volume":"33","issue":"6","source":"ScienceDirect","abstract":"Child welfare policies and practices are changing to allow more youth to remain in care beyond age 18. Yet, the majority of youth do not stay. Given recent evidence suggesting that remaining in care may be beneficial, there is a need to understand why youth leave. Using data gathered from in-depth interviews with young people aging out of care, this paper explores this question, relating it to youths' understandings of adulthood and the successes and challenges they face during their transitions. We find that youth leave care because of misunderstanding and misinformation about the requirements for remaining in care, as well as because of a desire for autonomy and independence. Specifically, many youth equated adulthood with independence, and thus felt that they needed to leave care to achieve adulthood. Unfortunately, these efforts to be independent often hinder youths' development of supportive relationships, which they reported to be one of the greatest challenges in their transitions. Based on these findings, we conclude by challenging the conflation of adulthood and independence, as well as of childhood and dependence, calling for connected autonomy as a goal for child welfare involved young people of all ages.","DOI":"10.1016/j.childyouth.2011.01.010","ISSN":"0190-7409","note":"00025","shortTitle":"Why youth leave care","journalAbbreviation":"Children and Youth Services Review","author":[{"family":"Goodkind","given":"Sara"},{"family":"Schelbe","given":"Lisa A."},{"family":"Shook","given":"Jeffrey J."}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2011",6]]}},"label":"page"},{"id":1002,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":1002,"type":"article-journal","title":"Using life course theory to explore the social and developmental pathways of young people leaving care","container-title":"Journal of Youth Studies","page":"325–336","volume":"5","issue":"3","source":"Google Scholar","note":"00019","author":[{"family":"Horrocks","given":"Christine"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2002"]]}},"label":"page"},{"id":553,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":553,"type":"article-journal","title":"Independence or interdependence: Rethinking the transition from ward of the court to adulthood","container-title":"Families in Society: The Journal of Contemporary Social Services","page":"259-266","volume":"84","issue":"2","source":"MetaPress","abstract":"Youth who transition out of foster care are often overlooked and unprepared for a life outside of the child welfare system. As youth begin to grow up in the foster care system, they are encouraged to move toward the goal of self-sufficiency. This article examines the idea of self-sufficiency as it relates to youth transitioning from the foster care system and proposes a different approach to the state of transition, an approach called interdependent living. Through this examination, the authors suggest a way to reshape practice approaches by emphasizing the values of interdependence, connection, and collaboration. Together these values lead to an empowerment model of practice for youth who transition from foster care.","DOI":"10.1606/1044-3894.102","note":"00073","shortTitle":"Independence or Interdependence","author":[{"family":"Propp","given":"Jennifer"},{"family":"Ortega","given":"Debora"},{"family":"NewHeart","given":"Forest"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2003",1,1]]}},"label":"page"}],"schema":""} (Goodkind, Schelbe, & Shook, 2011; Horrocks, 2002; Propp et al., 2003) For the young adults in my study, being an adult meant, “making the right choices” and learning from failure. Similarly, it also meant making decisions … “who you’re going to let in your life, who’re you going to let influence your decisions … having the maturity to decide what’s best for you and just you.” Rather than framing adulthood as self-sufficiency, the young adults viewed the meaning of adulthood as being tied to agency and self-efficacy, even if/when that decision-making resulted in the young adults needing others to take care of them. In addition to feeling free to utilize the support of their foster parents, they were also empowered to seek a wide range of formal community supports such as counselling, budgeting workshops, and food programs. Although most young adults in my study felt that they had not yet achieved adulthood yet whatever its meaning, they perceived they were on their way there, however some, such as TheWall, acknowledged that being an adult was not what they thought it would be:I wanted to be an adult so bad. And then now I’m here, it’s like “ugh, this is adulthood. It’s not as great as I want it to be.” A second way that resilience manifests itself is through having a sense of purpose. When asked about what gives their lives purpose, the young adults had a clear sense of purpose in mind and each were able to identify something that gave their lives meaning. Jill found purpose in her daily struggle to succeed, despite being on disability, and a desire to grow, not just survive. TheVoice’s sense of purpose revolved around serving others by volunteering and by parenting her foster son for whom she was caring on behalf of a family member. TheWall described his sense of purpose as being to create his own future by taking account of his past and moving forwards. Finally, Rachel’s sense of purpose came from overcoming adversity and:proving everybody wrong. Those who really thought that I’d turn out to be a statistic. … I’m one of the only three in my entire family … who’s made it to university. …I think that’s what has given my life purpose … is to be successful … to be the one that they are proud of.Her ability to adapt to adversity in ways that are productive and to have a sense of purpose reflects resilience.A third way in which the young adults’ resilience manifests itself is through having hopes and dreams for the future. Hope involves the perception that one will achieve one’s desires if given a chance. Hope helps youth to overcome barriers and is linked to positive expectations and self-efficacy ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"R4saLKuo","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(Ministry of Children and Youth Services, 2010)","plainCitation":"(Ministry of Children and Youth Services, 2010)"},"citationItems":[{"id":68,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":68,"type":"article","title":"OnLAC Trainer Guide - June 2010.pdf","author":[{"family":"Ministry of Children and Youth Services","given":""}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["2010"]]}}}],"schema":""} (Ministry of Children and Youth Services, 2010). When asked where they saw themselves in the future, the young adults each related some positive expectation or future dream that they hoped would come to fruition. Jill’s hopes and dreams involved marrying her boyfriend, starting a family, and having her own place. TheVoice dreamed of having a role within the Children’s Aid Society as a volunteer helping other children in care and continuing to parent her foster son. TheWall anticipated that he would be completing college whereas Rachel hoped to be finished her undergraduate degree, looking for work, and starting her Master’s Degree. Each young adult had hopes and dreams for the future and felt positive about his or her ability to realize them.Finally, resilience was manifested in the desire to make a difference through helping others, what Benard ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"SrarrHfy","properties":{"formattedCitation":"(1995)","plainCitation":"(1995)"},"citationItems":[{"id":556,"uris":[""],"uri":[""],"itemData":{"id":556,"type":"article-journal","title":"Fostering resilience in children","source":"eric..libaccess.lib.mcmaster.ca","abstract":"|This digest summarizes studies that provide evidence that youth with multiple and severe risks in their lives can develop into confident and competent adults; and discusses the critical role schools can play in this process of development. Resilience is the term used to describe a set of qualities that foster a process of successful adaptation and transformation despite risk. An innate capacity for resilience helps children develop social competence, problem-solving skills, a critical consciousness, autonomy, and a sense of purpose. Research shows that certain characteristics of family, school, and community environments may alter or even reverse expected negative outcomes and enable children to manifest resilience despite risk. These \"protective factors\" can be grouped into three major categories: (1) caring and supportive relationships; (2) positive and high expectations; and (3) opportunities for meaningful participation. First, the presence of at least one caring person","URL":"","language":"en","author":[{"family":"Benard","given":"Bonnie"}],"issued":{"date-parts":[["1995",8]]},"accessed":{"date-parts":[["2014",4,7]]}},"suppress-author":true}],"schema":""} (1995) refers to as ‘critical consciousness’ – the reflective awareness of the structures of oppression and creating strategies for overcoming them. The young adults in my study each expressed a desire to give back to their community, however they defined it, and were engaged in volunteer work through their local children’s aid society. Their involvement ranged from participating in youth panels to sitting on a youth advisory committee reporting to a board of directors. In particular, emphasis was given to educating staff and foster parents about “what works” and serving as an inspiration to other children and youth in foster care. Gaining a sense of belonging served as both a protective factor and a mechanism through which resilience could be fostered by providing a secure base, building self-esteem, and strengthening self-efficacy. Each of the young adults in my study manifested resiliency through a feeling of autonomy, sense of purpose, hopes and dreams for the future, and a desire to help others.Conclusion and Implications for Social Work PracticeThese findings emphasize the importance of a sense of belonging to creating positive outcomes for young adults during their transition to adulthood. This research suggests that outcomes for youth could be improved by implementing policies and practices designed to strengthen children and youth’s sense of belonging and the requisite conditions. Although these recommendations reflect best-practice approaches that may already be in place in some agencies, it would be helpful if they were enshrined in policy and procedures and their purpose made more explicit (i.e. to promote a sense of belonging).First, agencies should develop policies that directly promote the realization of a stable, secure, loving home. This could include offering experiential training for foster parents regarding the life events of children in care in order to create empathy for the adversity that they have experienced, and develop acceptance and understanding of their behaviour. This could be further bolstered by linking foster parents with mentors, other experienced foster parents who have demonstrated acceptance and understanding, and who have supported youth to gain a sense of belonging. These mentors could help foster parents maintain a sense of perspective when children and youth engage in testing behaviour. Second, agencies should assist children and youth to learn how to navigate their multiple attachments by providing the opportunity for foster parents and birth parents to get to know one another, making it less likely that children and youth feel a need to choose between them. This could be done on a formal basis through inclusive fostering agreements or informally such as inviting the biological family over for dinner. Third, agencies need to be cognizant of the significant role that the extended family, both birth and foster, can play in providing multiple supports and offering differing life perspectives to children and youth. Agencies should include these extended family members when making decisions for and with children and youth. Fourth, agencies should develop policies that formalize the expectation that connections between youth and their foster parents will be maintained in some form even when the foster placement breaks down. The amount and type of contact would need to be negotiated between the youth and foster parent with worker support and assistance. In situations where the breakdown was traumatic, the worker should assist the foster parent and youth to process their feelings together and reconcile their relationship so that some connection can be maintained. Fifth, as gaining a sense of belonging is more about having an emotional rather than a biological connection, workers should not assume that children will gain a sense of belonging just because they are placed with kin. Workers need to assess kin placements on an individual basis to ensure that the requisite conditions for belonging are being met, and that the children are fully included in family rituals and treated as immediate family. Sixth, agencies should review current policies, procedures, and practices with an eye towards removing or revising those that hinder children and youth in gaining a sense of belonging, and implement those that support its acquisition. For example, practices that continually remind children of their ‘foster’ status and set them apart from other children in the foster family could be modified in order to be more normalizing. This is particularly important for children and youth with crown ward status. For example, workers could include the foster family’s biological children when reviewing rights, focusing on those rights that apply to all children. Ultimately, if agencies’ expect foster parents to treat their foster children as if they are part of the family, then agencies must also grant foster parents the parental autonomy and authority to make decisions in the same manner they would for their biological children. Finally, in order to support youth leaving care who have not gained a sense of belonging, the province and local children’s aid society must take an active role in ensuring that these youth have access to the equivalent logistical, instrumental, and emotional supports as their cohorts in the normative population. One initial step in achieving this goal would be to raise the cut-off for Continued Care and Support for Youth to age 25, thereby offering at least some semblance of an extended transition to adulthood.Directions for Future ResearchThe findings suggest that potential connections may exist between the five categories. The first category “lack of control” was related to the emotional context of children as they are removed from their birth families and placed in foster care. The second and third categories, “realizing a stable, loving, and secure home” and “navigating multiple attachments” each appeared to relate to perceptual shifts that children in care experienced subsequent to coming into care, provided that certain conditions were met. These perceptual shifts appeared to be pre-requisites for the category “gaining a sense of belonging,” particularly the properties “family rituals” and “solidarity” which in turn seemed to have a formative influence on “family relationships.” The direction and strength of these connections would need to be further explored using a more quantitative research approach. Figure 1 provides a visual representation of the potential interaction between the various categories.Overall, the experiences of these young adults suggest that gaining a sense of belonging may be foundational to a successful transition to adulthood, especially when success is defined in terms of interdependence rather than independence. 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