WOMEN 2000: GENDER EQUALITY, DEVELOPMENT AND …
WOMEN 2000: GENDER EQUALITY, DEVELOPMENT AND PEACE IN THE
TWENTY-FIRST CENTURY OR BEIJING+5
A study of the Final Outcome Document from the perspective of education
Bernadette Sangma
Introduction
Five years have passed since hundred and eighty nine member countries of UN committed themselves to pursue the ideals of gender equality, development and peace through the signing of the Platform for Action and the Beijing Declaration. After five years these countries felt the need of making an evaluation of how far the declaration has been translated into action. The meeting entitled Women 2000: Gender equality, development and peace in the twenty-first century, or simply Beijing+5 held at New York from 5-9 June 2000 had this as its objective. As a member of a religious congregation that promotes initiatives of volunteer service in favour of women, development and peace, I had the opportunity of participating in it and I was able to grasp the richness of the feminine resources, for the most part still unexplored, but which constitute a great asset for building a new world order based on the principles of equality, starting with that which is fundamental, that is, between man and woman.
The participation at the meeting offered the possibility of understanding the gaps between words and deeds, declarations and implementations. In this article, I will limit myself to those areas that specifically concern education. Its importance in the empowerment of women is clearly defined in the Beijing Platform: «Education is a human right and an essential tool for achieving the goals of equality, development and peace».[1] This concept is re-affirmed in another UN document Review and Appraisal of the Implementation of the Beijing Platform for Action. Report of the Secretary General. In it, the area of concern most highlighted by the governments in their answers to the questionnaire of the UN, is education (86%).[2] Even Kofi Annan, the UN Secretary General, in his opening address at the Twenty third Special Session affirmed that in the face of the old and new challenges of today, the key to the solution lies in education.[3]
Having heard these affirmations which highlight the urgency of education for the empowerment of women, it is difficult to understand the almost total absence of workshops, working and lobbying groups for the cause of education. During the meeting many round table conferences were organised on different themes such as: violence against women, women and economy, women and politics, health, trafficking in women. From what I would term as "lost opportunity" rose a desire to study the final outcome document of the Special Session of the UN from the perspective of education. The intention is to highlight what is affirmed as regards education and to create awareness among those who work for the empowerment of women of its vital importance in the current socio-cultural milieu.
1. The Final Outcome Document
The final outcome document is entitled as «Further Actions and Initiatives to Implement the Beijing Declaration and the Platform for Action».[4] From the title itself, it can be understood that it does not substitute the Beijing document. It simply offers further explicitation of the same. The document is divided into four parts. The first part is but a brief introduction which recalls the ideals of gender equality, development and peace which make up the programme of the empowerment of women and which has already been expressedly affirmed in the Beijing Declaration and the Platform for Action. The second part contains the objectives reached and the obstacles met in the implementation of the twelve areas of concern defined in the Platform. The third part presents the new challenges such as globalisation, the various economic situations determined by the Structural Adjustment Programmes, foreign debt, the phenomenon of immigration, problems relating to HIV/AIDS. The last and the most important part defines actions and initiatives to be adopted by the member countries, intergovernmental agencies, UN agencies and the NGOs for further implementation of the Beijing Platform.
2. Elements that emerged concerning education
1. Education and economy
The second part presents the objectives reached as regards education and affirms that «progress was achieved in women's and girls education and training at all levels especially where there was sufficient political commitment and resource allocation».[5] At the same time, the section that deals with the obstacles encountered, underscore the great difficulty due to lack of financial resources. Some of the consequences derived are lack of resources for the improvement of educational infrastructures, inadequate salaries and benefits that make attracting and retaining teaching professionals difficult and thereby leading to a lower quality education.[6]
The root cause for the scarce investment in education lies in macro economic programmes and policies as is affirmed in what follows: «The impact of globalization and structural adjustment programmes, the high costs of external debt servicing and declining terms of international trade, in several developing countries, have worsened the existing obstacles to development, aggravating the feminization of poverty. Negative consequences of structural adjustment programmes, stemming from the inappropriate design and application, have continued to place a disproportionate burden on women, inter-alia through budget cuts in basic social services, including education and health».[7]
Another specific mention is made regarding the burden of foreign debt on the developing countries and how this tells on the situation of women in general, impacting in a particular way on their education, health care and other social services. The article that is entirely dedicated to this problem highlights that «there is greater acceptance that the increasing debt burden faced by most indebted developing countries is unsustainable and constitutes one of the principal obstacles to achieving progress in people-centred sustainable development and poverty eradication. For many developing countries, as well as countries with economies in transition, excessive debt servicing has severely constrained their capacity to promote social development and provide basic services and has affected full implementation of the Platform for Action».[8]
Therefore, demands were forwarded to adopt socio-economic policies aimed at sustainable development which will ensure the implementation of the programmes for the elimination of poverty, specially of women. Among other things, this implies education, professional formation, equal access and control of resources, information, technology and market benefits.[9] In other words, it is essential to incorporate a gender perspective in the design, development, adoption and execution of all budgetary processes in order to establish adequate budgetary allocations to support programmes aimed at women's empowerment.[10] This demands that the countries and the intergovernmental organisations be attentive to increase as appropriate and to effectively utilise financial and other resources in the social sector, specially in the education of women which is considered a central strategy for addressing sustainable development and poverty eradication.[11]
2. Right to education
In the already quoted opening address, Kofi Annan, the UN Secretary General mentioned that «of 110 million children who are not in school, two thirds are girls. And more girls than boys drop out of school early».[12] The underlying reasons are poverty, discriminating attitudes towards women and girls, negative cultural attitudes and practices, stereotype images that block the potentialities of girls, lack of awareness of the situation of girls and girl child labourers, the burden of domestic responsibilities, insufficient nutrition and difficulties in the access to health services and lack of resources. Other reasons are lack of care and guidance on the part of the parents, lack of education and information, abuses and all types of exploitation and violence against the girl child which lead to early pregnancies and AIDS infection. The result is the impossibility of completing the process of education and formation making it difficult for the girls to gain self confidence and economic independence.
In order to overcome such obstacles, it is affirmed that «increased efforts are needed to provide equal access to education, health and social services and to ensure women's and girls rights to education and the enjoyment of the highest attainable standard of physical and mental health and well-being throughout the life cycle».[13] To this end, it is essential to draw up appropriate policies. Therefore, it is demanded to «ensure policies that guarantee equal access to education and elimination of gender disparities in education, including vocational training, science technology and completion of basic education for girls, especially those living in rural and deprived areas, and opportunities for continuing education at all levels for all women and girls».[14]
The right to education of women and girls is deprived in a particular way due to the unequal division of family responsibilities. The care of children, the sick and the old are shouldered solely by women and girls.[15] In the already quoted message of the Secretary General there is a mention of this situation as can be seen in the following: «the spread of AIDS is taking a devastating toll on women and girls. In the worst hit cities of southern Africa, 40 per cent of pregnant women are HIV-positive, and more than one child in 10 has lost its mother, to AIDS. Grandmothers are caring for orphans; young girls are kept out of school to care for sick relatives».[16] The document urges to overcome this situation that is highly disadvantageous towards girls affirming that «such imbalance needs to be consistently addressed through appropriate policies and programmes, in particular those geared towards education and through legislation where appropriate. In order to achieve full partnership, both in public and private spheres, both women and men must be enabled to reconcile and share equally work responsibilities and family responsibilities».[17]
Other mention on the rights to education emerges from the call to «accelerate action and strengthen political commitment to close gender gap in primary and secondary education by 2005 and to ensure free compulsory and universal primary education for both girls and boys by 2015 as advocated by several global conferences and eliminate policies which have been proven to worsen and perpetuate the gap».[18] This is highlighted not only as regards the admission into school, but also for the prevention of school drop outs through the implementation of programmes of action that ensure quality education.[19]
3. Gender perspective in education
Among the many obstacles that were enumerated in the field of education, the persistent element appears to be a stereotype orientation in the choice of the field of work both in schools, in higher educational institutions and in the communities.[20] The gender perspective in education, therefore, is essential for the elimination of such discrimination. The indispensable steps that need to be taken are the revision of curriculum, teaching material and educational process.[21]
As regards the curriculum, the document recommends the development of a curriculum that pays attention to the issues of gender at all levels beginning from the kindergarten, the elementary, professional formation and university. Such a reform should deal, above all, on the transmission of stereotype images that constitute the root cause for a gendered division in the field of work.[22]
It has always been considered, for example, that the branch of humanities is for women and logic, mathematics and technology for men. To overcome such clear-cut and prejudiced distinctions, the document asks to «encourage and support the education of girls in science, mathematics, new technologies including information technologies, and technical subjects and encourage women, including through career advising to seek employment in high growth and high wages sectors and jobs».[23]
The document also makes a particular reflection on the education of men and boys. The principal scope of such an education should be to «develop policies and implement programmes including education programmes, particularly for men and boys, on changing stereotypical attitudes and behaviours concerning gender roles and responsibilities to promote gender equality and positive attitudes and behaviours».[24] Some of the useful means for the achievement of such goals are campaigns for the awareness raising on the questions of gender and formative programmes for the elimination of harmful stereotypes designed for women and men, girls and boys.[25] The consideration that gender equality can be arrived at only through such changes in men and boys are repeatedly mentioned in the different parts of the document.
The need for a gender perspective is underscored also as regards the formation of personnel in the different sectors of work. Specific request, in this regard, was made to promote and educate on the issues of gender and gender sensitivity for personnel in public sectors.[26] The same need was felt in the formation of peacekeeping personnel particularly those who deal with women and girls who have had experience of sexual violence.[27] Other agents needing formative interventions in order to become sensitive to gender issues are police personnel, advocates and magistrates.
4. Various target groups mentioned in the document
In the document under consideration, there are specific mentions of various target groups regarded as the most disadvantaged and thereby needful of a particular attention in education.
1. Education of the adolescents
It is affirmed that the adolescents continue to suffer on account of the lack of access to sexual and reproductive health information, education and services[28] to the detriment of a serene and responsible approach to their sexuality.[29] On the basis of these affirmations and the informations concerning the situation of the adolescents, the document stresses on the need to give much attention to their access to social services especially education. It appears to be the most efficacious means for helping them gain self esteem, be responsible for their own lives, promote gender equality and responsible sexual behaviour, raise awareness, prevent and treat sexually transmitted infections, including HIV/AIDS and sexual violence, abuse and counsel them on avoiding unwanted and early pregnancies.[30]
The document speaks of a methodology that actively involves the adolescents themselves, as well as the consensus, responsibility, rights and duties of parents and legal guardians to provide in a manner consistent with the evolving capacities of the child appropriate direction and guidance in the exercise of the rights of the child recognised in the Convention of the Rights of the Child and Convention for the Elimination of all Forms of Violence Against Women. Attention is given also to ensure that the best interests of the child be given primary consideration in all actions concerning them.
In the document, it is affirmed that the reproductive health eludes many of the world's people. In this situation, the adolescents become the most vulnerable subjects because of the lack of information services and access to social service in many countries.[31]
The situation of many pregnant adolescents, adolescent mothers and the consequent impossibility of completing their cultural formation is implicitly affirmed in the document. In order to face such problems, it recommends to design and implement social services and support with a special attention to help them complete their studies.[32]
2. Education of rural women
The rural women constitute a significant labour force in the field of agriculture in Africa and in other parts of the world.[33] This notwithstanding, they remain at the margin of the society and their work goes almost completely unrecognised. Dealing with this situation, the document recommends the due recognition of rural women's contribution especially as regards customary knowledge and management and sustainable use of biodiversity.[34] This subject is further discussed and developed as can be seen from the following article which calls to «adopt measures and ensure that the work of rural women, who contribute to play vital role in providing food security and nutrition, and are engaged in agricultural production, and enterprises related to farming, fishing and resource management and home-based work especially in the informal sector is recognised and valued in order to enhance their economic security, their access to and control over resources and credit schemes, services and benefits and their empowerment».[35] Besides, the document invites the governments to «adopt environmental and agricultural policies and mechanisms, when necessary, to incorporate a gender perspective, and in co-operation with civil society, support farmers, particularly women farmers and those living in rural areas, with education and training programmes».[36]
3. Education of the indigenous women
The cause of the indigenous women received attention in the different parts of the document. It has been repeatedly mentioned to eliminate the obstacles prevailing for their education, participation in politics and decision making mechanisms, the double burden of paid and unpaid work, negative societal attitudes and stereotypes.[37] Demands were made, therefore, to adopt positive measures for their empowerment offering them the possibility of access to the formative programmes which will enable them to participate in decision making in all fields and at all levels.[38]
The right to participation of the indigenous women is underscored within the educational process itself. It can be grasped clearly from the following article which says «with the full voluntary participation of indigenous women, develop and implement educational and training programmes that respect their history, culture, spirituality, languages and aspirations and ensure their access to all levels of formal and non-formal education, including higher education».[39]
In the field of research and statistics, there emerged the request to undertake the collection of data and research on the indigenous women with the objective of drawing up policies, programmes and services that are accessible and in accordance to their culture and language.[40]
4. Education of women with handicap
Girls and women with handicap, irrespective of what type they be, are the most vulnerable category. Consequently, they become a doubly marginalised category within the society. On the basis of such awareness, the document stresses the need of taking into consideration their specific needs in designing and implementing policies and programmes. The principal objective is their integration in the society.[41] In the article that speaks of their education, much emphasis is made on the necessity to «design and implement policies and programmes, to fully address specific needs of women and girls with disabilities, to ensure their equal access to education at all levels, including technical and vocational training and adequate rehabilitation programmes, to health care and services and employment opportunities, to protect and promote their human rights and, where appropriate, eliminate existing inequalities between women and men with disabilities».[42] It is evident that much attention is given to their education at all levels and in all fields including professional and occupational aspects.
5. Education of refugee women
In the section that deals with "Women in armed conflict" it is affirmed that peace is closely linked to equality between man and woman and to development. Women and children, infact, are the foremost victims of armed conflict, wars of aggression, foreign occupation, colonial and alien domination as well as terrorism. In these last years, there have been an increase in all forms of violence against women, such as sexual slavery, rape, systematic rape, sexual abuse, forced pregnancies in areas with armed conflict. Besides, the phenomenon of displacement, loss of property, poverty, family disintegration weigh more especially on women and children.[43] From the statistics available, it can be noted that in Africa alone there are 7,3 million refugees; of these around 3,3 million are out of their own countries and 1,6 million displaced within their own countries. Of these refugees the vast majority, that is, 80% are women and children.
This notwithstanding, it is noted the lot of refugee women are not taken into consideration by the public opinion. Consequently, they suffer discrimination even in receiving humanitarian aids. Therefore, the document speaks of the need to better and to strengthen women's resources and involve them in the design and management of humanitarian activities so that they may benefit on an equal basis with men.[44] To this end, the recommendation is to «take measures to ensure the protection of refugees, especially women and girls, and their access to and the provision of gender sensitive appropriate basic social services, including education and health».[45]
6. Education of men and boys
The empowerment of women cannot be fully realised without the involvement of men. This conviction is implicit in the document especially in those articles which specifically speak of their role.[46] Therefore, it recommends to «develop policies and implement programmes including education programmes, particularly for men and boys, on changing stereotypical attitudes and behaviours concerning gender roles and responsibilities to promote gender equality and positive attitudes and behaviours».[47]
In what concerns sexuality, attention is centred on the programmes to be drawn up and implemented for the encouragement of men to adopt a responsible sexual and reproductive behaviour and to use effective methods to prevent unwanted pregnancies and sexually transmitted infections, including HIV/AIDS.[48] It can be noted that the proposed educational goals remain only at the level of information and instruction in the adequate use of contraceptive methods.
Concerning the family responsibility, the document stresses on the necessity of an education to share domestic responsibilities and the upbringing of children.[49]
5. The educational programmes highlighted in the document
1. Literacy
At the World Education Forum that took place at Dakar from 26 - 28 April 2000, Kofi Annan, in his opening message, said that more than 880 million adults are illiterate.[50] The vast majority among them, in the different parts of the world are women. From the statistics that are available, it results that in some countries of Africa, women illiteracy go as high as 70 to 97%. The same situation can be found in some countries of Asia, specially in the Arab countries and in south east region of the continent.[51] To face such a situation, the need to bridge the existing gap in literacy between men and women was repeatedly highlighted at the Forum. The same proposal of Dakar was repeated in the Final Outcome Document calling for a need to «continue to support and strengthen national, regional and international adult literacy programmes with international co-operation in order to achieve a 50 per cent improvement in levels of adult literacy by 2015, especially for women, and equitable access to basic and continuing education for all adults».[52]
2. Health education
In the field of health, the disproportionate impact of sicknesses such as malaria and tuberculosis and AIDS received particular attention. These sicknesses raise a high rate of women mortality and morbidity.[53] Other health problems that are highlighted in the document are use and abuse of tobacco[54] and drugs.[55] The negative consequences of tobacco smoke on women specially on adolescents and pregnant women is acknowledged with a call for a demand to «promote and improve comprehensive gender specific tobacco prevention and control strategies for all women, particularly adolescent girls and pregnant women, which would include inter alia, education, prevention and cessation programmes and services, and the reduction of people's exposure to environmental tobacco smoke and support the development of the World Health Organisation's Framework Convention on Tobacco Control».[56]
The aspect of health which received particular attention, however, is reproductive health. In the document, the reproductive health is defined as «a state of complete physical, mental and social well-being and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity, in all matters relating to the reproductive system and to its functions and processes».[57] On the basis of this definition, the document underscores the right to procreation and the freedom to decide when and with what frequency to do so. It also affirms that implicit to such a right is the right of men and women to be informed and to have access to safe, effective, affordable and acceptable methods of family planning of their choice as well as other methods of their choice for fertility regulation and health care services that will enable women to go safely through pregnancy and childbirth.[58]
The health education especially in the field of reproductive health has as its objective the satisfying sex life, with methods to prevent unwanted pregnancies and the spread of diseases especially HIV/AIDS.[59] This concept recurs repeatedly in the document. Besides, there is a specific mention of the Programme of Action of the International Conference on Population and Development in which it is affirmed that «in no case should abortion be promoted as a method of family planning». Therefore much emphasis is laid on the access to information and instruction on the use of contraceptives in order to evade abortion. However, in those countries where abortion has been legalised, information services and post-abortion counselling is recommended with the aim of preventing more cases of abortion.[60]
Health education is to be given both to men and women. Men and boys especially should be educated to responsible sexual behaviour.[61]
As regards women, the right to information services received much emphasis. Therefore, it is demanded to eliminate all types of discrimination tate deny them their right to make use of such services.[62] The information and instruction to be given to women is demanded especially to eliminate harmful, medically unnecessary or coercive medical interventions as well as inappropriate medication and overmedication of women and ensure that all women are properly informed of their options, including likely benefits and potential side effects by properly trained personnel.[63]
The document acknowledges the devastating consequences of the spread of AIDS specially on women and considers that the fundamental requirement for its prevention is responsible behaviour and gender equality. Women must be empowered to have control over and decide freely and responsibly on matters relating to their sexuality. On the part of men this necessitates responsible and respectful behaviour.[64]
3. Education to work
In his opening message Kofi Annan strongly denounced the situation of discrimination of women in the field of work. With the help of some examples, he highlighted that «in economic terms, the gender divide is still widening. Women earn less, are more often unemployed, and generally are poorer than men. Women's work is still largely part-time, informal, unregulated and unstable. The fact that they have productive as well as reproductive roles is still all too rarely recognised».[65]
The same problems are mentioned in the final document. In fact, the section on "Women and economy" emphasises that lack of gender perspective in macro economic policies stands as a great obstacle in the empowerment of women. The consequence deriving from it is the discrimination of all sorts, such as work in the informal sector with unjust wages, impediments in career mobility, lack of policies that pay attention to the family responsibilities especially those concerning maternity, sexual harassment and other types of violence, the impossibility in their access to property and credit etc.
In the already quoted address, the Secretary General underscores the importance of formation considering it both as an entry point into the global economy and the best defence against its pitfalls.[66] The final document re-iterates it and makes it clear that such formation should facilitate the entry of women into the field of work. To this end, the recommendation says to «develop policies and programmes to enhance the employability of women and their access to quality jobs, through improving access to formal, non formal and vocational training, life long learning and retraining, long-distance education, including in information and communications technology and entrepreneurial skills, particularly in developing countries, to support women's empowerment in the different stages of their lives».[67]
As regards the question of women entrepreneurs, there is an entire article which asks to «take measures to develop and implement gender sensitive programmes aimed at stimulating women's entrepreneurship and private initiative and assist women-owned business to participate in and benefit from, inter alia, international trade, technological innovation and investment».[68]
The same recommendation is repeated in another article with a stress on the need to «develop and/or strengthen programmes and policies to support women entrepreneurs, including those engaged in new enterprises, through access to information, training, including vocational training, new technologies, networks, credit and financial services».[69]
Still in the field of work, another demand made is the analysis and research for solutions on the major reasons why men and women are affected differently by the process of job creation and retrenchment associated with economic transition and structural transformation of the economy, including globalisation.[70]
The feminisation of poverty on account of the macro economic policies is repeated times over and one of the means suggested in the document to overcome it is the commitment for the development of women's and girls abilities at all levels through national and international initiatives.[71] In this regard, the document asks to intensify efforts in the implementation of poverty eradication programmes and with the participation of women make a periodic evaluation to examine its impact and the results obtained in the empowerment of women living in situations of great poverty.[72]
The educational interventions aiming at the full integration of women in the field of work received further emphasis in the article which asks to respect, ratify and fully implement the International Labour Organisation Conventions[73] specially those concerning the rights and protection of women in the field of work.
4. Education to participation in decision making mechanisms
The participation of women in decision making mechanisms is one of the strategic areas of concern in the Beijing Platform for Action. The achievement of such an objective which should lead to the elimination of an existing imbalance between men and women is one of the themes on which the UN Secretary General Kofi Annan spoke repeatedly. Making an analysis of the present situation, he said «globalisation involves technological changes which favour higher skilled workers over less skilled ones. This is widening even further the gap between men's and women's earnings. Only education will enable women to close it. Already, large numbers of women are engaged in global production, from textiles to data processing. But most of them work in appalling conditions, for near-starvation wages. This will only change when women are making economic decisions - as managers, entrepreneurs and employers, labour leaders and employment lawyers - and when they are making social and political decisions, as community leaders, negotiators, judges or cabinet ministers».[74]
Therefore, formation becomes an indispensable condition and is implicitly affirmed in all the statements that speak of the active presence of women in decision making spheres. The ultimate goal is to arrive at 50/50 in women's participation, which means gender balance at the professional level, at the higher levels in their secretariats and management accountability mechanisms.[75] This is explicitly and clearly stated in one of the articles which calls to «take action to increase women's participation and to bring about a balanced representation of women and men in all sectors and occupations in the labour market, among others by encouraging the creation or expansion of institutional networks to support the career development and promotion of women».[76]
The participation of women is called for especially in those decisions that impact their lives more strongly[77] and in innovative developments. This latter received further specification in the article which urges to «take measures with the full and effective participation of women to ensure new approaches to international development co-operation, based on stability, growth and equity with the enhanced and effective participation and the integration of developing countries in the globalizing world economy, geared towards poverty eradication and the reduction of gender based inequality within the overall framework of achieving people centred sustainable development».[78]
The political participation is another theme that received much attention. The request in this field is to «provide equal opportunities and favourable conditions for women of all ages and backgrounds on equal terms with men by encouraging their entry into politics and their participation at all levels».[79]
Closely related to the participation in political decision making is the field concerning the decisions for peace. In the already quoted address of Kofi Annan, he asserted: «I hope that in the course of this century, we will also prove that the best strategy of conflict prevention is to expand the role of women as peacemakers. In the UN itself, we must find ways to appoint more women in peacekeeping and peacemaking positions».[80] These words of the Secretary General have special resonance especially in the article concerning the involvement of women in the appointment of personnel for peace-keeping and peace-building missions.[81]
On this same issue, another article forwards the petition to «ensure and support the full participation of women at all levels of decision-making and implementation in development activities and peace processes, including conflict prevention and resolution, post-conflict reconstruction, peace-making, peace-keeping and peace-building and in this regard, support the involvement of women's organisations, community based organisations and NGO's».[82]
The document refers also to the initiative piloted by UNESCO and the Declaration of the Decade for a Culture of Peace 2001 - 2010 and makes an appeal to «seek to ensure the full and equal participation of women in the promotion of peace, in particular, through the full implementation of the Declaration of Action on a culture of peace».[83]
In the field of participation, much attention is centred on equal opportunities for men and women. However, there are also specific calls to remove all types of discrimination that block the entry of women in decision making mechanisms. In this matter, the insistent appeal rests on the reinforcing role of education which should not only lead to the change of stereotype mentality, but also facilitate and strengthen the implementation and practice of non discriminatory national and international laws.[84]
5. Education to overcome violence against women
Today, violence against women is widely recognised as a human right issue. Consequently, violence against women is a violation of human rights.[85] From such a recognition, derives the obligation, on the part of the countries, to take necessary measures for the prevention, investigation, punishment and the protection of victims. In the section that is reserved for the initiatives, it emerges that the governments have made reforms with the corresponding mechanisms, commissions, guides, protocol, national programmes and multidisciplinary projects to face the situation of violence against women. What can be noted are the consistent efforts being made in the field of education through the organisation of formative programmes for the various categories of workers such as judges, magistrates, health and social service personnel.
In the field of education, there exist also the researches concerning the root causes of violence, the role of men and boys and the impact of violence against women on children. Besides, there have been materials and guide books prepared to help women in need as well as campaigns for the awareness raising among the general public on violence against women.
It is essential to note the existence of some programmes for the elimination of harmful traditional practices such as female genital mutilation which still encumber women today.[86] This notwithstanding, the elimination of violence against women has still a long way to go. Women, infact, continue to be the victims of all forms of violence: physical, sexual, psychological everywhere in family, street, school, workplace. The causes leading to it are negative socio cultural attitudes and discrimination, economic inequality and harmful traditional practices.[87] The situation continues to be so also on account of poor mechanisms and programmes for the defence of women which have not yet been completely consolidated in many countries.
In the section of the document that is reserved for the initiatives and measures to be adopted, much emphasis is placed on the need to continue research with the aim of highlighting the root causes of all forms of violence so that right measures can be identified for their elimination.[88] Regarding the solutions to the problems, it stresses on the need of adopting a holistic approach so as to respond to all forms of violence and abuse and consider the real needs of women including education, health care and fundamental social service facilities.[89]
The document takes into consideration the differentiated levels of violence inflicted on the various categories of women. A particular mention was made of women with handicap who are among the most marginalised and vulnerable group.[90] The cause of the indigenous women and girls[91], women who are victims of racism and racially motivated violence[92] received special attention with a call to take adequate measures and adopt policies and programmes that work to eradicate the double edged violence.[93]
In almost all the countries violence against women deriving from harmful traditional practices have received condemnation. On this topic, Kofi Annan too spoke in his opening address. He said «there has been world-wide mobilisation against harmful traditional practices such as so-called "honour killings" - which I prefer to call "shame killings"».[94] The document makes a list of various traditional practices and considers the violence inflicted on women through such practices as violations against human rights and fundamental freedom. The article that states such a consideration calls to «develop, adopt and fully implement laws and other measures as appropriate, such as policies and educational programmes, to eradicate harmful customary or traditional practices including female genital mutilation, early and forced marriage and so-called honour crimes that are violations of the human rights of women and girls, obstacles to the full enjoyment by women of their human rights and fundamental freedoms and to intensify efforts, in co-operation with local women's groups, to raise collective and individual awareness on how these harmful traditional practices violate women's human rights».[95]
A painful and widespread plague today is the trafficking in women and children. It is a form of violence against women whose body is considered as a mere object of pleasure. Women who are trapped in it are mostly victims of armed conflict, that is, women refugees or women who sought to escape dramatic or precarious economic situations in search of better conditions of life. They are predominantly women who had suffered the lack of every possibility of education.[96]
The document contains a number of articles dealing with this problem from various points of view. Looking at it globally, it can be said that the proposal takes on a holistic approach to combat this evil which is becoming far more lucrative and easier than trafficking in drugs, arms and money recycling.
The articles speak of the many root causes leading to the evolution of such a phenomenon and underscores the need to identify some strategies which could cover legislative measures in view of prevention, exchange of informations, assistance, protection, rehabilitation and re-insertion of the victims. The punishment of the perpetrators through both criminal and civil measures are also considered. Lastly, there articles speak of not prosecuting women and girls, victims of trafficking, for their illegal entry and residence in the country of destination.[97]
Besides, the document recommends the support to be given to the on-going negotiations on the Protocol for the Prevention, Suppression and Punishment of Trafficking in Persons specially women and children which supplements the Convention against Transnational Organised Crime.[98] However, there are other juridical tools for the protection of women. The document makes a mention of the Optional Protocol to the Convention on the Elimination of all Forms of Violence Against Women with a formal request to the governments to sign and ratify it.[99] The same request was forwarded for the Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court.[100] All these call for educational interventions which make known the various documents so that these juridical tools be effectively used for the benefit of women.
Research and statistics
The importance of research and statistics in the empowerment of women can be deduced from the many affirmations in the entire document. They are considered as essential means to know the situation and as indispensable elements for the definition of policies, programmes of action, evaluation of the progress made, identification of obstacles, focussing on the strategic areas of concern, defining of intermediate objectives and the identification of the causes leading to the discrimination of women.
In one of the articles, it is clearly stated that «effective and co-ordinated plans and programmes for the full implementation of the Platform for Action require a clear knowledge on the situation of women and girls, a clear research-based knowlegde and data disaggregated by sex, short and long-term time-bound targets and measurable goals and follow-up mechanisms to assess progress. Efforts are needed to ensure capacity building for all the actors involved in the achievement of these goals. Efforts are also needed at the national level, to increase transparency and accountability».[101]
In the field of research, constant and repeated appeals are made to adopt a gender perspective geared to the identification of strategies which will serve those who define policies for the implementation of the Platform for Action.[102] To this end, there is a request to develop and sustain the efforts of the universities, institutes for research and formation at a national level and other specialised institutes of research.[103] Another article speaks of the need for an up-to-date study on the current tendencies which may lead to the widening of gender gap with the aim of designing essential guidelines for a political action.[104]
Another important aspect that is highlighted is access to the use of new technology in research, formation and sharing of women's experiences such as Herstories. The initiative of International Research and Training Institute for the Advancement of Women entitled GAINs or Gender Awareness Internet Networking System is an example mentioned in the document.[105]
As regards the statistics, attention is given to the need to «provide national statistical offices with institutional and financial support in order to collect, compile and disseminate data disaggregated by sex, age and other factors as appropriate, in formats that are accessible to the public and to policy-makers for inter alia gender-based analysis, monitoring an impact assessment and support new work to develop statistics and indicators, especially in areas where information is particularly lacking».[106] The areas that received specific consideration are those concerning violation of rights. In this field, request is made to regularly compile and publish statistics on crimes committed against women and girls with the aim of creating greater awareness and develop more efficacious policies.[107] Another area of concern includes health, access to health care services and information on the impact of AIDS on women.[108]
Conclusion
Today, it is universally acknowledged that empowerment of women is not a marginal issue. It strongly challenges the modern society because it a crucial and cross-cutting issue requiring to be taken into consideration in facing the problems of the present world. Infact, it is not possible to speak of themes such as sustainable development, peaceful living together, ecology etc without an active participation of women. Empowerment of women is implicit to such involvement of women, which in its turn is dependant on many other factors. Of these, education is of a crucial importance. Such an awareness can be found in the final outcome document of New York both in an explicit and implicit manner. The present study is a proof. Education not only of women, but also and more especially of men and boys, is seen as an essential prerequisite to live a life as citizens in equal dignity and thereby as persons enjoying equal rights and having equal duties.
As educators, we feel greatly challenged by the special role that education occupies in the empowerment of women. Such a responsibility leads to some fundamental questions on the type of education to be given looking at it specifically from a feminine perspective: what kind of education do we want to impart? What are our benchmarks or visions? What image of man/woman? What kind of relationship between man and woman?
Such questions are raised on realising that the document, especially in some parts, lack the foundational principles which can be derived from an integral definition of the concept of education. It can be noted in a particular way in the section concerning the education to reproductive health both of women, men and boys. It remains at the level of instruction and information focussing the attention on the technical knowledge which helps to avoid unwanted pregnancies and abortions, but does not really touch the area of human sexuality understood as gift and responsibility in the face of the gift of life and thereby should be placed within a larger framework of education to love.
These realisations inevitably lead to other questions: how can we recuperate the lost values/visions? What role should we play as educators? Can we be satisfied of the space that we occupy? Or do we intend to work at the micro level without, however, losing our gaze on the macro so as to be present there where big world policies are defined and effect a change on them with our positive contribution? This would be in keeping with what we as Institute of the Daughters of Mary Help of Christians deliberated in the Acts of the General Chapter XX.
To allow ourselves to be guided by this two pronged perspective in our pastoral work today is no longer an optional. It is a moral imperative which we cannot disregard any more. The process of globalisation that is under way imposes it on us. The educational instance deriving from it call us above all not to abandon ourselves to the dictates of big world policies, but to decide to offer strong alternative proposals founded on values. This demands that we be watchful on the events at the macro level so as not to be absent there where human rights are promoted and protected. At the same time, it invites us to build a strong network with likeminded forces. The secret of making an impact lies in the strength of network and in our case networking for the cause of education in an increasingly interdependent and globalised world.
-----------------------
[1] UNITED NATIONS - DEPARTMENT OF PUBBLIC INFORMATION, Platform for Action and the Beijing Declaration. Fourth World Conference on Women. Beijing, China 4 - 15 September 1995, New York, United Nations 1996, n. 69.
[2] Cfr COMMISSION ON THE STATUS OF WOMEN, Review and appraisal of the Implementation of the Beijing Platform for Action. Report of the Secretary General, in , 8.11.2000, 9.
[3] Cfr ANNAN Kofi, Address to the Opening of the 23rd Special Session of the General Assembly "Women 2000: Gender Equality, Development and Peace in the 21st Century" New York, 5 June 2000, in , 25.06.2000, 2.
[4] TWENTY-THIRD SPECIAL SESSION OF THE GENERAL ASSEMBLY, Further Actions and Initiatives to Implement the Beijing Declaration and the Platform for Action. Unedited final outcome document as adopted by the plenary of the Special Session, in , 10.06.2000. (From now onwards it will be abbreviated as: Final Outcome Document).
[5] Final Outcome Document n.6.
[6] Cfr ivi 7.
[7] Ivi 30 bis.
[8] Ivi 30 ter.
[9] Cfr ivi 110 a bis.
[10] Cfr ivi 109 a.
[11] Cfr ivi 109 b.
[12] ANNAN Kofi, Address, 2.
[13] Final Outcome Document 46 bis. Universal and equal access to social services including education, safe sanitation, clean water, nutrition, food security and health education programmes are mentioned also in article 107 d.
[14] Ivi 101 a.
[15] Cfr ivi 51 ter.
[16] Cfr ANNAN Kofi, Address, 2.
[17] Final Outcome Document 51 ter, 118 b. bis, 118 b. ter, 118 f.
[18] Ivi 101 d. This demand was launched by Kofi Annan, the UN Secretary General, in his opening address at the World Education Forum. Cfr WORLD EDUCATION FORUM, Kofi Annan Launches New Initiatives for Girls Education. Dakar Sends Strong Message of Hope, in , 29.04.2000, 2.
[19] Cfr Final Outcome Document 101 b.
[20] Cfr Ivi 7.
[21] Cfr ivi 101 d.
[22] Cfr ivi 101 e.
[23] Ivi 118 i.
[24] Ivi 128 b.
[25] Cfr ivi 128 e.
[26] Cfr ivi 128 a.
[27] Cfr ivi 130 f.
[28] Cfr ivi 9.
[29] Cfr ivi 27.
[30] Cfr ivi 115 f. bis.
[31] Cfr l.cit.
[32] Cfr ivi 115 f. bis.
[33] ANNAN Kofi, Address, 3.
[34] Final Outcome Document 47 bis.
[35] Ivi 127 h.
[36] Ivi 106 b.
[37] Cfr ivi 100 e.
[38] Cfr ivi 129 d.
[39] Ivi 128 h.
[40] Cfr ivi 126 d.
[41] Cfr ivi 53 bis.
[42] Ivi 128 o.
[43] Cfr ivi 13.
[44] Cfr ivi 133 i.
[45] Ivi 133 n.
[46] Article 49 of the document says: «Men and boys should be actively involved and encouraged in all efforts to achieve the goals of the Platform for Action and its implementation».
[47] Ivi 128 b.
[48] Cfr ivi 107 g. quarter.
[49] Further details on this part can be found also in section 2.2 of the present study.
[50] Cf WORLD EDUCATION FORUM, Kofi Annan Launches New Initiatives for Girls, 1.
[51] The detailed statistics can be found in the document UNITED NATIONS, The Worlds' Women. Trends and Statistics, New York, United Nations 2000, 103-107.
[52] Final Outcome Document 128 i.
[53] Cfr ivi 107 a. It is dealt with also in article 107 b. which recommends the collection and dissemination of updated and reliable data for further research on the factors affecting women's health with the aim of drawing up measures, and programmes for the prevention of sicknesses.
[54] Cfr ivi 107 j.
[55] Cfr ivi 107 j. bis.
[56] Ivi 107 j.
[57] Ivi 107 g. ter.
[58] Cfr ivi 107 g. ter. The same concept is presented in article 107 a. ter.
[59] Cfr 138 c.
[60] Cfr ivi 107 i.
[61] Further details on this topic can be found also in section 2.4.6 of this article.
[62] Cfr ivi 107 g. bis.
[63] Cfr ivi 107 g. quinter.
[64] Cfr ivi 37.
[65] ANNAN Kofi, Address, 1.
[66] Cfr ivi 2.
[67] Final Outcome Document 118 j.
[68] Ivi 127 a.
[69] Ivi 118 d.
[70] Cfr ivi 118 k.
[71] Cfr ivi 128 d. bis.
[72] Cfr ivi 135 d.
[73] Cfr ivi 127 b.
[74] ANNAN Kofi, Address, 2.
[75] Cfr ivi 124 a.
[76] Ivi 118 c.
[77] Cfr ivi 129 b.
[78] Ivi 135 b.
[79] Ivi 117 a.
[80] ANNAN Kofi, Address, 3.
[81] Cfr Final Outcome Document 122 b. bis.
[82] Ivi 122b.
[83] Ivi 133 j.
[84] Ivi 102 n.
[85] ANNAN Kofi, Address, 1; also Final Outcome Document 10.
[86] Ivi 10.
[87] Cfr ivi 11.
[88] Cfr ivi 103 e.
[89] Cfr ivi 103 i,; 103 i. bis.
[90] Cfr ivi 103 i.
[91] Cfr ivi 103 g.
[92] Cfr ivi 103 f.
[93] Cfr ivi 103 i.; 130 d.
[94] ANNAN Kofi, Address, 1.
[95] Final Outcome Document 103 d.
[96] Cfr ANNAN Kofi, Address, 2; Final Outcome Document 131 c.
[97] These topics are dealt with in five articles that are entirely reserved for trafficking in women. Cfr ivi 104 a, 104 b, 104 c, 104 d, 104 e.
[98] Cfr ivi 131 b. The drafting of Protocol is concluded at the Eleventh Session that was held at Vienna from 2-6 October 2000.
[99] Cfr ivi 131 b.
[100] Article 133 f. of the document exhorts the governments to sign and ratify the Statute. Instead, article 130 c. asks to «increase awareness and knowledge of the Rome Statute of the ICC which affirms that rape, sexual slavery, enforced prostitution, forced pregnancy, enforced sterilisation and other forms of sexual violence constitute war crimes and, in defined circumstances, crimes against humanity, with the aim of preventing such crimes from occurring and take measures to support prosecution of all persons responsible for such crimes and provide avenues for redress to victims; also increase awareness of the extent to which such crimes are used as a weapon of war».
[101] Ivi 54.
[102] Cfr ivi 113 b, 116 a, 126 a.
[103] Cfr ivi 126 a.
[104] Cfr ivi 126 e.
[105] Cfr ivi 121 a. bis; 134 h.
[106] Cfr ivi 113 a; 125 a.
[107] Cfr ivi 125 g.
[108] Cfr ivi 125 i.
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