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Applying the Generalist Intervention Model to K - 12 Education in DetroitA Review of the Literature, Policy, and Public OpinionPresented to the Faculty of the Irvin D. Reid’s Honors CollegeWayne State UniversityIn partial fulfillment of the requirement of the Honors co-majorBy Cassandra NorthrupDetroit, Michigan19 April 2018CONTENTS________________________________________________________________________Part I Engagement: Identifying the Problem2 - 9Introduction3Practice situation and ethical/professional issue3 - 5The population group5 - 7Effects of membership in the population group from 7 - 8a human rights, and social, economic, and environmental justice perspectiveSocial environment8Political and social context9Part IIAssessment, Planning, and Intervention10 - 17Introduction11Understanding the population11 - 12Weaknesses11 - 12Strengths12Assessment/Planning12 - 13Intervention13 - 14Evaluation14Proposed intervention14 - 15Recommendations16Stabilize17Part IIIEvaluation, Termination, and Follow-up18 - 33Introduction19Case outcomes19 - 23Charter schools19 - 20Traditional public schools20 - 21Client perspective21 - 22Social work perspective22 - 23Intervention evaluation23 - 26Methodology for evaluating success23 - 24Evaluating Detroit schools24 - 25Person-in-environment25 - 26Policy and societal factors26 - 30Local education policy26 - 28State education policy28 - 29Federal education policy29Societal factors29 - 30Implications for social work practice30Impact of urban context30 - 31Implications for social work practice31Termination32Follow-up32Conclusion32 - 33Part I: Engagement: Identifying the ProblemIntroduction As perceived through recent news media, there is an education crisis among K – 12 education in Detroit. This is evidenced by differences in academic performance measures and program offerings between Detroit schools and their suburban counterparts. However, there are discrepancies of the cause of these differences, which manifests through policy. It is essential to identify the root cause(s) in order to address this ethical dilemma in the most effective manner possible. This analysis seeks to uncover several pertinent aspects of the education crisis in Detroit with the intent to educate on the scope the issue. First, the ethical issues that have arisen as consequences of the crisis will be explained. Second, an examination of the population will be conducted, including intersectionality. Following the examination, there will be an assessment of the population group through multiple perspectives, including human rights, and social, economic, and environmental justice. Lastly, the overall social environment and political and social context for the population will be discussed.Practice situation and ethical/professional issue The general practice situation is the failure to provide consistent, quality education among all Detroit schools (Peters, 2012; Devitt, 2013, Livengood, 2017; Herrada, 2012; Fitch, 2016; Lake, Jochim, DeArmond, 2015). This implies a decrease in further life opportunities and possibilities to advance one’s socioeconomic status, a profound ethical issue (Peters, 2012). The current situation is not equitable because there are a lack of resources (e.g., textbooks, technology) to foster student success and positive life skills (Thiel, 2016), as schools are also deemed social institutions with lasting effects on further life outcomes (Salamon, 2012). On a national examination of twenty-seven urban school districts, Detroit Public Schools Community District (DPSCD) continually fares the worst (Halcom, 2016). Detroit charter schools experience parallel problems of underachievement and a lack of funding (Fitch, 2016). But, perhaps one of the most morbid statistics is that, according to the National Assessment for Education Progress, in Detroit only 4% of 4th graders are proficient in math and only 7% in reading (Lake, Jochim, DeArmond, 2015). Professional issues also exist as a result of the lack of funding. Many people who are employed by DPSCD or Detroit charter schools face dilemmas in their careers, as their wages are significantly less than their suburban counterparts (Herrada, 2012). They also experience scarce or nonexistent resources, and oftentimes a fragmented infrastructure, which has led to employment instability as frequent school closures have occurred (Herrada, 2012). As a result, schools in Detroit experience higher staff turnover rates than surrounding areas (Thiel, 2017).Another professional issue that has arisen from funding problems is the use of emergency management to operate DPSCD (Thiel, 2016). For instance, emergency management enacted the Termination Incentive Program (TIP) from 2009 – 2012. The program withdrew $250 per paycheck for most staff members’ wages. The funds were deposited into an account for debt repayment, which was promised to be paid back upon separation from the district (Thiel, 2016). This caused many employees to leave DPSCD, which led to a teacher shortage and larger classroom sizes (Thiel, 2017).In many situations, these professional issues inhibit the ability to teach effectively and foster student growth. The current practice situation does not demonstrate an appreciation for the dignity and worth of the students being served (NASW Code of Ethics), which is a lack of social justice (NASW Code of Ethics).Although this issue is large in scope and deeply concerning, my personal beliefs and values may inhibit my ability to approach the situation without bias. I work for a nonprofit within DPSCD, so I travel among schools in the district to offer tutoring and counseling. I have also assisted in creating an after-school program at a Detroit charter school. I have seen how some macro forces have manifested into the lives of students, which has made me very passionate about this issue. For instance, when the policy was enacted in 2011 to lift the cap on the number of charter schools permitted to open (Peters, 2012), many schools in DPSCD experienced massive declines in enrollment (Halcom, 2016). I noticed in subsequent years that entire floors of schools became empty, and resources became very scarce, nonexistent, and/or outdated, since the funding followed the students to the schools they transferred to. Charter schools are experiencing the same issues as they compete for students (Fitch, 2016). The conditions of the schools and its impact on students continues to frustrate me, so I am unsure if I am able to view the situation as objectively as possible.The population group The populations affected by the education crisis include the employees, students, families, and overall community. For purposes of this analysis, the focus will be on the students who are enrolled in K – 12 schools in DPSCD or Detroit charter schools. The students impacted are primarily ethnic minorities of a lower socioeconomic status, segregated racially and economically from their suburban counterparts (Peters, 2012; Bulkley, 2011). This makes the population vulnerable to oppression, as has occurred historically (Almond, 2012). Allowing the quality of education to deteriorate is a mechanism of oppression for this population. The oppression and vulnerability of the minority, lower socioeconomic status population in Detroit has led to social, economic, and environmental problems. A major social problem that is an implication of the education crisis is the reinforcement of the segregation among race and class in metropolitan Detroit as students in Detroit schools are not afforded the same life opportunities.The economic harms of the crisis contribute to this social problem. Michigan law permits for-profit entities to operate charter schools, so the K – 12 education system in Detroit has become increasingly deregulated and thus, profitable (Peters, 2012). This creates incentives to educate as inexpensively as possible, potentially decreasing resources available to students and the quality of education being offered (Peters, 2012).For charter schools that are functioning as a business, meaning operated by a for-profit entity, and for schools in DPSCD, there are often environmental problems resulting from lack of building maintenance, including a failure to remove lead from school buildings (Nriagu, Senthamarai-kannan, Jamil, Fakhori, Korponic, 2011). This has led to increased lead exposure and blood lead levels, evidenced in Arab and African American students in Detroit (Nriagu, Senthamarai-kannan, Jamil, Fakhori, Korponic, 2011). The consequences of such exposure include developmental delays, weight loss, and learning difficulties (Nriagu, Senthamarai-kannan, Jamil, Fakhori, Korponic, 2011). The environment of the population is far different than the environment I experienced in my K – 12 education. I continue to use the person-in-environment perspective to think about the life experiences of the students. The majority of students are minority and of a lower socioeconomic status (Lake, Jochim, DeArmond, 2015), which means they experience intersectionality, increasing their vulnerability to oppression. Vulnerability is also increased due to the lack of resources associated with a lower socioeconomic status and minority membership (Peters, 2012). I have recognized the vulnerability to oppression, poverty, marginalization, and alienation from forces in which the students do not have control.Effects of membership in the population group from a human rights, and social, economic, and environmental justice perspective For students in Detroit schools, there is a lack of regard for human rights, and social, economic, and environmental justice. Students are not given an adequate standard of education, which is a human right, due to their location, a circumstance outside of their control. A parallel example to the education system in Detroit is New Orleans, which is also an urban area consisting primarily of minorities that has experienced an abundance of charter schools and academic performance issues (Levin, 2012). This demonstrates a global interconnection of oppressed populations and human rights violations. Human rights violations also raise issues of justice. The education system in Detroit is deemed a marketplace with for-profit operators competing with other schools for funding (Salamon, 2012; Gulosino, Lubienski, 2011; Peters, 2012; Izraeli, Murphy, 2012). This is not social justice (NASW Code of Ethics) because the interest of the population that the public service of education is intended to serve is not prioritized. Failure for the education system to provide a foundation for the advancement of life opportunities hinders social and economic justice, because the system at hand is not fostering students to their full potential, including further employment outcomes (Peters, 2012). Exposure to lead due to poor building maintenance reduces students’ potential as well, which is neither social nor environmental justice. Further action is necessary to combat these social, economic, and environmental injustices.Social environment The social environments of DPSCD and Detroit charter schools is one of segregation, racially and economically (Peters, 2012). Economic segregation has proven to be harmful to student performance, as socioeconomic status is the single best predictor of academic performance (Peters, 2012; Salamon, 2012). The abundance of charter schools has led to school of choice in which students are no longer limited to attending the school in their neighborhood (Lake, Jochim, DeArmond, 2015). In addition, charter schools typically do not offer special education programs due to the expense involved, and families with more resources often opt to send their children to better performing schools either outside of their neighborhood or outside of Detroit (Erickson, Larwin, Isherwood, 2013). As a result, there has been a concentration of poverty and special needs students in some DPSCD schools (Peters, 2012). This has been proven to decrease overall performance, even for students who are not living in poverty or special needs (Peters, 2012). A potential solution is some form of economic diversification, which has demonstrated to increase student academic performance, provide more opportunities, and advance social justice (Salamon, 2012; Peters, 2012). Political and social context The education system in Detroit is considered to be the most competitive in the nation because: there is no regulation on how many and where charter schools can open; the number of school age children being educated in Detroit is declining; there is an excess capacity of schools; and there is policy-enabled choice across district lines (Lubienski, Lee, 2016). By 2016, differences in funding allocations as more schools had entered the market and competition across district lines opened to compete for per-pupil funding had led to a $3.5 billion legacy debt by Detroit Public Schools (DPS) (Halcom, 2016; Thiel, 2016). This forced DPS to allocate 40% of their per-pupil funding to debt repayment (Thiel, 2016).With a significant portion of funding to debt repayment, this led to an inability to afford essential classroom resources and building maintenance (Thiel, 2016). To combat this, the State of Michigan approved legislation to split DPS into two districts, one to remain DPS solely to repay debt, while the other is a new district, DPSCD to handle the K – 12 operations free of debt (Thiel, 2017). Although this legislation is beneficial in the short term, there are concerns that it will not be sustainable. According to Craig Thiel, senior financial researcher for the Citizens Research Council of Michigan, there are three key factors inhibiting DPSCD from achieving sustainability. These include: unstable student enrollment, chronic student achievement failures, and operating half-empty schools (Thiel, 2017). Change is necessary to advance social justice for the students in Detroit schools. Social justice manifests in this situation as the ability to provide a quality education and life opportunities in a safe environment.Part II: Assessment, Planning, and InterventionIntroduction There are profound differences in the outcomes of students attending K – 12 institutions in Detroit compared to suburban districts in the metropolitan area. The area is segregated racially and economically, which strengthens the outcome disparities. However, many students in Detroit are extremely resilient and become academically and socially successful into adulthood. The opportunities to be successful must be extended to more students in Detroit to address the inequalities that persist in education quality. Recent interventions have been implemented to address the social problem, and many more suggestions exist to stabilize the education system to one of academic excellence and fiscal sustainability. The Generalist Intervention Model (GIM) will be used on this macro social problem to aid in understanding and addressing the issue.Understanding the PopulationWeaknesses Students in Detroit schools are disadvantaged from the de facto racial and economic segregation of metropolitan Detroit (Darden, Rahbar, Jezierski, Li, Velie 2010). These students are primarily ethnic minorities of a lower socioeconomic status than their suburban counterparts (Peters 2012; Bulkley 2011). This increases vulnerability to oppression, as has occurred historically (Almond 2012; Darden, Rahbar, Jezierski, Li, Velie 2010). It impacts the students’ access to resources, including social capital due to economic and demographic realities (Almond 2012; Salamon 2012, Darden, Rahbar, Jezierski, Li, Velie 2010). Longitudinally, life outcomes and opportunities are affected (Darden, Rahbar, Jezierski, Li, Velie 2010). It is essential to view this social problem from the person-in-environment perspective. To students in Detroit with minimal resources and support, school is a fundamental social institution (Salamon 2012). Various case studies of successful schools in low socioeconomic locations have proven the importance of human relationships (NASW Code of Ethics), as nurturing environments foster student success (Salamon 2012).StrengthsDespite the systemic challenges that many students in Detroit face, there are numerous instances of remarkable resilience (Condly 2006). Many Detroit students survive, and even thrive, academically and into adulthood (Condly 2006). There have been studies conducted of these resilient children to uncover what makes these students successful in environments that do not typically foster student success (e.g., extreme poverty, trauma) (Condly 2006). Predictors of academic resilience in school-age children include genetic characteristics that are stress-resistant (e.g., above average intelligence, mild temperament), a supportive external environment (e.g., parent involvement, encouraging grandparents), and an abundance of opportunities to learn in a stable and nurturing environment (Condly 2006). This research can be used to aid programs that are currently in place (e.g., Upward Bound) to effectively foster student academic success, which may require a degree of student resilience in the current environment. It is imperative to create a stable environment for students, show compassion, and develop relationships in the academic setting (Condly 2006). Assessment/PlanningMutually agreed upon interventions by government and the school board have not been put into place. Many of the decisions regarding education in Detroit have been made by the authority of the state (Thiel 2016). For instance, the five emergency managers that DPS has had were all appointed by the governor to have unilateral control of the district (Thiel 2016). Also, during this time the elected school board was without any authority, as the emergency manager was given full authority on all decisions (Herrada, 2012). This system has been proven to be unsuccessful (Thiel 2016; Herrada 2012). This is evidenced by the academic outcomes in students (Thiel 2016).All emergency managers of DPS have been unsuccessful because they lack the competence of the population and social problem, which may partially be attributed to their not residing in Detroit (Thiel 2016). There was a failure to understand the person-in-environment perspective, including the challenges, needs, and strengths of the student population, staff, and community. To address the issue in a more effective manner, those who live and work in Detroit should have input on the education issues.InterventionBeginning in the fall 2017 semester, legislation was enacted to split DPS into two districts: DPS, solely to repay debt; and DPSCD, as a debt-free district no longer under emergency management, to be operated with an elected school board and superintendent (Thiel 2017). However, this program has not necessarily proven to be sustainable. According to Craig Thiel, the senior financial researcher for the Citizens Research Council of Michigan, the surplus of funds DPSCD has experienced since the recent legislation are not promising of long-term financial success (2017). One-time resources accounted for two-thirds of the $64 million budget surplus at the end of the 2017 school year (Thiel 2017). These included enhanced millage funds, an emergency rescue package from the State of Michigan, and the sale of district assets (Thiel 2017). In addition, there are 134 vacant positions, mostly for teachers, so the 2017 financials do not accurately reflect a long-term, sustainable budget (Thiel 2017).EvaluationWhile there are one-time resources accounting for the budget surplus in DPSCD, there are also key factors that are fiscally consuming and unsustainable in the long-term. These factors include: unstable student enrollment due to increased competition, school choice outside of the city, and a declining school age population; chronic student achievement failures that could put the district at risk of closing; and operating half empty schools which is financially inefficient, as less funds are able to be dedicated to classroom instruction and programs (Thiel 2017; Winters 2012). It is imperative that DPSCD show short and long-term successes to attract families and increase enrollment.Proposed Interventions To combat the deregulation and to implement quality control, there has been a proposal for a group entitled the Detroit Education Commission (DEC) (Livengood 2017; VanHulle 2016; Halcom 2016). It is intended to unite the fractured school system. The commission would have authority over which schools opened and closed and where schools are permitted to locate (Livengood 2017; VanHulle 2016; Halcom 2016). The commission would also implement a quality measurement system to assess the academics of Detroit schools annually, regardless of their status as traditional public or charter (Livengood 2017; Halcom 2016). This would increase the accountability of charter schools that are currently have a financial incentive to remain open even if there the academic achievement stipulations of the contract are not met (Halcom 2016; Gulosino & Lubienski 2011; Lubienski & Lee 2016).Presently, the above duties are performed by the School Reform Office (SRO) (Livengood 2017; VanHulle 2016). This office is located in Lansing, and the roles and responsibilities are divided among various workers who have other central tasks (Livengood 2017). Therefore, there is often a disconnect as the SRO members are not consistently aware of the issues specific to the Detroit education system (Livengood 2017; VanHulle 2016). For instance, in 2014 the SRO ordered 25 Detroit schools to close, which would displace 18,000 students (Livengood 2017). The letters sent to families from the SRO recommended alternative schools not in close proximity to their current schools, such as schools in Monroe and South Lyon districts, for students to transfer to without providing transportation (Livengood 2017). The DEC would be composed of officials appointed by the mayor to prevent instances such as this from occurring (VanHulle 2016; Halcom 2016).In 2016, the DEC did not pass in the House of Representatives when it was included in the rescue package bill for DPS/DPSCD (VanHulle 2016; Halcom 2016). This is likely due to the lobbying power of school choice proponents (Livengood 2017; VanHulle 2016). This proposed intervention was the result of various systems, including government, the school board, the SRO, and charter school operators. There is discussion of the DEC legislation being voted on again this upcoming school year (Livengood 2017).RecommendationsIt has been advised to condense schools that are operating at less than half capacity (Thiel 2017). This will aid in achieving financial sustainability by reducing building maintenance expenses and increasing enrollment per building. Condensing schools will also relieve some funds to assist with other need areas (Thiel 2017). These areas include teacher salary, extra-curricular activities, textbooks, and bussing.It is also essential to increase the regulation of charter schools and traditional public schools to monitor academic performance (Halcom 2016; Livengood 2017; VanHulle 2016). This may be in the form of the DEC, or perhaps another form, to increase accountability and hold these schools to a higher standard. This includes conducting yearly progress reports to assess measures such as academics, suspension/expulsion rates, student turnover, teacher turnover, and program offerings. These measures will then be reported to the State of Michigan to input to a public database that will be easily accessible to parents. The current education system is fragmented and difficult to navigate, so the database will be for families to compare schools, including enrollment timelines and transportation options. This will aid families in making informed decisions when choosing a school. The author, Cassandra Northrup, suggests the model for a charter school should be revised in a pilot program. This pilot is a charter school within a traditional public school building. In this program, teachers refer students who they believe would benefit from the innovative teaching style. This pilot, if launched on a full scale, would ideally condense schools that are located in a flooded marketplace and hinder competition.Stabilize In contrast with micro practice social work, the final goal of this macro social problem is to stabilize the system, rather than terminate and follow-up (Harrigan, Fauri, Netting 1999). This goal has not been reached for the education marketplace in Detroit. However, the attention of government has been peaked that serious intervention is necessary. Successful intervention would produce a stable school system that is fiscally sustainable and academically successful. Part III: Evaluation, Termination, and Follow-UpIntroductionThe focus of this section will be on the last three steps of the Generalist Intervention Model: evaluation, termination, and follow-up. Since the education system is composed of traditional public and charter schools, there are two sets of case outcomes, but both will be analyzed and evaluated using the same measures.Case OutcomesCharter Schools Charter schools are operated as independent entities depending upon the operator (Bulkley 2011). Because of this, it is challenging to evaluate such schools or identify an intervention as a collective whole. However, policies pertaining to charter school regulations may be deemed interventions that are able to be evaluated. An instrumental policy that greatly impacted charter schools and the education marketplace in Detroit is the Charter School Reform Bill that passed in 2011 (Lubienski & Lee 2016). This legislation removed the cap on the number of charter schools permitted to open in the state, including those operated by for-profit entities (Lubienski & Lee 2016). The bill was intended to jump start intervention in the K - 12 institutions in Detroit through a free market approach: as more charter schools open, there will be competition to produce better quality education with less resources (Lubienski & Lee 2016). While seemingly well-intentioned, the outcome was not so. More charter schools opened than were needed, as there is a financial incentive of doing so, resulting in a surplus of open seats and per-pupil funding spread thin (Lubienski & Lee 2016). Consequently, DPS experienced major enrollment and funding losses, resulting in massive debts, school closures, and a lack of necessary resources for the remaining schools, and thus, chronic student achievement failures (Lubienski & Lee 2016). Charter schools have experienced parallel issues (Lubienski & Lee 2016).Traditional Public SchoolsFor Detroit Public Schools (DPS), intervention took place in the fall of 2017. This was in the form of legislation to split the district into two: DPS, solely to repay the over $3 billion legacy debt; and Detroit Public Schools Community District (DPSCD), a new, debt-free district no longer under emergency management, to be operated with an elected school board and superintendent (Thiel 2017). Since the intervention has not been enacted for the length of a school year, it is difficult to state an outcome thus far. However, an outcome may be speculated by examining the actions of the new district thus far and plans for the future.The new district has jump started a one-on-one technology initiative that is now fully operational in three DPSCD schools, with plans to spread to all 106 schools within the next five years (Chambers 2018). This program intends to address the lack of access to technology that the district has experienced historically (Lake, Jochim, & DeArmond 2015). DPSCD Superintendent Nikolai Vitti is hopeful that this technology will be used as a tool to “improve student engagement, access to data on performance and individualized learning” (Chambers 2018). A learning pathway program, iReady, is installed on the new technology to measure and improve grade-level performance in reading and math (Chambers 2018). In addition, the schools that have enacted the initiative offer computer and Internet access before and after school and on Saturdays (Chambers 2018). The surplus funds attributed to the 2017 legislation has made this increase in technology possible (Thiel 2017).DPSCD has also created a general strategic plan to increase the district’s performance by 2020. The plan includes five priorities: improve the academic experience, transform the culture, commit to the development of the whole child, build a team of exceptionally talented staff, and manage and deploy resources in a manner that is responsible, transparent, and equitable (Blueprint 2020).Based upon the technology initiative and the district’s strategic plan, one may speculate that DPSCD is headed in a positive direction of improving the distribution of resources and quality of education. However, it is also important to note that a financial analysis conducted by the Citizens’ Research Council of Michigan has concluded that the district is not nearly financially sustainable for the long term, which may impact their ability to meet the five priorities (Thiel 2017). This implies that if financial sustainability is achieved, DPSCD has the potential to provide equitable, quality education.Client Perspective The clients in Detroit’s education marketplace are the students. The failure of the education system to provide consistent, quality education has been at the sake of students’ potential and further life opportunities. For instance, the principal and several teachers from DPSCD Spain Elementary-Middle School have expressed concern regarding a lack of building maintenance and essential resources, such as textbooks and technology, as negatively impacting students’ learning (Neason 2016). Additionally, a New York Times video piece detailing five Detroit students in high school and post-graduation exemplifies the limitations of resources available to the students (e.g., no bussing, outdated textbooks, etc.), which made them ill-prepared for post-graduation life (Bracken & Yi 2015). This is a portrayal of the profound effects that poor quality education has on students into adulthood, making the 2011 intervention extremely unsuccessful and the 2017 intervention hopeful for students in DPSCD, but not necessarily charter schools.Social Work Perspective Considering the resource challenges in many Detroit schools, there is a high need for social work services. However, the recent intervention in DPSCD has had a positive impact on acquiring necessary resources for students, such as the technology initiative (Chambers 2018). An interview with a high school advisor in a Detroit school details the challenges and opportunities of students that may be assisted with the right resources (Bracken & Yi 2015). For example, one student described lived in foster care nearly his entire life and struggled with many emotional stressors, resulting in anger management issues (Bracken & Yi 2015). With the assistance of the advisor and social work services, the student was able to graduate and open his own security company while coping with his anger (Bracken & Yi 2015). While this is only one example, there are many individual students that can be empowered through social workers and the right resources to pursue their full potential.From a social work perspective, the 2011 intervention was a failure because it took resources away from students which does not enforce social justice (NASW Code of Ethics). However, the 2017 intervention of DPSCD is hopeful for increased resources and opportunities for students. It is unfortunate that this intervention will not have an impact on charter schools unless DPSCD is able to recruit students from the charter schools. In this case, the intervention will be harmful to charter school students, but helpful to DPSCD. Either way, it seems that this intervention is only possible to achieve success in one arena.Intervention EvaluationMethodology for Evaluating Success It is essential to identify how to evaluate success in the Detroit education marketplace. Since resources (i.e., textbooks, technology, etc.) are necessary for academic success, the focus will be on evaluating adequate funding based upon the needs of the schools. The funding and needs are assessed using a report developed in January 2018 entitled “Costing Out the Resources Needed to Meet Michigan’s Standards and Requirements,” nicknamed the adequacy study. According to the adequacy study, the benchmark of success is ensuring students can meet all state standards (Augenblick, Palaich, Picus, Odden 2018). A professional judgement approach was used in which Michigan educators participated in 11 panel discussions that used research as a starting point (Augenblick, Palaich, Picus, Odden 2018). From there, educators were deferred to when conflict arose with the research recommendations (Augenblick, Palaich, Picus, Odden 2018). Discussions accounted for various concentrations of poverty, ELL, and special education in the context of four different district sizes (i.e., very small, small, moderate, and large) (Augenblick, Palaich, Picus, Odden 2018). Volunteers to serve as panelists were sought out through the Network of Michigan Educators, Michigan’s most prestigious education network; the Superintendents of the Michigan Association of School Administrators; and the Michigan Association of Intermediate School Administrators (Augenblick, Palaich, Picus, Odden 2018). The panelists were asked to identify the resources needed to meet state standards in the most efficient way possible without sacrificing quality (Augenblick, Palaich, Picus, Odden 2018). Base level per-pupil amounts were identified and then adjustments for special needs students (i.e., poverty, high need poverty, ELL, special education) with variations for concentrations of need within the school (Augenblick, Palaich, Picus, Odden 2018).Evaluating Detroit Schools According to the adequacy study, DPSCD is considered large and high need poverty (Augenblick, Palaich, Picus, Odden 2018; Warikoo 2016). The recommended base per-pupil allowance for large schools is $9,590, but to account for the high need poverty, panelists suggested that this amount is increased by 43% to total $13,713.70 per student (Augenblick, Palaich, Picus, Odden 2018). Currently, DPSCD is funded $7,650 per student (Detroit Public Schools Community District Proposed Budget FY2018). The study clearly demonstrates that DPSCD is drastically underfunded. The findings of the adequacy study may also be applied to charter schools, which are legally public schools even if the operator is a private entity (Bulkley 2011). According to the study, charter schools within an area that has a large traditional public district should be considered large as well (Augenblick, Palaich, Picus, Odden 2018). The study also suggests that charter schools be funded equally with traditional public schools (Augenblick, Palaich, Picus, Odden 2018; Higgins 2018). In the context of Detroit, the study implies charter schools should be funded the same as the recommendation for DPSCD, $13,713.70 per-student (Augenblick, Palaich, Picus, Odden 2018). Currently, charter schools have funding that varies from school to school, but Michigan charter schools are funded at a maximum per-pupil amount of $7,631 as to not exceed the lowest funded traditional public school district in the state (McVicar 2018). Even at the maximum amount, charter schools are dramatically underfunded when applying the recommendations of the adequacy study. While funding is not the only viable factor to consider when evaluating Detroit schools, it is essential in order to assess if there are adequate resources to provide equitable, quality education. The results of the adequacy study imply that DPSCD and Detroit charter schools do not nearly have the means necessary to provide quality education to all students in the city and that sacrifices have had and will continue to be made at the sake of students’ education. Thus far, such sacrifices have included a lack of building maintenance, no bussing system, outdated technology, outdated or an absence of textbooks, cuts to extra-curricular and arts programs, low staff wages, and many more (Thiel 2016). It is important to note that DPSCD currently has greater per-pupil funds than when it was DPS, which is advantageous to students and schools in need of resources the new funding may be able to provide (Thiel 2017). Overall, Detroit schools are in need of an intervention that reassesses funding allocations.Person-In-Environment When considering some of the macro level outcomes of Detroit schools, it is essential for practitioners to evaluate students in a holistic manner. One method of doing so is utilizing the person-in-environment framework. Practitioners working with students who attend Detroit schools should be aware of the challenges and opportunities that exist in their environment. It is also important to consider environmental impacts on students. The New York Times video piece entitled “The Detroit Graduates,” details five students’ lives in their environments (Bracken, Yi 2015). This piece is an example of how a student’s environment can impact their ability learn and achieve. For instance, one student in the video had recently moved to Detroit to finish high school as he was escaping some problems in his hometown of Dayton, Ohio (i.e., a warrant and his mother’s recent homicide). The student described aspirations he had of attending college and making something of myself that would have made his mother proud. An update of his life two years after graduation showed he was unable to escape some of the environmental problems that had plagued him in his younger years (i.e., a lifestyle of crime, an absence of positive role models and unconditional support, a lack of quality education on how to proceed after high school, a deficiency of skills and services to cope with his mother’s death, etc.) and he was incarcerated (Bracken, Yi 2015). While this story is rather pessimistic, it represents some of the environmental challenges that practitioners should consider in order to uncover the opportunities available to students in Detroit schools.Policy and Societal Factors Policy and societal factors are macro forces that impact the micro level. In terms of Detroit schools, federal, state, and local education policies impact individual students. Societal factors are also extremely influential on school resource allocation and educational policy decisions.Local Education Policy Recent policy changes have occurred within DPSCD. Since the dismal 2017 NAEP results, Dr. Vitti, the new DPSCD superintendent, in collaboration with the school board enacted new teaching materials for the 2018 - 19 school year and going forward (Rahn 2018). These materials were approved upon a district-wide assessment of current materials being used, which proved to be outdated, not aligned with state standards, and not advantageous for standardized testing (Rahn 2018). While these materials have yet to be enacted, it is expected to increase average reading scores by 3.46% annually and math scores 3.1% yearly (Rahn 2018). This implies students in DPSCD will gain knowledge that will increase their ability to compete on standardized tests for college admissions, such as the ACT and SAT. While DPSCD has its own policies decided upon and regulated by an elected board and superintendent, local charter schools face a different set of policies. Because each charter school has a different governing body (i.e., the operator), decisions are made differently within each school (Binelli 2017; Bulkley 2011). Decisions and oversight that are normally made amongst a school board and superintendent are made by the charter school operator, most of which are for-profit entities that consider the school an investment (Binelli 2017). Some of these operators in Detroit include a financial firm in Minnesota, an American Indian tribe in the Upper Peninsula, and a for-profit educational management organization in Georgia (Binelli 2017). Many of the decisions and policies within charter schools are also made by staff, such as teachers and principals, giving more power to these individuals than in a traditional public school system (Binelli 2017). While this may be advantageous in some circumstances, it does not promote collaboration and community involvement (Binelli 2017). Additionally, the overarching goal for charter schools must be on financials (Binelli 2017). For instance, the principal of the charter school George Washington Carver Academy in Highland Park has noted that students cannot be expelled regardless of their behavior because of the per-pupil funds that students represent (Binelli 2017). This may pose a threat to others and negative consequences if students who are a threat remain in the school.State Education Policy State policy has arguably had the largest impact on education in Detroit. It has been a mechanism of intervention for problems in Detroit’s education system in 2011 and 2017. In 2011, the Charter School Reform Bill passed in Congress and became law (Lubienski & Lee 2016). This new policy made Michigan the only state that allows an unlimited number of charter schools to open without regulating location (Gulosino & Lubienski 2011). Lawmakers argued that this policy would serve as an intervention for Detroit’s school system using a free market approach because it would foster competition between DPS and charter schools, which would increase the quality of education for all Detroit students (Livengood 2017). Evidently, the 2011 intervention did not serve to increase education quality, which required a second state intervention in 2017 (Livengood 2017). This time, the traditional public school system required a bailout (Thiel 2017). This relieved the district of all debt, so more attention and funds could be focused on students (Thiel 2017). Additionally, the district was relieved of emergency management and a locally elected school board and superintendent were put in charge (Thiel 2017). Both state policies have had a drastic impact on students. The 2011 intervention dramatically increased the school options available to students, as more charter schools began to open (Lubienski & Lee 2016). However, the policy also spread funding and resources thin as too many schools were in the city relative to students (Lubienski & Lee 2016). This drastically decreased the quality of education able to be provided as so many resources were not available to do so in Detroit’s traditional public and charter schools (Lubienski & Lee 2016). There are implications for further life outcomes of students subjected to such academic environments (i.e., less likely to further education meaning lower earning potential and greater life stressors) (Albada 2010).Federal Education Policy Federal education policy has been quite impactful on the manner in which students are instructed in Detroit. Specifically, the No Child Left Behind Act (NCLB) and its amendment Every Student Succeeds Act (ESSA) have changed school culture to one of standardized testing as a measure of performance (Gawlik 2015). This means students and staff spend a greater amount of time studying and practicing for such tests during the school day (Gawlik 2015). It can also increase the pace of the learning environment as there is more material that must be conveyed, leaving behind those who learn at a slower rate (Kelleghan, Madaus, Airasian 2012).Societal Factors While there are policies that greatly impact Detroit’s education system, societal factors are arguably more impactful. Perhaps one of the most profound aspects of Detroit and the surrounding suburbs is the magnitude of segregation (Wilkinson 2016). Historically, segregation, whether legally enforced or de facto, creates multiple disparities among communities (Wilkinson 2016). Detroit, the most segregated city in the U.S. by some measures, is no exception to this (Wilkinson 2016). These disparities transpire in a “disproportionate cost on people of color by limiting access to employment, to transportation that will get them jobs, to clean water and air and to education, while making it far more difficult for African American families to accumulate wealth” (Wilkinson 2016). The quality of education may differ among segregated communities in metropolitan Detroit, but it is also essential to note the various other disparities that result in stressful environments that impact students’ ability to achieve and pursue further life opportunities.Implications for Social Work Practice The above policies and societal factors emphasize the need for social workers to consider environmental factors to increase their effectiveness. For instance, if a social worker is working with a student requiring anger management in a charter school, it would be important for the social worker to understand that the student will not be expelled regardless of his/her behavior. This means focusing on the safety of others may be the top concern when providing anger management services to the student.It is also important for social workers be aware of how policies and societal factors may limit their practice scope and ability to be as effective as possible. This requires social workers to have a degree of flexibility in how services are delivered. For example, it may not be realistic for a social worker to increase the diversity in the school, even if that would increase social capital and greater social ties among students, potentially having a positive impact on students’ mental health and life outcomes (Putnam 2000). This solution would not be feasible considering the social context of metropolitan Detroit.Impact of Urban Context The urban context of Detroit schools impacts the environment of students. Detroit is the most populated city in the state and geographically large, so the education system, among other public services, has been challenging to manage at times (Lake, Jochim, & DeArmond 2015). With various neighborhoods and interests operating under one system, there have been difficulties making decisions and collaborating (Lake, Jochim, & DeArmond 2015). Additionally, there are challenges and opportunities unique to Detroit due to its urban context. For instance, the rapid population growth then decline of the city has presented problems in managing supply and demand of basic services (i.e., education) (Urban Development 2016). This has also created a high concentration of poverty due to the loss of jobs and businesses with the population decline (Urban Development 2016). For many Detroit schools, this implies that school as a social institution should be emphasized with activities that build skills for future success (e.g., team sports) and relaying knowledge on morals, ethics, and values (Muriel 2013). Although the family is deemed the most influential social institution, education ranks second (Muriel 2013). This means it is social justice to build social skills during school.Implications for Social Work Practice For practitioners working with Detroit students, there are several implications for practice in relation to the urban context. Students may be more likely to be subjected with environmental stressors due to poverty concentrations, which means it is important for practitioners to emphasize school as a social institution in order to advance social justice (NASW Code of Ethics). This means school social workers could hold workshops in classrooms for high schoolers discussing ethical frameworks. For younger students in elementary and middle school, social workers could conduct small group sessions role playing stress management techniques.Termination The education system in Detroit is continuous and requires constant monitoring, as any school system does. This makes applying the termination step of the Generalist Intervention Model inappropriate for this situation, but rather to stabilize with evaluation measures in place is the goal. However, it is important to note that monitoring should primarily be internal, as the elected school board and superintendent, as well as staff, have the greatest understanding of the schools’ needs. The system may be thought of as a constant cycle that needs a steady stream of resources and dedication.Follow-up The follow-up for the education system should be in at least annual intervals in which measures other than standardized testing are assessed. For instance, assessing the adequacy of resources available to meet state standards, extra-curricular program offerings, and students’ grades. These measures should be evaluated by a third-party non-profit with agreed upon approaches that are formulated in collaboration with the schools and parents. The results should be posted to a public, easily accessible database for families.Conclusion Ultimately, it is essential that Detroit’s education system receives evaluation, consistent monitoring, and follow-up. Assessing the poor performance of many Detroit schools may be done so through the Generalist Intervention Model (GIM) while ensuring students are the main concern at all times. Using the GIM will provide an ethical framework in a marketplace that is often viewed from a for-profit lens. This model also presents opportunities for social work practice. It is imperative that social workers consider environmental factors of students while advocating for their right to quality, consistent education. Therefore, there is hope that Detroit’s K - 12 education system will experience a revival with the right intervention, advocacy, and social work practice. ................
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