Content and Activities for Geography S5

[Pages:514]Content and Activities for Geography S5

Experimental Version

Kigali, August 2018

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? 2015 Rwanda Education Board All rights reserved

This book is the property of Rwanda Education Board. Credit should be given to the authors when the source of this book is quoted.

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Table of contents

ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS............................................................................................................................13 INTRODUCTION .............................................................................................................................................................13

1.1: Definition of statistics and importance of statistical graphs and diagrams in geography ...............................15 1.1.1 Definition of Statistics ........................................................................................................................................16 1.1.2: Importance of statistical graphs and diagrams in geography.............................................................................16

1.2: Line and curve graphs................................................................................................................................................17 1.2.1. Simple line and curve graphs.............................................................................................................................17 1.2.2. Group or comparative graphs ............................................................................................................................20 1.2.3. Compound line graph ........................................................................................................................................22 1.2.4. Divergence line graphs ......................................................................................................................................24

1.3. Bar graphs ...............................................................................................................................................................28 1.3.1. Simple bar graphs ..............................................................................................................................................28 1.3.2 Group bar graph..................................................................................................................................................31 1.3.3 Compound bar graph ..........................................................................................................................................33 1.3.4. Divergence bar graphs .......................................................................................................................................35 1.3.5. Age and sex graphs............................................................................................................................................38 1.3.6. Dispersion graph................................................................................................................................................41 1.3.7 Circular graph .....................................................................................................................................................43

1.4. Statistical charts......................................................................................................................................................46 1.4.1 Simple divided circles.........................................................................................................................................46 1.4.2. Proportional divided circles...............................................................................................................................49 1.4.3. Simple divided rectangles..................................................................................................................................52 1.4.4. Compound divided rectangles ...........................................................................................................................54

1.5. Repeated symbols ...................................................................................................................................................57 1.5.1 Proportional circles.............................................................................................................................................57 1.5.2. Proportional squares ..........................................................................................................................................58 1.5.3. Proportional cubes .............................................................................................................................................60 1.5.4. Proportional spheres ..........................................................................................................................................62

1.6. Statistical diagrams ................................................................................................................................................64 1.6.1. Dot maps............................................................................................................................................................64 1.6.2. Isoline maps.......................................................................................................................................................67 1.6.3. Shading or choropleth maps ..............................................................................................................................69 1.6.4. Flow maps..........................................................................................................................................................71 3

1.6.5. Wind rose...........................................................................................................................................................73 UNIT 2: BEARINGS, DIRECTIONS, DISTANCES AND AREAS ON A MAP .............................................................76

2.1. Location of places using the grid reference .....................................................................................................77 2.1.1 The four-figure grid reference ............................................................................................................................78 2.1.2 The six-figure grid reference ..............................................................................................................................79

2.2: Stating directions and bearings on topographic map .........................................................................................81 2.2.1 Direction .....................................................................................................................................................81 2.2.2 Bearing........................................................................................................................................................82 2.2.3 Measuring true bearing.............................................................................................................................82

2.3: Measure the distance on the maps: straight line and curved line ......................................................................84 2.3.1 Straight line distance ..................................................................................................................................84 2.3.2 Curved Distances ................................................................................................................................................84 2.4.1. Calculate areas of regular shapes.............................................................................................................86 2.4.2. Calculate areas of irregular shapes..........................................................................................................87

2.5: Representation of relief on the map......................................................................................................................88 2.5.1. Altitude ..............................................................................................................................................................89 2.5.2. Contours ...........................................................................................................................................................89 2.5.3. Hill shading........................................................................................................................................................91 2.5.4. Hachures ............................................................................................................................................................92 2.5.5. Pictorial representation ......................................................................................................................................93 2.5.6. Colouring/ Layer Tinting...................................................................................................................................93

2.6. Calculation of the vertical interval and the amplitude of relief /spot heights ...................................................94 2.6.1. Vertical interval and amplitude of relief............................................................................................................94 2.6.2 Spot heights and trigonometrical stations ...............................................................................................95

UNIT 3: MAP WORK INTERPRETATION......................................................................................................................97 3.1. Interpretation of physical aspects from maps/photographs ...............................................................................98 3.2. Interpretation of human aspects on maps ..........................................................................................................104 3.3. Relationship between physical and human aspects on maps/photographs .....................................................107

UNIT 4: THE UNIVERSE AND THE SOLAR SYSTEM...............................................................................................118 4.1. The universe ..........................................................................................................................................................118 4.1.1. Definition of the universe and Components of the universe............................................................................118 4.1.2. The components of the universe ......................................................................................................................119 4.2. Solar system: sun and planets..............................................................................................................................120 4.2.1. The sun......................................................................................................................................................121

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4.2.2. Characteristics of different planets and their positions .......................................................................122 4.3. Earth: Peculiar elements of the earth ............................................................................................................125 4.4. Earths movements ...............................................................................................................................................127

4.4.1. Rotation of the Earth...............................................................................................................................127 4.4.2. Revolution of the Earth ...........................................................................................................................129 4.5. The Moon...............................................................................................................................................................132 4.5.1. Characteristics of the moon ....................................................................................................................132 4.5.2. Phases of the moon...................................................................................................................................133 4.5.3. Influence of the moon on the earth ........................................................................................................134 4.6. Other heavenly bodies ..........................................................................................................................................136 UNIT 5: THE ORIGIN OF THE EARTH.........................................................................................................................140 5.1. Theories of the origin of the earth..................................................................................................................140 5.1.1. The Big Bang Theory ......................................................................................................................................141 5.1.2. The Biblical or creation theory ........................................................................................................................142 5.2. Characteristics of the Earth............................................................................................................................143 5.3: The internal structure of the earth and mineral composition ..........................................................................148 5.4. Superficial configuration of the earth: Continents and Oceans .......................................................................151 5.5. Geological time scale ............................................................................................................................................154 UNIT 6: INTERNAL LANDFORM PROCESSES ..........................................................................................................157 6.1. Faulting and processes leading to the formation of different faulted features................................................158 6.2. Types of faults .......................................................................................................................................................159 6.3. Influence of faulting on landscape and drainage ...............................................................................................163 6.3.1. Influence of faulting on landscape................................................................................................................163 6.3.2. Influence of faulting on drainage.....................................................................................................................169 6.4. Impact of faulting to human activities ................................................................................................................171 6.4.1. Positive impacts..............................................................................................................................................172 6.4.2. Negative impacts ............................................................................................................................................172 6.5. Distribution of landforms associated with faulting ......................................................................................173 6.6. Definition of folding and its process...............................................................................................................174 6.7. Types of folds ........................................................................................................................................................175 6.8. Influence of folding on drainage and landscape ................................................................................................181 6.8. 1. Influence of folding on drainage.....................................................................................................................181 6.8.2. Impact of folding on landscape........................................................................................................................181 6.8.3. Impacts of folding on physical environment ...................................................................................................183

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6.9. Meaning, causes and types of warping ..........................................................................................................184 6.9.1. Meaning of warping.........................................................................................................................................184 6.9.2. Types of warping .............................................................................................................................................184 6.9.3. Causes of warping ...........................................................................................................................................185 6.9.4. Landforms associated with warping ................................................................................................................185 6.9.5. Influence of warping on drainage ....................................................................................................................186

6.10. Processes of vulcanicity and volcanic materials...............................................................................................187 6.11. Intrusive and extrusive features ........................................................................................................................188

6.11.1. Extrusive volcanic features............................................................................................................................189 6.11.2. Intrusive Vulcanic features ............................................................................................................................195 6.12. Types of volcanoes and their characteristics....................................................................................................198 6.13. Influence of volcanicity on drainage .................................................................................................................201 6.14. Impact of volcanicity to the human...................................................................................................................203 6.15. World distribution of volcanoes ........................................................................................................................204 6.16. Meaning of Earthquakes and its related concepts...........................................................................................205 6.17. Causes, consequences and measures of earthquakes.......................................................................................208 6.17.1. Causes of earthquakes....................................................................................................................................209 6.17.2. Consequences of earthquakes.................................................................................................................210 6.17.3. Measures to curb earthquake effects..............................................................................................................210 6.18. World distribution of Earthquakes...................................................................................................................210 UNIT 7: SOILS .................................................................................................................................................................213 7.1. Soil constituents ....................................................................................................................................................213 7.2. Morphological properties, soil profile, soil catena and fertility of the soil ......................................................215 7.2.1. Soil properties..................................................................................................................................................216 7.2.2. Soil profile and catena .....................................................................................................................................219 7.2.3. Soil fertility......................................................................................................................................................222 UNIT 8: WEATHER AND CLIMATE OF THE WORLD ..............................................................................................223 8.1. The atmosphere.....................................................................................................................................................223 8.1.1. Meaning of the atmosphere .............................................................................................................................224 8.1.2. The structure of the atmosphere ......................................................................................................................224 8.1.3. Composition of atmosphere.............................................................................................................................226 8.1.4. Importance of the atmosphere .........................................................................................................................228 8.2. Elements of weather and climate....................................................................................................................229 8.2.1. Temperature.....................................................................................................................................................229

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8.2.2. Precipitation.....................................................................................................................................................236 8.2.3. Winds...............................................................................................................................................................243 8.2.4. Atmospheric humidity.............................................................................................................................257 8.2.5. Cloud cover................................................................................................................................................259 8.2.6. Sunshine.....................................................................................................................................................263 8.2.7. Atmospheric pressure ................................................................................................................................266 8.4. Types of climate and their characteristics.....................................................................................................272 8.4.1. Tropical zones..................................................................................................................................................273 8.4.2. Temperate zone................................................................................................................................................280 8.4.3. Cold zone.........................................................................................................................................................283 UNIT 9: NATURAL VEGETATION OF THE WORLD.................................................................................................286 9.1. Tropical forests and their characteristics...........................................................................................................286 9.1.1. Equatorial forests .............................................................................................................................................287 9.1.2. Tropical Monsoon forests ................................................................................................................................289 9.1.3. Mountain tropical forests.................................................................................................................................290 9.2 Temperate forests and their characteristics......................................................................................................291 9.2.1. Mediterranean forests ......................................................................................................................................292 9.2.2. Coniferous forests / Taiga Forest.....................................................................................................................293 9. 2.3. Deciduous forests ...........................................................................................................................................294 9.3. Grasslands in tropical zone and their characteristics .......................................................................................295 9.3.1. Savannah humid vegetation.............................................................................................................................296 9.3.2. Steppe/ Savannah dry vegetation.....................................................................................................................297 9.4 Grasslands in temperate zones ...........................................................................................................................298 9.5. Desert Vegetation..................................................................................................................................................300 9.5.1. Hot desert vegetation .......................................................................................................................................300 9.5.2. Cold desert vegetation ...................................................................................................................................301 9.6 Tundra vegetation ................................................................................................................................................302 9.7. Mountain vegetation.............................................................................................................................................304 9.7.1. Tropical Mountain vegetation ......................................................................................................................304 9.7.2 Temperate mountain vegetation .......................................................................................................................306 9.8. Aquatic, marsh and Swamp vegetation ..............................................................................................................307 9.9 The factors which influence natural vegetation ..................................................................................................309 9.10. The importance of natural vegetation...............................................................................................................310 UNIT 10: POPULATION GROWTH IN THE WORLD .................................................................................................312

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10.1. Human diversities ...............................................................................................................................................312 10.1.1. Race ...............................................................................................................................................................313 10.1.2. Religion .........................................................................................................................................................313 10.1.3. Languages......................................................................................................................................................314 10.1.4. States..............................................................................................................................................................315

10.2. World population distribution...........................................................................................................................316 10.2.1. Population density .........................................................................................................................................316 10.2.2. Factors responsible for the distribution of population in the World ..............................................................317

10.3. Population concepts and related effects............................................................................................................319 10.3.1. Optimum population......................................................................................................................................319 10.3.2. Under population ...........................................................................................................................................320 10.3.3. Overpopulation ..............................................................................................................................................321

10.4. Population problems of developed and developing countries.........................................................................322 10.4.1. Population problems of developed countries and their solutions ..................................................................322 10.4.2. Population problems of developing countries and their solutions .................................................................323

10.5. Population growth ..............................................................................................................................................324 10.5.1. Factors influencing birth rate.........................................................................................................................325 10.5.2. Factors influencing death rate........................................................................................................................325 10.5.3. Factors influencing the rapid population growth...........................................................................................326 10.5.4. Effects associated with rapid population growth...........................................................................................327 10.5.5. Ways of controlling population growth .........................................................................................................327

10 .6 Population structure and the composition .....................................................................................................328 10.7 Population Policies in the World ......................................................................................................................331

10.7.1. Population policies in developed countries ...................................................................................................331 10.7.2. Population policies in developing countries ..................................................................................................332 10.8. Impact of early sex, health risks, HIV/Aids, STDs in the world...................................................................333 10.8.2. The impact of HIV/Aids and STDs on social economy development of country and possible prevention measures ...................................................................................................................................................................335 10.9. Migration......................................................................................................................................................336 10.9.1. Types of migration.........................................................................................................................................336 10.9.2. Causes of migration .......................................................................................................................................337 10.9.3. The effects of migration in the world ............................................................................................................338 10.9.4. The measures to be taken to control migration..............................................................................................339 10.10. Case Studies.......................................................................................................................................................340 10.10.1 Population of Nigeria, Gabon and Bangladesh.............................................................................................340

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