Peace treaties that ended WWI and consequences



POWER AND AUTHORITY IN THE MODERN WORLD 1919-46SurveyPeace treaties that ended WWI and consequencesParis Peace Conference: Started in Jan 1919, led to the Treaty of Versailles. Redrew central Europe, attended by all major powers except Russia, however Central Powers were only invited after treaty terms were finalised.M Macmillan: ‘[the conference was] six months that changed the world.’Led to the League of Nations: Founded to prevent war and achieve peace. Limited power due to lack of military force. Represented Britain, France, Italy, US, Japan.Treaty of VersaillesEconomic impact: Imposed harsh measures on Germany. Borrowing money to pay for reparations -> inflation. Germany was soon unable to make payments -> French invasion of Ruhr -> passive resistance -> lower production, government printed more money to pay workers -> hyperinflation.Political/social impact: disillusionment, anger, collapsing political order, mutinies (German High Seas Fleet), councils -> abdication/resignation of Kaiser and Imperial government -> threat of socialism -> democratic government under Friedrich EbertStab in the back myth: German democrats, socialists, Jews (‘November Criminals’) sabotaged Germany by signing the Treaty of Versailles. Ludendorff supported democracy to shift this blame onto the democrats -> propaganda against the left. Also contributed to Hitler’s discontent and anger -> he went into politics.W Carr: ‘The signature of the peace treaty cast a long shadow over the political life of the 1920s...’Rise of dictatorships after WWIConditions that allowed dictators to rise in interwar periodWWI, dissatisfying PPC results, Depression -> economic instability, need for post-war rebuilding, desire for firm and decisive leadership.Russia: Death of Lenin, centralisation of power caused by ban on factionalism and civil war, unrest due to WWI/Civil War, and power of Secretariat allowed Stalin to take power.Italy: WWI, Great Depression, PPC, new democratic measures -> unemployment, inflation, discontent w/ new democracy, proportional rep., class conflict/civil disorder, fear of communism -> Fascist Party rose rapidlyJapan: Great Depression -> strain on Japanese economy and resources/suffering at home/famine -> military expansion in China/Korea-> army became powerful -> factional power struggles between Kodo Ha and Tosei Ha -> Tojo became prominent in quelling Kodo Ha -> took over other key roles + became a dictatorFeatures of dictatorships in Russia, Italy, JapanNationalism, political party led by single leader, restriction of freedom.Russia: Industrial, totalitarian. Heavy surveillance, little personal freedom, control increased by terror, purges, show trials, gulags, propaganda and censorship. Education and arts had to support communist goals. Official at British Embassy on the five-year plans: ‘...at the centre... human misery, starvation, death and disease...’Italy: Strong state control and cult of personality. Very nationalist and military, valued strength and glory. Wanted to revise PPC terms and revive the Italian Empire. Began on the side of the Allies then joined Hitler after intervention in the Spanish Civil War and invading and claiming Abyssinia for expansion, honour and resources. Cooperation with Hitler -> Anti-SemitismMussolini: ‘...the Fascist conception of life stresses the importance of the State... [the Fascist state is] the symbol of unity, strength, and justice.’Japan: Militarist, fanatically nationalist. Conflicted with civilian authority. Murder of PM Inukai (1932) ended civilian government. There was much conflict and changing of leaders within the army due to the factional struggles between the Kodo Ha and the Tosei Ha.Kodo Ha/Imperial Way: More radical, wanted to overthrow Emperor and government. Saw a war with USSR, didn’t favour military expansion in China.Tosei Ha/Control Faction: Less radical, more conservative. Wanted good relations w/ USSR and to invade China.Nazi regime to 1939 Rise of the Nazi party and the collapse of the Weimar RepublicCollapse of Weimar RepublicR Evans: ‘Weimar was weak in political legitimacy from the start... It was unloved and undefended by its servants in the army and the bureaucracy.’The Weimar constitution allowed proportional representation, leading to many coalition governments and little social/political harmony, and allowing the Nazis to thrive.The generals of the armies and judges of the courts were mainly those from the Second Reich (under the Kaiser) and didn’t believe in democracy. E.g. the army refused to put down the Kapp Putsch, Hitler only served 9 months for treason.Various attempts to overthrow Weimar weakened it. E.g. Kapp Putsch (far right, Freikorps), Red Army captured industrial towns (far left), Nazi Beer Hall Putsch. French occupation of the Ruhr: French and Belgian workers occupied the Ruhr region (industrial/mining area) in response to Germany’s failure to deliver reparations payments. German workers began passive resistance -> decreased production -> added to inflation.Inflation of 1923: To pay for reparations, the government borrowed heavily and printed more money -> inflation. German money became worthless ($1 = 4.2 marks in 1914, = 25 billion in 1923). This caused poverty, disillusionment, and social/economic disarray. This was only solved under Stresemann’s government, where he introduced a new currency and negotiated reparations with the Allies. A Bullock: ‘the result of the inflation was to undermine the foundations of German society in a way... [the War and the Treaty of Versailles] had never done.’Rise of Hitler and the NazisDuring his job as a political indoctrination official, Hitler attended a German Workers Party meeting. He joined them and rose through their ranks, becoming leader and setting up the Storm Troopers in 1921. By mid-1923 there were 70,000 Nazis and 15,000 SA.November 1923 Munich Beer Hall Putsch: Hitler broke into a large business meeting where State Commissioner von Kahr was speaking. Hitler demanded their support in a putsch, the leaders agreed but told the police the next day. A shooting between the Nazis and the police occurred. Hitler was sentenced to 5 years but only served 9 months in relative comfort.-6273800Reichstag Elections:1930: Nazis had 16% of seats, more than expected.July 1932: 35%, Nazis now the biggest party.Nov 1932: 30%, vote dropped but still largest party.Mar 1933: 44%, until Nationalist Party joined Nazis, giving them a majority of 52%.00Reichstag Elections:1930: Nazis had 16% of seats, more than expected.July 1932: 35%, Nazis now the biggest party.Nov 1932: 30%, vote dropped but still largest party.Mar 1933: 44%, until Nationalist Party joined Nazis, giving them a majority of 52%.The Putsch convinced Hitler to take power politically and the trial brought Hitler and the Nazis national prominence.Hitler’s trial speech: ‘There is no such thing as high treason against the traitors of 1918... [I] wanted the best for the German people.’ Anti-Young Plan: (Young Plan—reduced and extended reparations). Hitler joined Hugenburg, leader of the German Nationalist Party, in this plan, gaining him publicity and respectability.A Bullock: ‘To millions of Germans... Hitler had now become a familiar figure, thanks to a publicity campaign paid... by Hugenburg’s rival party.’Great Depression (1929-1930s): Led to unemployment, bankruptcy, poverty. The Nazis promised to help farmers, reduce taxes and unemployment, etc. -> more support for Nazis.Strasser (a Nazi leader) about the depression: ‘All that serves to bring about catastrophe... is good, very good for us and our German revolution.’Propaganda and Terror: The SA threatened and beat up Nazi opposition, white Goebbels used film, radio, press, posters, newspapers and demonstrations to increase support. The ‘Hitler over Germany’ campaign allowed Hitler to use planes to give speeches all around the country.K Ludecke (a Nazi): ‘...the Party flag was everywhere in evidence. Huge posters and Nazi slogans screamed from windows and kiosks.’By the 1932 elections, the Nazis were the largest party.Hitler demanded to be made Chancellor, Hindenburg refused. However, after firing both Papen and Schleicher in a short period of time, he had no choice, giving Hitler a legitimate position of power within the government. He also felt he would be able to control Hitler. Initial consolidation of Nazi power 1933-4Early 1933Reichstag fire (Reichstag burned down, blamed on communist caught in building) -> allows Hitler to turn public opinion against communists and destroy them.Hitler: ‘This act of arson is the most outrageous act yet committed by Communism in Germany.’Reichstag elections, nationalist party joins Nazis -> Nazi majorityEnabling act -> Hitler can pass laws without Reichstag approvalGestapo set up (secret police)Mid – late 1933Trade unions banned -> decreases power of the peopleBurning of the books (thousands of Jewish/un-Nazi books burned) -> discourage free thinking/expressionConcordat (Hitler makes a deal with the Pope) -> ends catholic oppositionPolitical parties banned -> centralises powerHindenburg dies, Hitler becomes presidentEditorial Law -> media under Nazi controlEarly 1934 Parliaments and Reichsrat abolished -> centralises powerPeople’s Court established -> Nazi control of judicial systemJune – Night of the Long Knives: Leader of the SA, Ernst Rohm, wanted to take over the army and have a socialist revolution. Business/industry leaders and important people in the army didn’t like this, and Hitler needed their support. So, over a few days, Hitler had his SS murder hundreds of SA members and other opponents.I Kershaw: ‘[The] popular esteem gained through the destruction of the generally hated SA was a further boost to Hitler’s power.’Nazi ideologyAnti-SemitismNazi propaganda targeted the Jews and blamed them for everything (Treaty of Versailles, Depression)Jews were ridiculed, attacked, and banned from many public placesW Shirer: ‘...the Jews had been excluded either by law or by Nazi terror... at least half of them were without means of livelihood.’1933: National boycott of Jewish businesses1935 Nuremburg Laws: Reich Citizenship act (Jews were no longer citizens) and the Blood Protection Act (Germans and Jews weren’t allowed to marry or have sexual relations)1938 Kristallnacht: Triggered by a Jew shooting a German diplomat. Jews were attacked, synagogues and Jewish homes were destroyed, and thousands of Jews were sent to concentration camps.Other undesirables: Sterilisation, abortion, and euthanasia was used to eliminate the mentally ill, disabled, gypsies, homosexuals, etc. Euthanasia killed 5000 kids and 71,000 adults.Racial superiority/purity: Aryans were the supreme race and their blood had to be kept ‘pure’.Nazi programme: ‘None but those of German blood... may be members of the German nation.’Lebensraum/TOV: Promised to end ToV, aimed to unite all German speakers in one Reich, restore Germany to greatness, and gain living space (lebensraum). W Shirer: ‘Himmler announced today that a Polish farm labourer has been hanged for sleeping with a German woman. No race pollution is to be allowed.’Role of prominent individuals in the Nazi stateHermann GoeringRaised for an army career, served in WWI.Participated in Munich Putsch, established concentration camps, initially ran Gestapo and SS, initially Hitler’s successor, led German Air Force.Captured by American troops, committed suicide in Allied custody.Joseph GoebbelsExempted from WWI due to clubfoot, pursued literacy and drama, close with many Jewish teachers until he joined the NSDAP.Initially Berlin district leader, where he began to create the Fuhrer myth and spread propaganda.Became president of Ministry of Propaganda—organised burning of the books, national boycott of Jewish businesses, indoctrinated people and spread ideology.Replaced Hitler as Chancellor, killed his family and himself to avoid capture.Heinrich HimmlerStudied agriculture and joined right-wing paramilitary forces.Initially propaganda leader, became head of the SS and Gestapo and Hitler’s personal bodyguard. Organised the Night of the Long Knives and ran concentration camps. Ruthless, committed, fanatical. Enforced racial purity and breeding.Removed of his positions by Hitler when he tried to negotiate with the Allies. Committed suicide in Allied custody.Albert SpeerWell educated, studied architecture to continue family tradition.Joined Nazi party due to fear of communism, hatred of the Treaty of Versailles and fascination with Hitler.Became a close friend of Hitler in the 1930s.By 1937—Nazi’s leading architect, 1941—supported war effort.Claimed he wasn’t anti-Semitic, but evicted thousands of Jews and ignored the Final Solution (though some say he didn’t know).Increased German munitions and machinery output and made railways more efficient.Many of his labourers were slave labourers.Apparently became disenchanted with Hitler and planned to assassinate him.Resisted scorched earth policy and saved many structures.Sentenced to 20 years for forced labour.Methods used by Nazi regime to exercise control Censorship + propagandaPurpose: Portray Hitler and the Nazis in a positive light, show Aryan superiority, turn public against Jews and Communists.Methods: Simple and repetitive, appealing to the emotions of Germans and easy to understandForms:Radios: Radios were made cheap and speakers placed in the streets to spread the Nazi message. International stations were illegal to listen to.Media: Entertainment, media, and literature had to fit Nazi views. E.g. Jazz or ‘black music’ was banned and in 1933 thousands of books were burned to discourage independent thinking.Rallies: Rallies occurred frequently, e.g. the yearly Nuremburg rally involving bands, marches and Hitler’s speeches. These excited people and emphasised order and conformity.The 1936 Olympic Games was seen world-wide and promoted German efficiency and superiority.M Broszat: ‘[members of rallies were provided] with an emotional experience... [This] facilitated the crystallisation of the hopes, expectations... around this extremist movement.’Education: School subjects taught Nazi ideas and children were indoctrinated. E.g. biology became ‘race science’ where children were taught about the superiority of Aryans and how to identify a Jew.Press: Newspapers were controlled and not allowed to print anti-Nazi ideas.Goebbels: ‘In the next article... a decision of the Fuhrer, no matter what it may be, will be discussed as the only correct one for Germany.’ TerrorR Evans: ‘The Nazi terror machine reached down to even the smallest unit of everyday life and daily work...’Stormtroopers/SA: Street thugs, initially ran the concentration camps and intimidated enemies until they were destroyed in 1934.Gestapo: The Secret Police, spied on and arrested ‘enemies of the state’—communists, democrats, Jews, homosexuals, work-shy, pacifists, etc. They encouraged people to report on neighbours, parents, co-workers, etc. SS/Death Head Units: Elite, racially pure, and committed Nazis, they ran the concentration camps and enforced law and order. Concentration camps: Introduced in 1933 (e.g. Dachau). Involved brutality, hard labour, and executions. And people who were released spread fear -> conformity.Herr X: ‘...working hours were sixteen per day... floggings were very frequent... usual punishment was twenty-five strokes... Jews might receive up to sixty... Deaths took place daily in the camp.’800,000 Germans were imprisoned from 1933-45, 500,000 were shot.LawsEnabling Act (Hitler could pass any law he wanted)Nuremberg laws (Reich citizenship act, Blood protection act)Editorial law (Nazi control of press and media)RepressionCultural repression (burning of the books, banning of jazz music, banning of catholic youth groups, Kristallnacht)Cult of personalityReplaced traditional religion, reinforced by the Reich Evangelical Church.Hitler saw himself as a ‘world-historical individual’ (Hegel) and ‘a genius with a mission’ (W Shirer)He was worshipped as a deity and demanded unconditional obedience—the Fuhrer mythHe was portrayed as a deity through the Evangelical Reich Church and propaganda. (Goebbels—he was the greatest general, Himmler—the greatest man of all time) consolidated this cult.Grunberger: ‘there was little evidence that the German people felt any hatred for him, even in the midst of destruction [after the war].’ Impact of Nazi regime on German life Cultural repressionArt, media and music had to support Nazi ideologyJewish and ‘black’ (jazz) music were bannedReligionConcordat: Signed between Hitler and the Pope—they stay out of each other’s business. Nazis did not honour this.Anti-church measures: Catholic schools closed down, youth groups removed, clergy persecuted, show trials for priests.Catholic church replaced by Evangelical Reich ChurchR Evans: ‘[The Catholic Church] had been intimidated and harassed until it began to scale down its criticisms of the regime in fear that even worse might follow.’WorkersNational Labour Service – RAD: Gave men jobs in public work. Camp life and little money, but free food and pride. Unemployment: Went from 6 million in 1933 to 300,000 in 1939. However, this was achieved by sacking Jews and women who were not recorded in the figures.Jobs were created by compulsory military service and in science, making Germany self-sufficient (artificial substitutes)German Labour Front: Run by Dr Ley, replaced trade unions. Workers weren’t allowed to bargain for higher wages and working hour restrictions were removed—many worked 60-72 hours a week.Strength through Joy/KDF: Arranged cheap activities and leisure programs for workers, such as ski trips and cruises. This increased Nazi popularity.YouthHitler wanted dedicated, fanatical Nazis (boys -> army, girls -> mothers)Education: Textbooks and subjects were changed to indoctrinate children (Nazi love and Jewish/communist hate) Bio -> race science, history -> promoted Nazis.E.g. a maths problem about a German aircraft bombing Warsaw, international centre of Jews, or about the cost of looking after a disabled person.Teachers had to train in the German Teachers League so they would pass on Nazi ideas.The Hitler Youth: Taught kids loyalty to the Nazis and military skills. There were about 8 million youth involved by 1938.Hitler: ‘I want young men and women who can suffer pain. A young German must be... as tough as leather and as hard as Krupp’s steel.’The camps focused on physical labour (for girls too—healthy bodies = healthy babies) and the best pupils went to special schools such as Adolf Hitler Schools and Order Castles.M Burleigh: ‘...In sum, children appeared to have become more brutal, fitter and stupider than [their parents] were.’WomenRole: Wives and mothersPropaganda slogan—Kinder, Kirche, Kuche (children, church, kitchen)Encouragement of motherhood: Tax relief and mortgage reductionsMotherhood Cross—women with the most kidsLebensborn—for unmarried women to be impregnatedBanning of abortion and contraceptionLaw for the Encouragement of Marriage—1000 mark loan for married couples, 250 marks kept per childLaw that never came into effect: ‘[women] should be obliged to produce four children by racially pure... German men.’Politics/workforce: Women were removed from their jobs and denied a political role. Limits were placed on women at university.Petty restrictions: Make-up and trousers frowned upon, conservative hairstyles encouraged, child-bearing hips encouraged.MinoritiesWere segregated, sterilised, euthanisedOften put into ghettoes or concentration campsOpposition to the Nazi regimeWas ineffective and minimal due to:Propaganda, Gleischaltung (1993-4), terror, repression, and Nazi popularityArmy supported Hitler after NoLKFear of unemployment and banning of trade unionsPolitical parties were bannedChurch opposition: Some clergymen/priests openly spoke out against Nazis. E.g. in 1937, a letter from the Pope attacking Hitler as ‘a mad prophet with repulsive arrogance’ was read in all churches. Priests were harassed, church services shut down, and many leaders sent to camps (800 clergy and 400 Catholic priests)Youth opposition: White Rose group: Led by university students Hans and Sophie Scholl. Involved leaflets, graffiti, protest marches.Edelweiss Pirates: Involved anti-Nazi slogans, camping trips to escape Nazis. 12 were hanged after they killed the Gestapo chiefThe Swing Kids/Jazz Youth: Upper middle class. Rejected Nazi values and danced to illegal jazz music.Worker’s opposition: Weakened by unemployment and banning of trade unions. Still, in response to poor conditions, workers resisted through strikes and go-slows, refusing to salute, not going to work or sabotaging factory machinery. E.g. a factory worker, Georg Elser, angry with workers’ rights, planted a bomb where Hitler was scheduled to speak, but Hitler finished early and left the stage before it blew up.Political opposition: Communists destroyed by Reichstag Fire Decree, other political parties banned.Search for peace and security in the worldSearch for peace/security 1919-46Ambitions of Germany in EuropeAims: destroy the Treaty of Versailles, bring all German-speakers into one country, gain lebensraum (living space) by expanding into the East (Poland, Russia)Early 1930s: Alliance with Poland (tactical and propaganda move), rearmament, conscription, expansion of military forces. Allies took no action (British were sympathetic and more worried about Stalin).Late-mid 1930s: Appeasement—British PM Chamberlain’s policy of giving into Hitler’s demands for land to avoid war. The Rhineland—Germans were forbidden to put troops in the Rhineland (between Germany and France) but Hitler did so anyways to support Mussolini attacking Ethiopia. Allies made no action, convinced Hitler he could get away with aggression.Anschluss (annexation)—Hitler wanted to bring Austria under his control (birth-land, German speaking). He replaced the PM with a Nazi PM who invited Nazi troops in. Austria became a part of the Reich.Sudetenland—An area of Czechoslovakia with a large German speaking minority. In a conference, the area was given to Hitler, the Czechs felt powerless and bitter. Czechoslovakia—Hitler took over Czech lands = the first non-Germanic land seized. Allies warned that if Hitler did this again, it would be war (end of appeasement).Nazi-Soviet Pact—Soviet benefit = time to prepare for war, territory in Eastern Europe. Nazi benefit = could attack Poland without two front war.WWI (1939)—Hitler invaded Poland to gain lebensraum, Allies declared war.Ambitions of Japan in the Asia-PacificAims/motives: To expand into the Asia-PacificFind a market for Japanese exports, gain resources/supplies/materials, have more living space for growing population.Remove western imperialists and claim “Asia for the Asians”Break Japan’s encirclement by enemy powers.The military dominated civilian government, and the Control faction (who wanted to expand into the South) dominated over the Imperial way faction (who wanted to expand into the USSR), so ambitions were directed towards China and South-East Asia.Timeline1905: Japan won Russo-Japanese war1910: Annexed Korea1914-1918: Fought w/ Allies against Germany1919: Gained some German colonies at the PPC1920s: Military began to gain influence = more aggression1931: Took over Chinese province of Manchuria1937: War against China1940: Controlled most of China’s coastline and set up a pro-Japanese puppet government 1940-41: Took over French Indochina1941: US demanded Japan withdraw from occupied regions. Refused and attacked US naval base Pearl Harbour, crippled 8 battleships.1941-42: Guam, Wake Island, Manila, Singapore, Java and Rangoon fell to Japan. They were now the master of Asia and the Western Pacific.Intentions and authority of the League of Nations and United NationsIntroduced by US Woodrow Wilson at the PPC.Purpose: World peace, cooperation, disarmament, improve living conditions, resolve disputes, deter invasions (economic sanctions against aggressors).Intentions of different countries: France: Wanted powerful military forceBritain: Wanted small force that only met for emergenciesUS: Wanted huge world parliament that met regularly to deal with issuesStructure: All member nations had one vote. The executive committee was the Council (Britain, France, Japan, Italy), all other nations were the Assembly, and the Secretariat ensured day to day functioning.Successes: Curbing drug trade and slavery, health, refugee problems, restabilised Austria’s finances in 1922, solved several international disputes (e.g. Greece and Bulgaria 1925)Failures: Many powers didn’t join (US, USSR, Germany), world still dominated by nationalism, had no armed forces to enforce decisions, often denied a say in issues (e.g. France didn’t allow them a say in reparations), unable to stand up to major powers determined to pursue national interests (e.g. helpless in Spanish Civil War and against Nazi and Japanese governments in 1930s)Intentions and authority of the United NationsCharter for the UN created in April 1945, San FranciscoPurpose: Peace, international cooperationChanges (since the League): US and Russia were included, had a military force, votes in the General Assembly didn’t have to be unanimousStructureSecretariat: Research and administrationGeneral Assembly: Where questions/issues were discussed and votes were madeSecurity Council: US, Britain, China, Russia, France (all had veto power over decisions). Takes action against aggressors.Economic and Social Council: Studies political and economic problems.Effectiveness: Not very effective during the Cold War as tensions between Russia and the US grew. However, they brought the Palestine war to an end, fought in the Korean war against communist North Korea, and made progress in health, transport and economics. ................
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