Emergence of the Americas in Global Affairs, 1880-1929
Emergence of the Americas in Global Affairs, 1880-1929
I. United States’ expansionist foreign policies
A. Political Reasons
1) Influential minority sought international status for U.S. like Great European Powers.
2) Between 1870 and 1900, Europeans had taken over 1/5 of land and 1/10 of population of the world.
3) Germany became America’s biggest imperialist foe and largely spurred U.S. into imperialism; sought colonies in Africa, Asia, Latin America & Caribbean.
B. Economic Reasons
1) Panic of 1893 and subsequent depression (RRs) convinced some businessmen industry had over expanded resulting in overproduction & underconsumption
2) Foreign trade becoming increasingly important to American economy in late 19th cent.—Americans considered acquiring new colonies to expand markets further.
3) Desire to compete with Europe for overseas empires.
C. Social Reasons
1) End of frontier: 1890 report from Superintendent of Census (Historian Frederick Jackson Turner’s “Frontier Thesis”)
2) America needed “New Frontier”
3) Many Americans believed U.S. had to “expand or explode”—Increase in population, wealth, and industrial production demanded more resources and markets. Some feared existing resources in U.S. might eventually dry up.
4) Labor violence and agrarian unrest (Populism) rampant due to industrialism and depression. Overseas markets a possible safety valve for U.S. internal pressures
D. Ideological Reasons
1) Social Darwinism (Charles Darwin—natural selection) meant earth belonged to the strong & fit—this idea had strong appeal with politicians as well as many common people
a. Gives explanation of why US still in existence
b. Provides justification to idea of continued conquest and growth
2) Josiah Strong: Our Country (1885)
a. Advocated superiority of Anglo-Saxon Christian civilization
b. Therefore must spread religion & democratic values to “backward” peoples to become “his brother’s keeper” (“White Man’s Burden”).
c. Stronger nations dominating weak ones was part of natural law—US needs to create “imperialism of righteousness”
d. If U.S. was to survive in competition of modern states, it too would have to become an imperial power
e. Senator Albert Beveridge: “[God] has marked the American people as His chosen nation to finally lead in the regeneration of the world . . . [God] has made us adept at government that we may administer governments among savages and senile peoples.”
3) Captain Alfred Thayer Mahan: The Influence of Sea Power upon History, 1660-1873 (1890)
a. Thesis: Control of the sea was the key to world dominance and empire.
b. U.S. should build large navy and build defensive bases and refueling stations strategically placed on world’s oceans.
c. Take Hawaii and other Pacific islands
d. Advocated U.S. build a canal across the isthmus of Central America to link Atlantic & Pacific Oceans.
e. Helped stimulate naval race among the great powers.
f. Persuaded “yellow journalists” to push for modern navy of steel ships.
g. By 1898, the U.S. had fifth most powerful navy; third by 1900
II. The Spanish American War (1898)
A. Causes
1) US hungry for “New Frontier” and economic, political, religious expansion
2) US had always wanted control of Cuba even before Civil War
a. Wanted as slave state pre-Civil War
b. Americans had heavy investments in sugar, tobacco ($50 million of property in 1890s)
c. 1894 Wilson-Gorman Tariff placed restrictions on Cuban imports of sugar to US (cut Cuban trade by half)
d. Cuban economy, US investments sank causing unemployment, poverty and unrest in Cuba
3) Cuban Independence movement
a. Began 1868 when Cuban rebels declared independence and began guerilla war against Spanish. Failed and many went to exile in US.
b. Nationalist leader Jose Marti declared “Cuba must be free from Spain and the US”
c. Spanish assassinate Marti—becomes martyr and rallying point for new rebellion
d. 1895 new rebellion seized eastern Cuba and declared Republic of Cuba
4) American Support
a. Traditional US claim for Cuba (Pierce, $100mil)
b. Economic interests (rebels attacked and destroyed US property hoping for US intervention)
c. Yellow journalism creates sympathy for Cubans
i. New York Journal, William Randolph Hearst
ii. New York World, Joseph Pulitzer
iii. Publish exaggerated stories of Spanish atrocities v. Cubans
iv. Journal published private letter of Spanish ambassador to US, described President McKinley as weak and sycophantic
d. USS Maine
i. Stationed in Havana harbor to evacuate American citizens living in Cuba
ii. Unexpectedly explodes and sinks killing over 250 Americans
iii. Yellow press blames on Spanish mine (“Remember the Maine and to Hell with Spain!”)
e. McKinley asks for and receives Congressional declaration of war v. Spain
B. Effects
1) Cuba independent (US protectorate)
2) American business tightened control of sugar plantations
3) Platt Amendment (Cuban-American Treaty after war)
a. Cuba to provide land for American bases
b. National revenues to pay back debts to US
c. Sign no treaty detrimental to US interests
d. Acknowledge right of US to intervene in Cuba to protect US interests
e. Anti-American feelings among Cuban nationalists
4) US becomes global empire
a. Hawaii annexed (supply route to Philippines)
b. After war Puerto Rico, Guam, and Philippines ceded by Spain (US territories; naval bases, markets, route to China)
c. Philippine resistance to US control decreased with education, transportation, health care reforms
d. Virgin Islands purchased from Denmark
e. Critics of empire (Anti-Imperialist League, Democrats)
i. Countries should have right of national self-determination (democratic)
ii. Nonwhites not worthy of US citizenship (racist)
iii. Harmful to US labor, working-class families
III. United States’ foreign policies: the Big Stick; Dollar Diplomacy; Moral Diplomacy; applications and impact on the region
A. The Big Stick
1) 1901 President McKinley assassinated; VP Theodore Roosevelt to become youngest US president (42)
2) TR believed in “White Man’s Burden”; believed US had duty to shape “less civilized” parts of the world—US to become world power.
3) TR’s view on imperialism in Western Hemisphere: “Speak softly but carry a big stick [and] you will go far.”
B. Big Stick in Caribbean
1) US must be militarily strong and show strength around world to maintain position.
2) To be global power, must have global military (canal through Panamanian isthmus)
3) Columbia rejected US lease offers, TR resort to force
4) Conspired with Panamanian nationalists (Philippe Bunau-Varilla), sent warships to support, and were first to recognize declaration of independence from Columbia 1903.
5) Bunau-Varilla, now ambassador to US, granted US perpetual sovereignty of proposed canal zone in trade for US guarantee of Panama independence.
6) US to pay $10 million up front for canal + $250,000 per year for zone. When completed, US pay Columbia $25 mil.
7) Canal huge success for US; give them huge commercial and strategic advantage in Western Hemisphere.
8) Problem: Canal zone vulnerable to blockade or other intervention by rival powers—US must police area to prevent foreign intervention
9) Solution: Roosevelt Corollary to Monroe Doctrine
a. policy of “preventive intervention”
b. In future crises concerning Latin American debt U.S. would intervene, pay off debts, and keep European powers out of Western Hemisphere.
C. Big Stick in Asia
1) US interests in China reflected in Open Door Policy (1899)
a. All countries had equal access to trading rights in China
b. Recognized internationally
2) Russo-Japanese War (1905) threatened Open Door since winner could become dominant (upset balance of powers, threaten Philippines)
3) Japan looking like potential victor, dominant power in East.
4) TR to intervene with mediation; Treaty of Portsmouth ends war, earns TR Nobel Peace Prize.
5) As result of Russo-Japanese war, many Japanese immigrants come to CA; face racism and segregation.
6) Japan protested, TR urged CA School board to reintegrate Japanese students; Japan promised to cease issue of passports.
7) TR feared this would be interpreted as weakness; sailed “Great White Fleet” to Japan as intimidation tactic.
8) As result, Root-Takahira Agreement
a. Affirms status quo in Asia
b. Mutual respect for territorial possessions in Pacific
c. Affirms Open Door policy in China
D. Dollar Diplomacy
1) William Howard Taft to succeed TR as president
2) Felt he could replace militarism (Big Stick) with more subtle and effective business investment (replace “dollars for bullets”)
a. Use foreign policy to protect Wall Street investments abroad
b. Use Wall Street investments abroad to finance foreign policy
3) Pump US $ into Caribbean to decrease reliance on European $
4) Political influence to follow the money
E. Dollar Diplomacy in Caribbean
1) US investments in Cent. Amer.:
a. $41 mil. in 1908
b. $93 mil. in 1914
c. Money went to RR, mining, plantations
2) Failure: had to send military to support US business interests in Honduras and Nicaragua against political resistance.
3) Both Dollar and Big Stick Diplomacy were needed in two countries
F. Dollar Diplomacy in China
1) Plan to extend US influence of Open Door Policy (want to gain at expense of everyone else)
2) Secretary of State Philander Knox secured US financing of large new RR in China
3) Knox tried to “neutralize” other (Russia and Japan built and owned) RRs already existing
a. US and international banks to buy RRs
b. Banks to turn them over to China
c. China to liquidate them in favor of new US-financed RRs
4) Failure: Russia and Japan refused to sell (against TR’s Treaty of Portsmouth, US trying to muscle in on China)
5) Japan and Russia sign new friendship treaty and ally to block US interests in China
6) Begins deterioration of US-Japan relations
G. Moral Diplomacy
1) Woodrow Wilson takes office 1913
2) Entire political career dealt with progressive domestic reforms; had no experience with international relations
3) Had to rely on faith in American Democracy—felt it was most “moral” political, economic system (wanted to “convert [other countries] to the principles of America”)
4) Theoretically against imperialism, but agreed with idea that US industry needed foreign markets or else US industries would “burst their jackets”
H. Moral Diplomacy in Mexico
1) Wilson supported democracy and saw it as way to create world without revolution and war.
2) 1911 revolution in Mexico forced corrupt leader Porfirio Diaz to flee country. New leader, Francisco Madero, was popular among people because promised economic reforms and land for peasants
3) Makes American business nervous (more invested in Mexico than Mexico and all other countries combined). Was poor administrator and was ousted by General Victoriano Huerta (had Madero killed)
4) Wilson refused to recognize new government (GB and Japan did) and prevented weapons from reaching Huerta
5) Wilson sent marines to attack Veracruz (port where Huerta received arms shipments), caused anti-American riots in country and forced international mediation of situation. Venustiano Carranza, who had denounced Wilson’s intervention, Mexico’s new president.
6) Carranza unpopular with many Mexicans and forces opposed to him supported by Wilson.
7) One group led by Pancho Villa and many guerrillas conducted raids into US territory hoping to draw US into war with Carranza’s Mexico
8) Pancho Villa goes from freedom fighter to outlaw and Wilson finally sent General John J. Pershing with troops into Mexico to find Villa but was unsuccessful.
9) Villa’s hit-and-run tactics and defiance of US made him national hero.
10) With war looming in Europe, Wilson forced to recognize Carranza regime to wash hands of situation.
11) Wilson’s Mexican policy damaged US foreign relations. Attempts at guiding revolution to fit his moral agenda and protect US investments left bitter legacy of suspicion and distrust in Mexico.
12) Wilson still determined to use Moral Diplomacy to intervene and solve problems of WWI Europe.
I. United States and Canada and the First World War: From neutrality to involvement
1) American neutrality—many Americans shocked that Europeans would fight war over “minor” incident
2) Felt Europeans fighting over something petty and wanted to stay above “folly” of war and stay impartial.
3) Wilson especially advocated impartiality—fit in with Moral Diplomacy
4) Practically impossible due to many ethnic groups favoring one side or the other
a. many Anglo-Americans supported Allies (democratic governments, Germany invaded neutral Belgium, language, traditions, etc.)
b. many German-Americans, Irish-Americans supported Central powers (against English tyranny over Ireland)
5) Both sides courted American support (GB pictured Germans as blood-thirsty; Germans blamed war on Russian, French imperialism)
6) US had greater economic ties to Allies
a. GB had better navy and blockaded German ports
b. GB and French orders for war materials almost 4x, loans increased 10x.
c. Economic prosperity spread and many Americans “rooting” for Allies.
d. Central powers protested, but not against international law
7) Germany tried to end GB blockade by submarine warfare
a. Declared areas around GB a war zone
b. no pre-existing international laws
c. difficulties involved in unrestricted sub warfare
d. advertised that neutral countries ran risk of ships being sunk
e. Wilson threatened to hold Germany responsible if US’s neutral rights violated
8) HMS Lusitania sunk by German U-Boat in War Zone—128 US citizens dead, Americans outraged.
9) Public opinion officially against Germany; Wilson threatened to break off diplomatic relations with Germany if did not abandon unrestricted sub warfare
10) Germany agreed. However, U.S. would have to persuade Allies to modify what Germany
saw as illegal blockade.
11) Wilson’s diplomatic victory precarious; Germany could renounce agreement if blockade continued to inflict damage.
12) Wilson felt it necessary to prepare for war
a. Universal military training
b. More military spending (battleships, cruisers, destroyers)
c. National Defense Act (1916) more than 2x size of army
13) December 1916 Wilson unsuccessfully offered to mediate peace.
a. As preliminary he asked both sides to state minimum terms necessary for "future security.”
b. Central Powers replied that victory was certain, and Allies required dismemberment of enemies' empires.
c. No desire for peace or common ground existed, offer lapsed
14) Wilson breaks off diplomatic relations with Germany and allows merchant ships to arm themselves
15) Zimmerman telegram
a. German foreign secretary Arthur Zimmerman sent message to German ambassador in Mexico
b. Proposed alliance between Germany and Mexico if US entered war
c. If Mexico/Germany win, Mexico would get AZ, TX, NM (territory lost in Mexican War (1846-1848)
d. Thought it would work due to Pancho Villa/Pershing skirmishes
e. Created outrage and increased anti-German sentiment in US
16) Continuation of unrestricted submarine warfare continues: March 1917 U-Boats sink 7 US merchant ships
17) Wilson asks Congress to declare war: April 6 Wilson signs legislation declaring war on Germany
J. Reasons for US entry into the First World War
1) Economics: Trade w/Allies, freedom of seas (unrestricted submarine warfare), Russian Rev.
2) Democracy: fighting with other representative gov’ts against authoritarians, communists
3) Zimmerman Telegram
4) U.S. hope end war quickly, insure itself major role in ensuing peace.
4) Wilson’s idealism: make world safe for democracy, war to end wars
K. Wilson’s peace ideals: The Fourteen Points
1) Jan. 1918 Wilson goes to Congress and sets ground rules for peace
2) First 13 points designed to remove causes of war & boundary changes
a. freedom of seas
b. open diplomacy (end secret diplomacy)
c. reduction of armaments
d. return of Alsace-Lorraine to France
e. creation of independent Poland (previously partitioned by Prussia, Russia, Austria)
f. National self-determination of peoples: right for people to decide for themselves how and by whom they would be controlled (self-rule) Mainly for people of Austrian, Ottoman empires
g. Mediation of competing colonial claims
3) 14th Point: League of Nations = organization to keep world peace (Wilson’s most valued point)
L. Struggle for ratification of the Versailles Treaty in United States
1) Wilson’s mistake
a. 2/3 of Senate had to approve treaty and Senate controlled by Republicans
b. excluded Republicans from peace negotiations
c. campaigned against them in 1919 elections
d. leader of Senate Republicans—Henry Cabot Lodge—personal and political enemy of Wilson
2) Senate divided:
a. “Irreconcilables”—Republicans who wanted nothing to do with League
b. “Reservationists” (Lodge’s group)—Republicans who wanted major changes, especially to Article X (each member must protect independence of other nations—Collective Security)
c. Democrats—supported Wilson
3) Wilson takes message to people
a. gives 35 speeches in 22 days
b. exhausted, he returns to D.C. and suffers stroke; no longer able to fight for ratification
4) Senate rejects Treaty (because of League), did not join League of Nations; signs separate treaty with Germany in 1921
M. Significance of the war for the United States’ hemispheric status
1) Emerged as powerful economic, political state
2) Return to isolationism
N. Involvement and participation of Canada in the First World War
1) As tensions between Ger and GB increased (naval race) prior to 1914, GB pressured Canada to assume larger role in imperial defense
2) Disagreement over Canada’s role
a. French Canadians disagree with getting involved in overseas troubles—contribute to defense of Canada only
b. English Canadians agree that Canada must contribute to defense of Crown (also way to get voice in imperial policy)
3) Canadian Parliament passed Naval Service Bill of 1910
a. Created Canadian Navy
b. If GB went to war, navy come under control of Royal Navy
c. Very unpopular, denounced by most Canadians (especially French)
4) As part of British Empire, Canada entered war automatically August 1914
5) Parliament passed War Measures Act
a. Gov’t given powers to oversee economy
b. Place men and women in jobs gov’t deemed critical for war effort
c. Oversee conscription of men
d. Power to restrict civil liberties
6) Army: increased from 3,000 to 600,000 by 1918
7) Navy: many serve, but mostly in convoy system to supply GB
8) Air force: Canadian pilots supply about 25% Royal Flying Corps
9) Home Front—tensions increase between French and English Canadians
a. Gov’t under pressure to abandon bilingual education (francophone v. Anglophone)
b. Conservatives felt instruction in English would bring national unity
c. Ontario made English official language of instruction 1916
d. Quarrel over schools bad enough, but placed into context of war was major crisis
e. Controversy over conscription divides nation
f. By 1916 awareness of horrors of trench warfare, mounting casualties led to decline in volunteer enlistment
g. PM Borden refused to reduce troop commitment
h. 1917 Parliament passed Military Service Act allowing for conscription—led to domestic unrest
i. French Canadians not inclined to support war effort
i. Few allowed to become officers
ii. English official language of military
iii. Antidraft riots broke out in Montreal and Quebec City
j. Anglophones support British Empire at all costs
k. 100,000 drafted, only 25,000 made it overseas
10) Large number exempted mainly for agriculture or family hardships
11) Conclusion: political consequences of conscription far outweighed benefits of replenishing depleted military forces
12) Home Front: other issues
a. Paying for war: Victory Bonds (80%, later placed country in debt), national income tax, business capital gains
b. RRs nationalized
c. Civil liberties restricted: 8,000 interned (radicals, German immigrants), foreign language press suppressed
d. Women: entered workforce at ½ pay as men, served as nurses in army, advances in suffrage issue
e. Increase in manufacture (clothing, ships, Halifax disaster)
f. Agriculture: grain prices increase 50%, farmers borrow money to increase size of farm and machinery to replace lost labor to war. Grain prices drop after war, economic disaster, rationing scarce products
13) Impact of the First World War
14) United States
a. Economic
b. Political
c. Social
d. Foreign policies
15) Canada
a. Economic
b. Political
c. Social
d. Foreign policies
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