PDF Trends in Gender Equality and Women's Advancement

WP/16/21

Trends in Gender Equality and Women's Advancement

by Janet G. Stotsky, Sakina Shibuya, Lisa Kolovich, and Suhaib Kebhaj

? 2016 International Monetary Fund

WP/16/21

IMF Working Paper Research Department and Strategy, Policy, and Review Department

Trends in Gender Equality and Women's Advancement* Prepared by Janet G. Stotsky, Sakina Shibuya, Lisa Kolovich, and Suhaib Kebhaj

Authorized for distribution by Prakash Loungani and Catherine Pattillo February 2016

IMF Working Papers describe research in progress by the authors and are published to elicit comments and to encourage debate. The views expressed in IMF Working Papers are those of the authors and do not necessarily represent the views of the IMF, its Executive Board, or IMF management.

Abstract

This paper examines trends in indicators of gender equality and women's development, using evidence derived from individual indicators and gender equality indices. We extend both the United Nations Development Program's Gender Development Index and Gender Inequality Index to examine time trends. In recent decades, the world has moved closer to gender equality and narrowed gaps in education, health, and economic and political opportunity; however, substantial differences remain, especially in South Asia, the Middle East, and subSaharan Africa. The results suggest countries can make meaningful improvements in gender equality, even while significant income differences between countries remain.

JEL Classification Numbers: I3, J1, J16

Keywords: Economics of gender, gender indicators and indices

Authors' E-Mail Addresses: jstotsky@; sshibuya@; lkolovich@; skebhaj@

* We are grateful to Mark Blackden, Diane Elson, Stephan Klasen, Jenny Lah and IMF colleagues, Andy Berg, Nen Gang, La-Bhus Fah Jirasavetakul, Kalpana Kochhar, Pritha Mitra, Monique Newiak, Cathy Pattillo, Victoria Perry, Jesmin Rahmin, and Genevieve Verdier, for useful suggestions, Carla Intal for excellent research assistance, and Jing Wang and Biva Joshi for excellent administrative support. This paper is part of a research project on macroeconomic policy in low-income countries supported by the U.K.'s Department for International Development (DFID), and it should not be reported as representing the views of the International Monetary Fund or of DFID.

Contents

Page

I. Introduction.......................................................................................................................... 4 II. Indicators versus Indices and Data Issues............................................................................ 5 III. Trends in Selected Indicators............................................................................................... 8

A. World Trends by Region and Income Group ...........................................................10 B. Education ..................................................................................................................11 C. Health........................................................................................................................13 D. Economic Opportunity .............................................................................................19 E. Political Opportunity.................................................................................................22 IV. Overview and Comparison of Gender Equality Indices .....................................................24 A. Gender Development Index, Old and Revised .........................................................24 B. Gender Inequality Index ...........................................................................................29 C. Gender Equality Index ..............................................................................................31 D. Global Gender Gap Index.........................................................................................31 E. Social Institutions and Gender Index ........................................................................32 F. Women's Economic Opportunity Index ...................................................................33 G. Relative Status of Women and Gender Gap Measure Indices .................................33 H. Quantitative Comparison of the Gender Equality Indices........................................33 V. Extension of the UNDP's Gender Equality Indices Backward in Time .............................34 VI. Relationship of the Gender Equality Indices to Income .....................................................40 VII. Uses of the Indicators and Indices for Policy Analysis and Decision Making ...................41 VIII. Conclusion ..........................................................................................................................42

References ....................................................................................................................................44

Tables 1. Definitions of Selected Gender-Related Indicators ............................................................. 8 2. Correlations Between the Gender Equality Indices ............................................................34 3. Correlations Between the Indicators...................................................................................35 4. Regression of Gender Equality Indices on Per Capita Income...........................................40 5. Regression of Time Consistent Gender Equality Indices on Per Capita Income ...............41

Figures 1. Gross Secondary Enrollment .............................................................................................12 2. Life Expectancy at Birth (Female to male ratio) ................................................................14 3. Life Expectancy at Birth (Years) .......................................................................................15 4. Number of Countries with Female to Male Life Expectancy Ratio Below 1.05 ................16 5. Child Mortality, Under the Age of 5 (Female to male ratio) .............................................17 6. Maternal Mortality Ratio (Modeled estimate, per 100,000 live births) ..............................18 7. Labor Force Participation Rate, Ages 15-64 (Female to male ratio) ..................................20 8. Labor Force Participation Rate, Ages 15-64 (Percent) .......................................................21

9. Mean Monthly Earnings of Employees (Female to male ratio) .........................................22 10. Seats Held by Women in National Parliaments (Percent of total)......................................23 11. GDI, Time Consistent Version ...........................................................................................37 12. GDI, Time Consistent Version, with Labor Force Participation Rate ................................38 13. GII, Time Consistent Version .............................................................................................39

Box 1. Comparison of the HDI, GDI, and GII ...............................................................................25

Appendix A. Gender-Related Data...........................................................................................................49 Tables A1. List of Gender Indicators ............................................................................................49 A2. Data Initiatives ............................................................................................................54 Figures A1. Data Availability--Economic Opportunity, 1980-2014 .............................................52 A2. Data Availability--Education, 1980-2014 .................................................................52 A3. Data Availability--Health, 1980-2014 .......................................................................53 A4. Data Availability--Political Opportunity, 1980-2014................................................53

B. List of Countries by Region and LIDC Classification........................................................55 Table B1. Countries and Their Classification ...............................................................................55

C. Data on Gender Indices.......................................................................................................56 Table C1. Index Data Sources and Availability............................................................................56

D. Replication, Extension, and Revision of the GDI and GII .................................................57 Tables D1. Overview of the Indicators Included in the GDI..........................................................57 D2. Wage Data Coverage by Region ..................................................................................59 D3. Spearman Rank Correlation for Different Calculations of the GDI ............................60 Figure D1. Female and Male Expected Years of Schooling .........................................................58

I. Introduction

In the past several decades, the world moved closer to gender equality and saw the advancement of women across a wide range of economic, social, and political indicators, in all regions of the globe. Nonetheless, throughout the world, women remain at a disadvantage to men in important areas of social, economic, and political life. The Millennium Development Goals explicitly called for gender equality. Its successor, the Sustainable Development Goals, adopted in 2015, sets targets for the international community over the next 15 years.1 Goal 5 of its 17 broad goals explicitly calls for gender equality and the empowerment of women and girls.

This paper examines trends in indicators of gender equality and advancement of women, using evidence derived both from individual indicators and gender equality indices, which aggregate a number of critical indicators. We introduce our own version of the gender indices constructed by the United Nations Development Program (UNDP), namely, the Gender Development Index (GDI) and Gender Inequality Index (GII). We replicate and reconstruct these indices backward in time in a consistent manner to examine trends over several decades.

In the first part of the paper, we focus on individual indicators that are central in measuring aspects of women's life where equality is important, and also those of greatest relevance to developing countries, where gender-based differences or gaps tend to remain largest. Women's advancement in access to education and health status and an ability to earn income or participate in the labor market are all commonly accepted indicators of economic and social well being. In the political realm, women's participation in elected office and other key political positions is one way of measuring women's empowerment.

We find, as with a number of other recent studies, that the trends in individual indicators point toward improvement in education, health, economic opportunity, and political empowerment, but progress across the world is uneven.2 When grouped by geographic regions, we observe that South Asia, the Middle East and Central Asia, and sub-Saharan Africa lag other regions, even though these regions have all recorded significant improvement in key indicators. When grouped by level of economic development, we see that countries at all levels of development have generally made progress, though there are periods when progress is more rapid than others. The low-income developing countries (LIDCs) tend to lag. The gaps between the advanced countries and emerging countries are surprisingly small on some indicators, suggesting that considerable progress can be made even while significant income gaps remain.

1 See United Nations (2015).

2 See Morrison et al. (2008), World Bank (2011), Clinton Foundation and Gates Foundation (2015), and UN Women (2015).

4

 ................
................

In order to avoid copyright disputes, this page is only a partial summary.

Google Online Preview   Download