THE NATURE OF GRAVITATION



THE NATURE OF GRAVITATION

Prof. Dr. Rati Ram Sharma, DSc, PhD (London), MD (MA), MSc, MAMS, FIAMP

Professor & Head (retired), Department of Biophysics c Nuclear Medicine, Postgraduate Institute of Medical Education & Research, Chandigarh, India; Present mailing address: 615, Sector 10, Panchkula-134113, Haryana, India; Phone: 0091-172-563949; e-mail: rrjss@.in ; websites: and .

(Posted December 23, 2002, revised 25 Dec'02, 25 March'03, 14 May'03)

© Copyright by the author Prof. Dr. Rati Ram Sharma- all rights reserved including the intellectual property rights for new ideas.

® Registered new terms: sharmon, sharmon medium, cosmino, positrino, and negatrino; unified physical theory, principle of null action, non-expanding universe, non-Darwinian intra-species evolution, Anand Yoga &c.

1. From unknown-to-known-to-unknowable

The ever-existing phenomenon of gravitation was discovered for the first time on a fine morning in the year 1665 AD, when the legendary apple fell from a tree in front of Sir Isaac Newton. And Newton asked "Why did the apple move only 'down', and did not go up or to the left or to the right?"

Newton propounded the 'Theory of Universal Gravitation' and described the motion of the terrestrial projectiles and the planetary orbits with equal ease. He theorized that any and every body with mass universally experiences a gravitational attraction with other body/bodies irrespective of their physical and/or chemical state/properties. The gravitation of the earth and other heavenly bodies is given a particular name: "gravity". The apple fell 'down' due to earth's gravity attracting it, and all other mass bodies, towards the center of the earth.

According to Newton, a gravitational field exists in space due to the distribution of physical bodies with mass. But he did not specify any physical medium for it or for light, since the light corpuscles in his Corpuscular Theory could jolly well move in an empty space.

The subject of gravitation, nay of the whole of Physics & Cosmology strayed into the unknowable realm of unreality in the twentieth century when light [1], gravitational field [2] and gravity wave [3,4] were all postulated to exist in the non-existent four-dimensional spacetime continuum. The curvature of the mathematical spacetime represents the gravitational field and ripples in the curved spacetime are the gravity waves.

Einstein got the 1922 Nobel prize in Physics for explaining photoelectric effect with his version of the corpuscular theory of light, extending Planck's quantum theory by postulating that light is not only emitted and absorbed but also propagated as energy quanta. Its freely moving particulate "photon", like other natural bodies, could not avoid sharing motions of the source and observer. Therefore Einstein himself found it unsuitable for use in Special Relativity published in 1905 itself. Herein the light velocity was postulated to be constant and invariant to source-observer motion, as the Michelson-Morley experiments had shown in 1881-87.

But in reality a wave exists only in its propagating medium. Einstein dismissed the real physical space medium as "superfluous" for these mathematical theories and replaced it with the 4-dimensional spacetime continuum for light and gravitation. This confused his thinking and marked the beginning of mathematical theories of Physics & Cosmology based on multidimensional unrealistic spacetime continuum. Einstein was unclear about physical nature of the light 'wave' in 1905 and remained so throughout his life. This he admitted on 12 December 1951 in his letter to his friend M. Besso thus: "All these 50 years of conscious brooding have brought me no nearer to the answer to the question: What are light quanta?"

The Quantum Theory [5], as an unrealistic mathematical scheme, added another unrealistic dimension to science. It split the intrinsic wave-quantum Unity of radiation and matter into wave-or-quantum Dualities and its Uncertainty Principle made the unrealistic "creation of matter from nothing" possible.

The Quarks Theory was formulated to bring order in, but it itself led to over hundred, elementary particles, making the term "element" meaningless. Nay, the Super Symmetry doubled this number of elements. The theory of Super Gravity is based on the same Super Symmetry and that of Quantum Gravity combines the Relativity Theories with Quantum Theory. The String & Superstring theories are based on unrealistically wrapped up extra space dimensions and have yet to answer the questions: Why did Nature use assorted strings as building blocks in preference to symmetrical entities, and what composes the strings? The ad hoc mathematical processes of renormalization concealed not only the disturbing infinities but also their physical significance and justification. Theories based on non-existent spacetime continua of four to thirty-two dimensions have respectful acceptance. Hunt for non-existent Higgs boson continues.

Thus, since the beginning of the twentieth century the science is being dominated by increasing number of mathematical theories based on unrealistic concepts. A mathematical theorist regards the mathematical world as more real than the actual reality because mathematics is exact and cannot be wrong. Instead of describing the objective reality as it is, the real Nature is expected to change to fit the mathematical conclusions. For example, actually observed g and magnetic moment (() of proton and neutron are mistakenly regarded as "anomalous" for disagreeing with Dirac's Quantum Theory. Photon, graviton and neutrino are wrongly assigned zero mass and zero dimensions to satisfy Relativity Theory.

But observations are facts of reality, which every theory must account for. Our Unified Physical Theory (UPT) shows that the flaw lies with the theories, not with observations. And mathematics is only a language to describe and supplement physical concepts precisely. Those who have supplanted physical concepts with mathematics have turned science unrealistic, giving the modern Physics and Cosmology a feel of fiction. Too many creative brains, institutions and financing agencies have wasted and still wasting their assets and resources. This article continues the author's efforts [6-14] to rectify conceptual foundations of Physics & Cosmology and reverse the trend towards realistic science.

2. Space, time & spacetime continuum

At the very outset let us review and establish the unreality of any spacetime continuum and the reality of a new physical medium in space [6-14] for light and gravitation.

It can hardly be overemphasized that both space and time are NOT entities but mere abstract concepts arising from the direct human percepts. A deep intuition reveals that the concept of space evolves from our direct percepts of spatial successions "there, here, there" and that of time from those of temporal successions "then, now, then" all arising from the motions and changes of the surrounding objects. The percept of ‘only-forward, never backward’, movement of the ‘time-arrow’ originates from the non-reversibility of the natural processes underlying changes. If a baby were to grow with no relative motions and changes around i.e. all standing still in the surroundings, he/she would have no successive percepts and hence no concepts of space and time, with otherwise developed senses notwithstanding. The two concepts of space and time, being so intangible and abstract, cannot fuse into any tangible "spacetime continuum", concrete enough to hold gravitational field [2] and to propagate light [1] and gravity waves [3,4].

In the universe with complete ubiquity of granularity throughout right up to the micromost levels, the existence of a non-granular continuous infrastructure is inconceivable. If existent, the continuum would retard, nay prevent the motion of heavenly bodies through it, which is not actually observed. So all the multidimensional spacetime continua, basic to relativity and/or other theories, are mere mathematical constructs bereft of real existence. But existence of a particulate space medium is not in doubt. See below.

In order to form an idea about the nature of the new space medium and the micromost basic substance in the real Nature, let us first visualize the nature of the inter-relationship between an electromagnetic wave and its particle-like properties and vice versa.

3. Wave-quantum unity of radiation & matter

The long wave electromagnetic (e.m.) radiation is predominantly wavelike and the short wave X- and gamma rays show corpuscularity. As the transition from one part of the electromagnetic spectrum to the other is continuous its ‘wave-quantum unity’ is inescapable. So is also for the energetic moving particles of matter as also they, particularly with small mass, produce diffraction patterns like a transverse wave. The Quantum Theory [5] could not satisfactorily explain why the radiation and moving material particles behave some time as a wave and at other times as a particle. It (QT), as against the above micromost wave-quantum Unity of radiation & matter, has mathematically split it into wave-or-quantum dualities, declaring that a thing can be a wave or a quantum at a time but not both at the same time simultaneously. This author, however, has given a realistic explanation [7, 9,11-13].

4. Existence of an irremovable space medium

According to the seventeenth century view, creation of an absolute vacuum was distinctly possible by removing all solids, liquids, and gases. In the 19th century, removal of the radiation (by cooling) was also additionally required, but was considered as being possible. This view could not hold in the twentieth century.

In 1948, Casimir theoretically showed that the electromagnetic radiation caused an attractive force to act between two conducting plates placed in vacuum. On cooling the void to absolute zero the thermal radiation, and with it the Casimir force, should disappear. But actual experiments in 1958 by Sparnaay revealed that instead a "residual" attractive force persisted even at absolute zero [15]. Therefore the "vacuum" even at absolute zero temperature is not completely empty but has some real physical medium that cannot be removed by any means.

Moreover, a medium is needed for the electric, magnetic and gravitational fields to exist in space and for these forces to act at a distance. The electromagnetic and gravitational waves in vacuum do need a medium to undulate. Maxwell’s displacement charge and current, like Casimir force, call for a physical carrier. The zero point energy and frequency at the absolute zero temperature need physical oscillators in space. Explanations of the experimentally observed superluminality [16] and sub-luminality [17] on old classical wave theory of light also call in the light medium. See also para 9.1 below.

5. Space medium as the basic substance

The inter-conversions of the radiant and other forms of energy among themselves are well documented. So are the inter-conversions of photonic energy and electron-positron pair of material particles. Compositionally the radiation-wave and its propagating medium are one, analogous to the oneness of the water in the pond and the water wave on its surface. The equation E=mc2 is for the inter-conversion of energy E and mass m. It points to the existence in real Nature of some entity/ies subtler than and composing all forms of mass m and energy E. This is analogous to the possible inter-conversions of solid ice, liquid water and gaseous steam. Because the same water molecule composes all the three. These suggest the basic composition-unity of all forms of mass, energy, radiation and the space medium.

The last, namely, the 'space medium', as the subtlest entity in Nature, emerges as the micromost ‘basic substance’ composed by the new particle sharmon, named after this author to indicate that sharmon medium is not the old ether. The sharmon is made of the new micromost ‘basic elements’, electrically charged positive positrino & negative negatrino, which in turn compose all forms of energy E and mass m.

This leads to a simple yet deep UNIFIED PHYSICAL THEORY (UPT) [6-14] as the first and the only theory to faithfully describe the grandest composition-unity of mass, energy, radiation and space medium in micromost physical reality as brought out above. It also singly accounts for the various actual observations and physical phenomena that the current theories separately address, nay even those, which some of them were formulated to but could not explain satisfactorily. This includes the gravitational phenomena. For a bit detailed review, see Introduction of the book "Realistic Foundations of Physics & Cosmology" [7].

6. Micromost basic elements

Absence of free electric charge in free space demands sharmon to be neutral. Propagation of transverse electromagnetic waves in the sharmon medium points to sharmon’s polarizability and composition by the two micromost basic elements, one electrically positive (positrino) and the other negative (negatrino), with common name cosmnio, for composing ‘all’ in the Cosmos. So our theory, with the highest economy of assumptions, has only two micromost elements against over hundred in the modern Standard Model [18] of quarks and leptons and twice that number in Super Symmetry.

7. The basic charges

It has been shown [7,9,12] that a cosmino has the diameter lp = 1.6x10-33 cm, electric charge =1.3729x10-30 esu, mass = 2.596116x10-48 gm, spin = ½ and a colour (R, B, G) or anticolour (R^, B^, G^) charge. We do not take weak as a basic cosmino charge since it does not conserve. The weakest support to Electroweak Theory is the detection of "virtual" W± and Zo bosons, NOT in natural beta decays but transiently assembled in particle smashing machines from cosmino-sharmon content of the mass and kinetic energy of the colliding particles.

A cosmino, being an element, has to be non-composite and hence singly charged because multiple charges imply as many constituents. So cosmino’s basic charges [gravitational (mass), electric, colour] are different manifestations or properties of a single common entity, the cosmino itself, into which they inseparably unite and unify. These manifestations are mediated via the corresponding field and force feeling and felt by the corresponding charge. The concept of separate Higgs boson(s) imparting mass to bare 'massless' elements is flawed [7,9,12], more so since a massless electron cannot gain 0.51 MeV/c2 mass or a neutrino the 0.1eV/c2 mass by eating a 812-846 MeV/c2 or 115 GeV/c2 Higgs boson. It is not clear what the wasteful hunts for Higgs boson have so far found or will in future find, in its name. The Geneva based CERN and American Fermi Lab, with worldwide collaborators, should therefore give up the multi-million dollar projects for hunting the non-existent Higgs boson.

7.1 Gravitational vs inertial mass

Einstein [2] had noted a remarkable property of the gravitational field. The force fg (= mgag) imparts the same acceleration ag to all bodies independent of the material composition and physical state of the mass mg. Similarly, a mechanical force fm (= miai) produces the same acceleration ai independent of the composition of the inertial mass mi. The gravitational mass mg and the inertial mass mi were therefore equated. In UPT, however, they are two different manifestations of one and identically the same mass m of the composing cosminos and/or sharmons. In fact, any externally impressed force f, produces the same acceleration a, independent of the composition and physical state of mass m, given by Newton's second law of motion f = ma.

The gravitational field's above property which Einstein specially noted to develop General Theory of Relativity [2] arises from the proportionality of the gravitational force (-m grad V) to the gravitational charge or mass m, V being the gravitational potential. This leads to the equation of motion

dv/dt = ag = -grad V,

which is independent of the mass m.

The electric force -e grad Ve also is similarly proportional to the electric charge e, Ve being the electric potential. But it does not yield an equation of motion independent of e or m. Identity, not mere equality, of the gravitational charge with the inertial mass imparts the special property to the gravitational field noted by Einstein, since the gravitational field or force does not interact with the electric charge.

8. The sharmon

Its mass is 5.192232x10-48 gm [7,12]. It can be coloured, anticoloured or colourless. In its 0-spin state, the opposing ½ -spins are attractive to give a positrino-negatrino contact pair 1.616x10-33 cm across and 3.23x10-33 cm long. Repulsive co-directional ½ -spins in the 1-spin sharmon keep the cosmino surfaces lp apart.

The oppositely charged cosminos in the sharmon do not mutually annihilate, unlike the cosmino-composed electron-positron pair, because the cosminos themselves are the non-composite micromost elements. Therefore both the scalar 0-spin sharmon and the vector 1-spin sharmon are stable and dynamic structures and can inter-convert.

The constituent cosminos of the sharmon not only spin but also can vibrate along the common axis, imparting an electric as well as a magnetic field and dipole moment to the sharmon. The electromagnetic properties of the cosminos and sharmon generate those of the material particles, photon and the sharmon medium, which they compose. Bosonic condensation of sharmons is supported by close distance attractions among constituent cosminos and imparts gregarious properties to sharmons, which can aggregate to compose energy and neutral mass of material particles. Electrically positive or negative charged mass of the charged particles is composed by the respective positive or negative cosminos. No particle or energy quantum is therefore massless, dimensionless or "virtual" (i.e. unreal). The neutrinos, photon, gluon, graviton &c have more than zero definite mass, size and spin.

9. The sharmon medium

The sharmon medium, consistent with 20th century view of vacuum, is irremovable by any means since the tiny 10-33 cm sharmon can pass through spaces not only between molecules and atoms of even the densest solid but also between orbital electrons. Due to its nature as a kinetic gas, the sharmon medium fills all space and rules out the existence of absolute vacuum for any significant period of time. Its time-averaged inter-sharmon distance ~ 10-5 cm [7,12] compares with the Mean Free Path for the real gasses (e.g. for Hydrogen 1.12x 10-5 cm, Oxygen 0.64x10-5 cm, Nitrogen 0.595x10-5 cm).

The sharmon medium contains ~ 1015 sharmons per cm3. And its average mass density is 0.519 x10-33 gm.cm-3, vis-a-vis 3x10-31 gm.cm-3 for the Steady State Cosmology and 1.293x10-3 gm cm-3 for air. We [7,12] can roughly take the rigidity or shear elasticity of the sharmon medium as 4.6875x10-12 dyne/cm2 and the viscosity as 6.5x10-23 dyne.sec/cm2.

9.1 The ether drift & sharmon medium

Michelson-Morley [19] experiments did not detect any ether drift, which was taken as the evidence [1,2] for the absence of ether or the light medium. That is why and how Einstein dismissed the light medium as "superfluous" for his mathematical theory of Special Relativity. James DeMeo [20], however presents experimental results of Dayton Miller showing a positive non-zero ether drift, and hence the presence of a light propagating medium. This supports and is supported by UPT's sharmon medium to propagate light. The effect of ether drift on light velocity c (= (eo. μ o)-1/2) can be understood via that on the eo & μ o of the sharmon medium.  

10. The nature of fields

Real fields exist within, NOT any spacetime continuum, but real physical sharmon medium. The basic nature of a field is determined by that of the effective cosmino charge on the sharmons of the medium, which causes, sustains, feels and is felt by the concerned field. For example, the gravitational field is mediated via the gravitational charge (mass) of the sharmons in the sharmon medium, and the electric field via the electric charge on the sharmons. The magnetic dipole moments and the magnetic poles associated with the sharmons in the medium are basic to the magnetic field. The electromagnetic filed is created and sustained by the changing electric and magnetic charges and dipole moments on the sharmons in the medium.

10.1 Static & dynamic fields

A field can either be in static or a dynamic state. The force acting between two charge-bodies separated by a distance in the field is essentially an 'effect-at-a-distance' operating within and through the sharmon medium. The primary static gravitational or 'gravitostatic' field, created by the equilibrated distribution of mass bodies in relative rest, is static and hence non-propagating and non-radiating. So are the electrostatic and magnetostatic fields. These are the fields of force, not of a wave.

A changing field, gravitational, electric or magnetic, due to changes in the distributed causative charges or dipole moments is not static. It is dynamic. Because it involves transfer or transmission of energy from one part of the field to the other(s), which may interchangeably be predicated as the 'propagation' of the field-energy or of a 'wave' or of a radiation or of the field.

A changing electric field generates and is associated with a coexistent orthogonal magnetic field. Likewise a changing magnetic field generates a coexistent orthogonal electric field. The electric and magnetic field-energies are propagated along a transverse electromagnetic wave as a wave-quantum unity as for an electromagnetic field (See below). Both the dynamic electric field and the dynamic magnetic field are therefore electromagnetic fields. Hence there can be no static electromagnetic field, and no dynamic electric field and no dynamic magnetic field. The static electromagnetic field is either electrostatic or magnetostatic field. The gravitational field, however, has both the static and dynamic modes.

Since the three basic cosmino charges on the sharmons, which mediate the fields, do NOT mutually interact, the gravitational, electric and magnetic static fields are distinctly independent and separate. Similarly the electromagnetic field is different from dynamic gravitational field.

2. The attractive & repulsive interactions

A static electric, magnetic or gravitational field is maintained naturally via the attractive and repulsive innate interactions between the charges and dipole moments on the sharmons in the field. For example a force of attraction acts between two gravitational masses, and between two opposite electric charges and opposite magnetic poles and opposite electric or magnetic dipole moments. The electric and magnetic charges or dipole moments of the same kind, however, experience a repulsive force between them. In the present state of knowledge no more basic cause or mechanism is herein sought for these attractive and repulsive interactions among the various cosmino charges and dipole moments on the mediating sharmons. We take these interactions as given without asking and answering 'why' and 'how' of them.

11. The static fields

11.1 Gravitostatic field in the sharmon medium

Newton published a simple law of universal gravitation in his Mathematica Principia of 1687. Accordingly the force Fg of gravitational attraction acting between any two particles of mass m1 and m2, whose centers are separated by a distance r, is given by

Fg = G (m1 . m2)/r2.

The Newton's law comprises two sub-laws:

1. According to the law of direct mass product, the intensity of the force Fg is directly proportional to product of the two masses m1 and m2, which is consistent with expectations of common sense.

2. According to the inverse square law, equally applicable to the gravitostatic, electrostatic and magnetostatic fields, the force Fg is inversely proportional to the square (r2) of the distance (r) between the centers of the two charge bodies. In our Unified Physical Theory (UPT) it arises from the isotropy and homogeneity of the sharmon medium. The detectable activity or intensity of the force Fg at a distance r from the test point mass is uniformly distributed over the surface area 4π r2 of the sphere with its center at the test point particle.

Here G is called the gravitational constant whose magnitude depends on the system of units of measurement and the nature of the intervening medium. In Newton's theory G = 6.5592x10-9 c.g.s.unit, for the vacuum. For our Unified Physical Theory (UPT), however, G is a physical parameter of the sharmon medium through which the gravitational force acts.

11.2 The Coulomb's Laws for electrostatic & magnetostatic fields

The mathematical form of the Newton's law of universal gravitation also holds for the Coulomb's laws of electrostatics and magnetostatics. The electric force Fe between two point charges Q1 and Q2 is proportional directly to the product Q1.Q2 and inversely to the square (r2) of their distance (r)

Fe = (1/e) . (Q1 . Q2)/r2,

where e is the electric permittivity of the intervening medium viz. the sharmon medium.

Likewise the magnetic force Fm is proportional to the product of the two point magnetic poles M1 and M2 and inversely to the square (r2) of their distance

Fm = (1/μ) . (M1 . M2)/r2,

where μ is the magnetic permeability of the intervening medium, the sharmon medium. The electric permittivity e and magnetic permeability μ , like G, are the physical parameters of the sharmon medium through which the gravitational, electric and magnetic forces act. The electric charges and magnetic poles are of two opposite kinds each but mass is of only one kind. The opposite electric charges and magnetic poles attract each other, while electric charges and magnetic poles of the same kind repel each other. Two masses attract each other.

11.3 The new inverse cube law

The white dwarfs are largely composed by 1-spin photons of varying energies and sharmon aggregates. This creates a separation of oppositely charged cosmino masses, vide sec. 8 above. These sharmon aggregate units acquire an electric dipole moment equal to the product of the charge and the distance of their separation. The electric force between two dipole moments, however, varies inversely as the cube of the distance. A part of the gravitational force within and between white dwarfs thus has an electrical origin obeying the inverse cube law.

11.4 The lines of force

One can visualize the existence of curvilinear lines of force in the 3-dimensional sharmon medium for the gravitational, electric, magnetic, and colour fields traced by the intervening sharmons like the iron filings used to map out the lines of force for a magnet. The tangent to the line of force at any point gives the direction of the resultant force. In a gravitational field the attractive force acts in both the opposite directions along the tangent. But in the electric or magnetic field the direction of a line of force or of its tangent at any point is the same as of the force on a positive electric charge or north magnetic pole.

It can now be seen that the area density of the lines of force, and hence the intensity of the static field for force (gravitational, electric or magnetic), varies inversely as the square of the distance from the point source. This is the basis of the Inverse Square Law.

12. The dynamic fields

12.1 Propagation of 'wave-quantum unity' in an electromagnetic field

The electromagnetic photonic wave energy quantum comprising 0-spin sharmons, after emission from an excited electron in an atom of the source, is initially received by the nearest sharmon in the medium, which thus energized rises to the 1-spin state to mark the effective ‘origin’ of the electromagnetic wave. Similarly, the last 1-spin sharmon of the medium, which finally transfers the wave energy quantum of the 1-spin photon to the target, marks the ‘terminus’ of the wave. From origin to the terminus, the 0-spin sharmon-packet energy quantum per unit frequency cycle is propagated, as corpuscular "energized 1-spin sharmon-packet", along a transverse electromagnetic wave in the sharmon medium contiguously via 1-spin sharmons, which do not physically move but only provide a physical carrier. The 1-spin sharmons, participating in the process of propagation, return to their 0-spin state on transferring the wave energy quantum to the contiguous neighbour in the medium or finally to the target. But the transmission, always and throughout, is a wave-quantum UNITY.

12.2 Dynamic gravitational field

Since 'gravitation' is an 'effect-at-a-distance' a dynamic gravitational field involves transmission of gravitational energy from one part of the field to other(s). This happens via a propagated wave. The gravitational wave can either be transverse or longitudinal. The former propagates the carrier boson 'graviton' as a wave-quantum unity, akin to an electromagnetic wave. Its velocity Vg = (er/d)1/2 equal to light velocity c (see below), is determined by the rigidity or shear elasticity er and density d of the sharmon medium. The longitudinal gravitational wave comprising compressions and rarefactions in the sharmon medium, can be taken as the 'cosmic sound' whose velocity Vs = (ea/d)1/2 is set by the adiabatic volume elasticity ea (in place of er) and the density d of the sharmon medium. Since the adiabatic volume elasticity ea of the sharmon medium is expected to slightly exceed its shear elasticity er, the longitudinal gravitational wave moves faster than light. See sec. 4.12.1 on page 63 of the book in ref. [7].

12.2 Propagation of the wave-quantum unity in a dynamic gravitational field

As in electromagnetic waves (sec 12.1) so here, the gravitational energy is propagated as a wave-quantum UNITY in the sharmon medium. The wave-energy quantum, of the 2-spin graviton, comprising 0-spin sharmons, moves along the corresponding transverse gravitational wave contiguously via energized 2-spin sharmons in the sharmon medium, which do not physically move from their equilibrium positions but provide a physical medium. This propagation of the gravitonic energy is mediated via the 2-spin sharmon-pairs in the medium. The first sharmon or sharmon-pair of the medium receiving the gravitonic energy from the source and thereby getting thus energized rises to the 2-spin state. It returns to the 0-spin state on passing the energy quantum on to the contiguous pair, which in turn is raised, to the 2-spin state. Finally, 2-spin graviton transfers to the target, the wave energy quantum comprising 0-spin sharmons, and the carrier 2-spin sharmon pair returns to the 0-spin state.

12.3 The wave length

The frequency ( of the wave (electromagnetic or gravitational) and the energy E=h( of the carrier boson (photon or graviton) is set by the source and the velocity of motion, though equal to that of light c, is separately determined by the concerned physical properties of the sharmon medium. The two (( & c) together then determine the wave length (= c/(.

12.4 Unification of the primary fields

12.4.1 A single fundamental primal field

Unification of the three basic cosmino charges in sec.7 above ordains unification of all the basic fields: gravitational, electric, magnetic and colour. These can therefore be viewed as different manifestations of a single, most basic primal field.

12.4 2 Unified propagation of basic forces, fields & signals

See sec. 6.1 on page 71 of the book in ref.[7]. The three basic charges (gravitational, electric & colour) of the two cosminos inseparably unify and coexist. The inseparability of the three basic charges on the cosminos and hence on the sharmons in the medium ordains equality of the propagation velocities Ve (electric), Vg (gravitational), Vc (colour) for three kinds of fields, infinite range forces, and charge signals through the sharmon medium. Since the electric and magnetic fields associated with electromagnetic (e.m.) waves are propagated together, and light is an e.m. transverse wave, the three velocities are equal to that of light c=(eo.uo)-1/2 where eo (= 8.8541878x10-12 F/m) is the electric permittivity and (o (= 4x10-7 H/m) the magnetic permeability of the sharmon medium. The magnitude of Vg (=c) =(er / ds)1/2 likewise, is separately set by the rigidity or shear elasticity er=4.6875x10-12 dyne/cm2 and mass density ds= 5.192x10-34 gm/cm3 of the sharmon medium itself. And Vc is set by two yet-undiscovered colour parameters of the sharmon medium whose product equals Vc2 =c2 = 8.9875x 1020 cm2/sec2.

The three mediator bosons (photon, graviton, colouron) for the infinite range forces (electric/magnetic/e.m., gravitational, colour ) are composed by multiple sharmons and hence carry more-than-zero finite mass, say m, and momentum p. Here, colouron is the name for the new 1-spin boson mediating the infinite range colour interaction contiguously through the sharmon medium, the name “gluon” continuing for the mediator of inter-hadron short range exchange interaction as it also glues the intra-hadron quarks together. The total energy E of the moving wave-quantum unity consists of kinetic energy pc and mass energy mc2 of the propagator boson, and wave energy h( at frequency ( of the transverse wave of the respective charge in the sharmon medium. The relativistic energy relation

E2 = (pc)2 + (mc2)2 + (h()2

with E = ih(/(t, p = -ih( , ( = ((/(x + (/(y + (/(z) yields:

(( + m2c2/h2 + 4(2(2/c2)( = 0

where the d’Alembert operator

( = ((2/(x2 + (2/(y2 + (2/(z2 - 1/c2. (2/(t2).

Spin of the mediator boson does not pose any problem because it always moves at light velocity c and is never at rest.

13. Reimannian differential geometry & general relativity

The operations of differential geometry can apply only to a continuum. The theory of General Relativity, as a theory of gravitation, uses the Reimannian differential geometry of the 4-dimensional spacetime continuum. It is a fatal flaw of the theory of general relativity because the 4-D spacetime continuum has, in the foregoing, been shown as non-existent and unrealistic.

14. The principle of equivalence & general relativity

In an inertial reference frame, the free motion of a mass body, not subjected to external force, is uniform and in a straight line. In a gravitational field, all bodies move with the same acceleration. And freely moving bodies, when viewed from a uniformly accelerated non-inertial frame, appear to have an equal and opposite acceleration. That non-inertial reference frame, therefore, is equivalent to a "certain" gravitational field. This is the "Principle of Equivalence" [2].

It may, however, be emphasized [21] that the fields to which non-inertial frames are equivalent are NOT completely identical with actual gravitational fields. For example, a disc of radius r rotating with uniform angular velocity w is a non-inertial frame with outward centrifugal acceleration +w2r. Relative to it, all free bodies have the same inward centripetal acceleration viz. -w2r. However, the actual gravitational acceleration g = Gm/r2 due to a body of mass m decreases but both the above accelerations ± war increase with increasing distance r from the source at the center.

Moreover, the fields to which non-inertial systems are equivalent vanish on transformation to an inertial system. But actual gravitational fields cannot be eliminated by any choice of the non-inertial reference frame.

In the Special Relativity, one could use, as coordinate system, an aggregate of bodies at relative rest. In the General Relativity it is impossible, because the metric of space itself depends on time. So the bodies constituting any reference system cannot be at relative rest, as their mutual separations and/or velocities of relative motion are not fixed, but vary with time. The system of reference is constituted by an infinite number of bodies filling all of space and individually linked with clocks recording their own times. Separate clocks even on the same reference frame cannot be synchronized [21]. This scenario is bewildering enough to benumb all visualizations.

15. The gravity wave

According to general relativity theory [2-4], gravity can be expressed as a curvature of the 4-dimensional spacetime continuum. And a changing distribution of mass can create ripples in the curved spacetime continuum, which propagate away from the source at the speed of light. These freely propagating ripples in spacetime are called gravitational waves. The supernova explosions, coalescing binary stars, exploding galactic nuclei act like a tidal force to generate gravity waves. Any attempts to directly detect gravitational waves have not been successful yet. Our Unified Physical Theory, however, assigns sharmon medium to these gravity waves because the primary gravitational field exists in it.

16.1 The nature of gravity wave

Sec. 12 above showed that the gravitation or the gravity wave may be propagated as either transverse or a longitudinal wave in the sharmon medium. At the present state of knowledge, however, one cannot for sure choose between the two options. Cogency of scientific logic backed by actual observations in future will decide whether the gravity wave is longitudinal or transverse in nature. Due to the lack of convincing evidence either way we have herein presented both the aspects of this open question.

16. Bending of light and gravitational waves in a gravity field

Both the light photon and the graviton comprise sharmons of non-zero mass. Therefore they both will experience the acceleration due to gravity g = GM/R2 of the heavenly body of mass M and radius R. The ray of light or gravitation from a distant source goes past the heavenly body in time t = 2R/c, to fall by the distance s = ½ gt2 = ½ (GM/R2).(2R/c)2 = 2GM/c2. For a distance D the ray of light or gravitation bends by the angle

| θ = s/D = 2GM/Dc2 radian. |

This is exactly the Einstein formula [22] for the bending of light in a gravitational field whose verification during total solar eclipse on 29 May 1919 gave instant fame to Relativity.

17. Detecting the gravity waves

There are two on going parallel schemes to detect gravity waves by using Laser Interferometer [23] or Resonant Mass Detector [24]. The former technique works on the assumption that gravity wave is a transverse wave like light and the latter assumes it to be a longitudinal wave like sound. But both the approaches have their own difficulties and limitations.

17.1 Laser interferometer method

Worldwide efforts by using the earth based laser interferometer are being made at Hannover, Germany; LIGO (Laser Interferometer Gravitational Wave Observatory), Hanford (WA )& Livingston (LA), USA; Tokyo, Japan and Pisa, Italy. The technique assumes transverse nature of the gravity wave.

The LISA (Laser Interferometer Space Antenna) Project [23] is a planned space mission, adopted by ESA and NASA, to deploy 3 satellites in solar orbit forming a large equilateral triangle with a base length of 5x106 km. The center of the triangle formation will be in the ecliptic plane 1 AU from the sun and 20 degrees behind the earth. The main objective of the LISA mission is to observe low frequency (10-4 Hz to 10-1 Hz) gravitational waves from galactic and extra-galactic binary systems, including gravitational waves generated in the vicinity of the very massive black holes found in the centers of many galaxies. The three LISA spacecrafts flying in formation will act as a giant Michelson interferometer, measuring the distortion of space caused by passing gravitational waves. Each spacecraft will contain two free-floating "proof masses". Lasers in each spacecraft will be used to measure changes in the optical path lengths with a precision of 20 pm. If approved, the project will start in the year 2005 with a planned launch in 2008.

However, the interference fringes, which the proposed interferometers propose to detect are formed by transverse waves like those of the electromagnetic radiation. However, for low frequency (10-4 Hz to 10-1 Hz) gravitational waves as compared to light, the energy h( is expected to be lower and the wavelength larger by several orders of magnitude. The detection of the interference fringes therefore is likely to be very difficult, if not impossible. But if successful, the experiment will suggest that gravity waves are transverse in nature.

17.2 Resonance mass detector method

This research facility is being developed [24] at Institute of Physics, Academia Sinica, Beijing; Louisiana State University, Moscow State University, Stanford University, University of Maryland, University of Rome, University of Tokio, University of Western Australia, Zhongshan University, Guangzhou. The cryogenic detector at Stanford, Rome (CERN) and Louisiana State University may also be mentioned. The Stanford University research center [24] uses Aluminum bar weighing 4800 Kg for detecting strains ~ 10-18.

This technique is based on the assumption that gravity wave is a pressure wave like longitudinal sound wave. However, sec. 12.1 above showed that the velocity Vg = (ea/d)1/2 of the longitudinal gravity wave is determined by the adiabatic volume elasticity ea and the density d of the sharmon medium. For the sharmon medium composed by tiny sharmons and having very low density, the adiabatic volume elasticity ea exceeds er only slightly. Therefore for ease of presentation and without any fear of gross error we take the two as equal.

It is shown above that the sharmon medium has its rigidity or shear elasticity er = 4.68x10-12 dyne/cm2 and mass density ds= 5.19x10-34 gm/cm3. The density of air is da = 1.293x10-3 gm cm-3 and the atmospheric pressure is p = 1.0132x106 dyne cm-2. Arbitrarily assuming that the stress propagated within a wave is proportional to the mass density of the medium, the stress in a gravity wave Sgw = p.ds/da = 4.86x10-25 dyne cm-2. Therefore the strain within the sharmon medium Sts = Swg/er = 1.059x10-13. Taking the rigidity of Aluminum as RAl = 2.67x1011 dyne cm-2, the strain expected to be produced in the detection bar is SAl = Sts/(RAl/er) = 1.85x10-36. This negligible strain (~10-36) in the detecting bar is far beyond the planned capability (~10-18) of the proposed Resonant Mass Detectors [24].

Therefore it is feared that neither the Laser Interferometers [23] (based on earth or in space) nor the Resonant Mass Detectors [24] would be able to detect the gravity waves.

17.3 Cosmic redshift would detect gravity wave

Large-scale mass disturbances, as in a supernova explosion, would emit strong gravity waves accompanied by local burst of sharmon showers, which will raise the density and viscosity μ of the surrounding sharmon medium. This will result in the increased redshift Z of the light of wavelength λ emitted by the stellar source

Z = 6π r μ D λ / h.

Here D is the distance of the source, r the radius of photon energy quantum and h is the Planck constant, vide Chapter 11 of the 2002-book "Realistic Foundations of Physics & Cosmology" [7] and ref. [14]. This will indirectly detect the gravity waves emitted by the stellar source. The observation [25] on the type Ia supernova, if interpreted thus, would not create 'amazement and horror' among the astronomers.

18. Gravitational Lenses

Einstein's General Theory of Relativity was the first to predict the phenomena of gravitational lensing, which have since been actually observed with Hubble telescope and otherwise. It however, unrealistically postulates that the gravitational field exists and produces a curvature in the non-existent spacetime continuum.

Section 11.4 above shows that the area density of the gravitational lines of force emanating from a massive body, and hence the intensity of its gravitational field, varies inversely as the square of the distance from its center. And section 16 found that the ray of light or gravitation from a distant source passing past the massive body deviates towards the body due to the action of its gravity field on the sharmon aggregate composing the energy quantum of the transmitter boson (photon, graviton). The massive body in effect therefore acts as the center of a gravitational convex lens. However, two massive bodies are joined, one to the other, by the gravitational lines of force, whose area density is maximum around both the bodies and decreases inward away from them to become lowest at the midway point. A beam of light or gravitation passing through the space between them will diverge, the outer rays bending away from the center towards the two bodies. The two bodies together thus act as a gravitational concave lens with telescopic effect. A distant source viewed through it will appear nearer, smaller and brighter, enabling to peep deeper into the space. A cluster of galaxies therefore can produce a variety of refracting spaces and act as a combination of gravitational lenses. When the beam of light (or gravitation) passes through the cluster from an object lying behind it, the beam can be bent and focused to produce an image or images of the source. The image may be minified, magnified, distorted, or multiplied, depending upon the nature of the lensing system and the position of the source with respect to the lensing mass bodies.

Acknowledgement: The author expresses his deep sense of gratitude to his friend Jim White for important references, valuable comments and employing his server for the website .

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[7]. R.R. Sharma, Realistic Foundations of Physics & Cosmology/ (The Beginning of Realistic Science), Abhishek Publications, SCO 57-59, Sector 17 C, Chandigarh, June 2002.

Also see and .

[8]. R.R. Sharma, and .

[9]. R.R. Sharma, and .

[10]. R.R. Sharma, and .

[11]. R.R. Sharma, and .

[12]. R.R. Sharma, and .

[13]. R.R. Sharma, and OfLight.html.

[14]. R.R. Sharma, and .

[15]. T.H. Boyer, Sci. Amer. 253 (Aug. 1985) 56.

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[19]. A.A. Michelson, Amer.J.Sci. 22 (1881) 120; A.A. Michelson & E.W. Morley, Amer.J.Sci. 34 (1887) 333; Phil.Mag .24 (1887) 449.

[20]. James DeMeo, .

[21]. L.D. Landau & E.M. Lifshitz, The Classical Theory of Fields, (Trans) M. Hamermesh, Addison-Wisley, Pub. co. Inc., Reading, Messachusetts, USA, 1959.

[22]. A. Einstein, in The Principle of Relativity, Dover (1923) 97.

[23]. Daniel Sigg, Pub. No. LIGO-P980007-00 D - 10/23/98: WWW:

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[25] J. Glanz, Science 278 (1997 ) 799, 279 ( 1998 ) 651, 1298 ; S. Perlmutter et al., Nature 391 ( 1998 ) 51.

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