WORDS OF LATIN AND GREEK ORIGIN IN THE SCIENTIFIC …
WORDS OF LATIN AND GREEK ORIGIN IN THE SCIENTIFIC PROSE STYLE (THE FIELD OF HISTORY)
Diplomová práca
LUCIA STRUHÁROVÁ
ŽILINSKÁ UNIVERZITA V ŽILINE
FAKULTA PRÍRODNÝCH VIED
Vedúci diplomovej práce : Mgr.Zdenka Kráľová, PhD.
Konzultant : PaedDr. Marta Kadorová
Komisia pre obhajoby : Katedra anglického jazyka a literatúry
Stupeň odbornej kvalifikácie: magister
Dátum odovzdania práce: 2006-04-15
ŽILINA 2006
CONTENTS
Introduction……………………………………………………………………..4
1. AN OUTLINE OF THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE………………………………………………………………..6
1. Pre-history period………………………………………………………..6
2. Old English Period……………………………………………………….7
3. Middle English Period…………………………………………………...9
4. Modern English Period…………………………………………………11
2. THE INFLUENCE OF CLASSICAL LANGUAGES ON THE ENGLISH VOCABULARY……………………………………………....15
1. New words of classical origin in English ...……………………………15
2.1.2 Affixes…………………………………………………………...15
2.1.3 Compounds ……………………………………………………..16
2. Greek and the Greek alphabet…………………………………………..17
1. Greek affixes …………………………………………………...17
2. Greek numerals…………………………………………………19
3. Latin and the Latin alphabet …………………………………………...21
1. Latin affixes ……………………………………………………21
2. Latin numerals …………………………………………………23
3. Latin abbrevations……………………………………………...24
4. Mythology and religion ………………………………………………..26
3. THE ENGLISH VOCABULARY………………………………………..29
1. Basic lexicological units of speech …………………………………….30
4. STYLE OF LANGUAGE……..…………………………………………..32
1. Functional styles ……………………………………………………….32
1. Scientific prose style……………………………………………34
2. Science …………………………………………………………………37
1. Medicine………………………………………………………...37
2. Botany ………………………………………………………….38
3. Zoology…………………………………………………………39
4. Astronomy………………………………………………………39
5. Pharmaceutics and Chemistry………………………………….40
5. INTERFERENCE OF GREEK AND LATIN IN THE FIELD OF HISTORY………………………………………………….………………41
1. The investigation ……………………………………………………….41
5.1.2 Words from the period of Antiquity…………………………….45
5.1.2.1 Semantic aspect …………………………………………..45
5.1.2.2 Morphological aspect …………………………………….48
5.1.2.3 Shift of meaning ………………………………………….50
5.1.2.4 Lexicological aspect ……………………………………...52
5.1.2.5 Etymological aspect ……………………………………...54
2. Interpretation of particular results ……………………………………...55
Conclusion ….………………..………………………………………………..57
Résumé………….…………………………..………………………………….59
Bibliography…………………………………………………………………...61
Appendix ...…………………………………………………………………….63
Introduction
A language presents the highest form of communication and its value is obvious. The history and wealth of different nations has remained in great works from such fields as literature, history, art, music, science and many other spheres of human life.
English speaking countries had and still possess the great power in the world and therefore English has spread to all the continents, especially in the last several hundred years.
By reason that a language is a dynamic system, various languages have influenced each other during their historical development. The English language is not an exception. The greatest changes have been made in its vocabulary system that has accepted a lot of new words from other languages. On the other hand, English has also enriched word-stock of many different languages through English borrowings.
Two main languages that have played an important role within the English language development are Greek and Latin. Consequently this work pays attention to these classical languages and is divided into the following five main chapters:
1. An outline of the development of the English language
2. The influence of classical languages on the English vocabulary
3. The English vocabulary
4. Style of language
5. Interference of Greek and Latin in the field of history
The first chapter indicates the English language development with the emphasis on Latin and Greek and their interference on the English vocabulary. As English has absorbed words from these classical languages through all its existence and development, there is applied the influence of classical languages, and partly of other languages, from the very beginning i.e. from the times of the first civilisations to today’s Modern period.
The following second chapter deals with classical affixes and bases as they also helped the English language to extend. Moreover, several Latin abbreviations are presented as they are extensively used in the written form of English.
The work continues with the composition of layers of the English vocabulary. Because this chapter also deals with the problem of lexical units named words and terms, the distinction between them is implied.
A list of functional styles and their descriptions, particularly of the scientific prose style is presented in the fourth chapter. The examples of terms of Greek and Latin origin are present within more fields of science.
The last fifth chapter deals with the main concern of this work - the study of words of Latin and Greek origin in the scientific prose style in the field of history.
At first the investigative method will be applied for revealing the origin of English words. Moreover, there will be implied several approaches for categorizing of words of classical origin as comparative, etymological, morphological and lexicological. A sample of words covering the ten pages will serve as a basis for futher statistics that will be used to see the influence of Latin and Greek within the period of Antiquity. Its particular results can be observed from corresponding graphs. Moreover, graphical illustrations can also be found in the chapters 5.1.2.3 Shift of meaning and 5.1.2.4 Lexicological aspect.
1. An outline of the development of the English language
English, like other languages, has been shaped through many centuries. It has been exposed to various changes during this long process. Any epoch of the language development has gone along with variations in vocabulary, spelling or pronunciation. Althought English belogs to the Indo-European family of languages this common ancestor is not the only factor that influenced today’s form of English. Some language changes have arisen as the direct result of the social situation, invasions, mixtures of tribes, migrations, wars, contacts with different nations.
Apparently, the English language has been modified from one generation to another. Then it is appropriate to look at English from the diachronical point of view and begin with the historical development of the English language.
There exist several time divisions of the English language development. According to Donald (1980, p.7) we recognize three main periods in the history of English:
Old English Period (450 - 1150)
Middle English Period (1150 - 1500)
Modern English Period (1500 - )
1. Pre-history period
Britain is an island, but this was not always true. It became one of the
world-wide islands only after the last ice age, around 5000 BC. Its name “comes from the word “Petrani”, the Creco-Roman word for the inhabitants of Britain.” (McDowall, 1997, p.8)
Probably the first people living in Britain were humans that appeared about 250,000 BC - during the warmer period of the Ice Age.
Within following Stone and early Bronz Ages, non-Indo-European people inhabited the British Isles. Firstly, groups of fishers, hunters, gatherers started to settle down and occupied Britain. Later, around 3000 BC, Neolithic people came to Britain from Europe (Iberian peninsula or North African coast) and started to implement their way of life including various knowledges, techniques, ideas and methods. After several hundred years, the cultural life of Neolithic Britons was enriched by the arrival of new groups of people, called the “Beaker” people. They came to Britain after 2400 BC from Europe and they brought single culture, language (probably Indo-European) and new skills (bronze tools). As Britain attracted various human races more and more, the language of these prehistoric inhabitants was completely wiped out and replaced by a new language and culture. This happened at the time, when a new kind of
Indo-European settlers, important ancestors in the British history - technically advanced Celts, came to Britain probably from central Europe or southern Russia, around 700 BC.
Similarly, the Romans began to conquest British Isles in the first century AD. They brought reading together with writing skills to Britain and so Latin began to be used in writing and speech. But it was only the language of rich landowners and dwellers who spoke also Greek. Illiterate peasants still used Celtic language.
Later, German invaders from northern Europe conquered a great part of today’s England and started to settle after AD 430. They were illiterate and came from three powerful Germanic tribes - Angles, Saxons and Jutes.
1.2 Old English Period (450 - 1150)
The period of Old English began in the fifth century AD when the Anglo-Saxons invaded Britain. Before their arrival, various Latin words had enriched their language - as a result of the Roman domination over Germany. Therefore when Angles and Saxons came to England their vocabulary already included some borrowed words that mostly referred to trade, warfare and agricultural products as e.g. : straet (street), ciese (cheese), butere (butter), win (wine), cuppe (cup), pund (pound), copor (copper), pipor (pepper). The name of the first tribe, the Angles, served as a basis, from which names representing their language, Englisc, and their new home, Engla-land, were derived.
“The strength of Anglo-Saxon culture is obvious even today. Days of the week were named after Germanic gods: Tig (Tuesday), Wodin (Wednesday), Thor (Thursday), Frei (Friday).” (McDowall, 1997, p.11). Moreover, the Germans established settlements and towns such as Birmingham, Nottingham or Southampton. Also some of Anglo-Saxon names denoting kingdoms Essex, Sussex, East Anglia, Middle Essex, Wessex still exist in the present days. The word aldermen, which was used to refer to local officials, can also be found in the present English vocabulary. During the Anglo-Saxon domination, the manorial system gently grew up and the society started to be divided into classes.
The period from the sixth to the eight century had also visible influence on the English vocabulary. Missionaries from Rome settled down in Canterbury and spread their new faith, Christianity, through the country. Learning and culture flourished and number of monasteries was set up. During this period new objects, concepts, ideas were introduced by Christianity and so words from Latin and Greek came into English and became quickly domesticated e. g.: altar, angel, anthem, apostle, bishop, candle, church, clerk, devil, idol, martyr, mass, minster, monk, pope, priest, prophet, psalter, rule, school, temple. Latin influenced not only the language of education and Church but also everyday life beet, camel, cancer, cap, elephant, elm, fever, plant, plaster, sock, spend, turn. It should be noted that number of “Latin words taken over by Old English was relatively small, certainly smaller than that which was taken over from Latin by many other European languages at that period.” (Vachek, 1991, p.98)
Moreover, it should not be forgotten that the Romans had in hands a great power over large British areas for several hundred years. They provided words of everyday living cytel (kettle), disc (dish), pyle (pillow) into the English vocabulary during that period. Soon they established their own culture and their land, Roman Britain, was represented by their towns. Some of these towns grew out of Celtic military camps. Even today there exist some city names e.g. Doncaster, Chester, Leicester, Gloucester, Winchester, Colchester that consist of the Latin term, castra (military camp).
The British Celts were driven away and many of them became slaves of Anglo-Saxons. So they left extremly small number of words that were adopted to the English vocabulary. There were very few Celtic borrowings as cradol (cradle), cross (cross), cursian (curse), binn (bin).
The majority of words of the Celtic origin represent names of some cities York, Downs, London, Leeds and rivers Exe, Esk, Avon, Evan, Thames, Dover, Stour, Severn, Usk, Ux. Also names of kingdoms were derived from the Celtic language Kent, Deira, Bernicia. Moreover, Latin terms colonia (settlement for retired soldiers), vicus (village) or portus (port) were part in the Celtic place names as e.g. Colchester, Norwich, Woolwich, Bridport, Devonport.
Towards the end of the eight century new invaders from Norway and Denmark, called Vikings, had been attacking Britain several times. Nowaday capital city of Ireland, Dublin, was founded by them. According to McDowall (1997, p.15) the word, Vikings, probably meant either “pirates” or “the people of the sea inlets”.
Later they settled, lived together with the Anglo-Saxons and quickly accepted Christianity. Their language, Old Norse, also marked English. Scandinavian words were quickly domesticated, because of the close relationship between Old English and Old Norse.
The political situation of those days caused that only a few of Scandinavian loanwords penetrated into the English vocabulary. Many of first loan-words that were absorbed by English dealt with military and legal fields such as battle, fellow, fleet, husband, knife, law. But later, a huge amount of Scandidavian words was assimilated into the everyday usage bag, cake, call, egg, gap, gate, happy, ill, leg, loose, low, raft, raise, score, seat, skin, skill, sky, snub, take, thrust, ugly, want, weak, window, wing, wrong. There should be noted that many Scandinavian borrowings are recognized thanks to letters sk- at the beginning of words as for example skin, skill, skirt, sky. Scandinavian place names Inverness, Woodthorp, Grimsby had its origin in Old Norse. Also the personal pronoun they and the possessive pronoun their are adapted from Scandinavian.
1.3 Middle English Period (1150 - 1500)
The greatest event that played an important role not only in the British history but also in the history of the English language development was the arrival of Norman French and the Norman Conquest. These events marked the beginning of the new Middle English Period. In 1066, Duke of Normandy defeated the Saxon army with its leader Harold in the well-known Battle of Hastings. Soon, Duke William and his people became representatives of the rulling class. Most of Anglo-Saxon lands passed to the Norman barons and they started to occupy important posts in church, army, government, law. These facts greatly affected the new period of the English language history that followed.
Both languages, English and French were used simultaneosly, one by the upper and one by the lower class. English was spoken by peasants, whereas Norman French became the official language of Britain used by aristocracy, nobility. English and French had only a slight influence on each other at the beginning of these times.
The French language was the official language of the administration for almost three hundred years and its words penetrated into various spheres of human life. This fact is obvious in a variety of words that stretched the English vocabulary at that times e.g. allow, autumn, boil, change, cover, double, enjoy, enter, face, flower, joy, letter, manner, nice, occupy, pale, plate, please, river, search, supper, sure, table, travel, use.
The earliest French borrowings were prisun (prison), castel (castle), were (war). Later terms from administration and government administration, authority, chancellor, council, country, court, crown, government, office, parliament, power, state were added to the English vocabulary.
Various titles denoting nobilities baron, count, countess, duke , feudal, manor, noble, peer, prince and words connected with art, architecture and entertainment arch, beauty, cards, castle, cellar, chimney, colour, couch, curtain, dance, design, image, lamp, leisure, paint, palace, pleasure, porch, sport, table, trump came into English from the French language.
The sphere of military was enriched by words as aid, armour, arms, army, battle, captain, company, defeat, dragoon, enemy, escape, force, lance, navy, officer, peace, sergeant, siege, soldier, troops, vessel, victory.
New words appeared also in the religion abbey, archangel, Bible, clergy, Creator, chapel, chaplain, charity, divine, glory, miracle, paradise, passion, pray, preach, religion, sacrifice, saint, Saviour, service, Trinity, vice, Virgin, virtue
and also in the field of law accuse, acquit, attorney, case, court, crime, damage, false, guilt, heir, interest, jury, justice, marriage, money, penalty, poverty, rent, session.
Normans maintained the class system that was partly developed by Anglo-Saxons. Feudal duties were established during the reign of Duke William.The term feudalism has its origin in the french word feu that according to Scots Law meant “a right to the use of land, houses, etc in return for payment of feu-duty, a fixed annual payment.”
Considerable phenomenon is the usage of different terms when reffering to domestic animals on the one hand and on the other hand to meal prepared from that animals. The names of animals became from Old English that was used by peasants – cows, sheep, swine, ox, calf, bear, deer – whereas meals were represented by words of the French origin – mutton, beef, pork, veal, bacon, venison.
Later, English and French were mingled and spoken both at the same time. So as French aristocrats learned and picked up some English words, uneducated classes used borrowed words from French in the current speech. As people had the knowledge of both these languages, they started to merge them into the one English language. Therefore the English vocabulary was greatly enriched. Then it is hardly surprising to come across synonyms such as e.g. begin (English origin) and commence (French origin), conceal-hide, odour-smell, desire-wish, happiness-felicity.
There should be mentioned that Latin existed and represented mainly the language of Church and schools, i.e. the language of educated people, at those days. Famous universities, Oxford and Cambridge, were established. Latin was also used in fields such as philosophy or science.
1.4 Modern English Period (1500 - )
The period of Modern English started around the year 1500 and has lasted until the present days. During this period, Renaissance, an important intellectual movement from Italy began to spread. All aspects of everyday life started to recover slowly after hard times and declensions in the population, plague “Black Death”, hundred years war between France and England, starvation, high prices. The period of Renaissance can be characterized “by the rapid advance of the sciences, a renewal of interest in the Greek and Roman classics, the rise of nationalism, and by such events as the Protestant Reformation, the invention of the printing press, and the discovery of the New World.”(Donald, 1980, p.10)
It is evident that Latin and Greek loanwords penetrated into the English vocabulary and into various branches of human life not only in the two previous mentioned periods, but also in the period of Modern English.
Classical loans from such spheres as theatre, literature and rhetoric affected the cultural life not only of the English people. “At that time, writers all over Europe try to imitate, as closely as possible, the language and style of distinguished Latin authors.” (Vachek, 1991, p.104). At this point it must be emphasized that the names of nearly all literary genres and their related terms are of Greek (or Latin) origin e.g. amatory, biography, bucolic, comedy, drama, elegy, encomium, novel, ode, oration, encyclopedia, epic, epigram, epistolary, epitome, fable, fiction, poetry, prose, romance, satire, tradegy. This is also the case with poetic and rhetorical terms as alliteration, anacoluthon, anaphora, aposiopesis, apostrophe, ellipsis, euphony, hyperbole, irony, metonymy, oxymoron, pleonasm, simile, synecdoche, zeugma and others.
The borrowings from classical languages as accomodation, anticipate, apostrophe, contradictory, exact, explain, fact, monopoly, reliance, submerge can be found in literary works of William Shakespeare or Thomas Moore.
Other fields that adopted terms from classical languages were politics, law and other related fields censor, compete, confiscate, delict, negotiate, politics, proletarian.
Some loans that are hard to classify according to specific areas were absorbed into the everyday English language aborigines, colony, comic, culminate, depopulate, dialect, enthusiasm, epoch, erace, gradual, hesitate, immigrate, implicate, indignant, intelligent, introduce, opponent, relaxation, relevant, peninsula, perforate, persist, regulate, secure, sporadic and many others.
The rapid progress of various branches of science in the last hundred years has caused the growing amount of Latin and Greek scientific terms in the English language such as acid, analysis, antenna, appendix, atom, axis, contemplate, diagnosis, diagram, exist, formula, function, maximum, method, minimum, nucleus, phenomenon, rabies, radius, skeleton, species, spectrum, theory.
The new terms that expanded the English vocabulary were not only loanwords from classical languages. Many terms were coined by various combinations of Latin and Greek elements and words such e.g. encyclopaedia, protestant, telepathy, telegraph, telescope were created. This process still continues, especially in the field of several branches of science e.g. allergy, antibiotic, chromosome, cyclotron, kleptomania, leukemia, orthopedic, protein, protoplasm, psychiatry, schizophrenia. The combination of classical elements may be realized by combining the Greek roots only as allergy, antibiotic, hormones, protein, stratosphere, telephone or new Latin terms are produced by combination of only Latin roots facsimile, introvert, quantum, radioactive, relativity. Composite words that contain the Latin together with the Greek root as e.g. sociology, television, petroleum, claustrophobia, automobile are known as hybrids.
The English vocabulary was marked not only by Latin and Greek, but also distinct languages and cultures touched the English language. Dutch, Italian, Spanish, German, Portuguese, Slavonic and others influenced English gently, thanks to trade, art, architecture, politics, music and many other spheres of human life.
Military and nautical terms represent e.g. (Italian) alarm, cartridge, colonel, firm, pistol, squadron, (Spanish) armada, barricade, breeze, cannibal, cargo, embargo, escapade, flotilla, (Dutch) bowline, buoy, cruise, deck, dock, keel, skipper, (French) brigade, corps, marine, police, reconnaissance.
Also fields as architecture and art absorbed various words (Italian) balcony, cupola, loggia, (Dutch) easel, landscape, sketch, (French) ballet, ensemble, essay, genre.
Field of music was mainly influenced by the Italian language aria, bass, canto, cello, concert, duet, finale, piano, replica, sonata, sonnet, solo, soprano, stanza, tenor, violin. Many terms of the Italian origin penetrated into the English vocabulary through French.
Some English terms denoting fashion and food also came from other languages as (Italian) macaroni, pizza, vermicelli, (French) blouse, champagne, chemise, corsage, cravat, menu, soup.
The discovery of the New World caused contacts with different new objects, ideas, cultures, changed the style of living. Variety of words enriched the English vocabulary and some of them became used in everyday life (Italian) canteen, barrack, manage, pilot, (Spanish, Portuguesse) amok, banana, canoe, cafeteria, chocolate, cigar, cocoa, maize, mandarin, mosquito, mulatto, negro, pilot, ranch, sherry, teak, tobacco, tomato, (German) kindergarten, lebensraum, plunder, stroll, waltz, (French) ball, café, coguette, cortege, detail, hotel, machine, moustache, picnic, progress, restaurant, ticket.
Finance, commerce and industry adopted terms as (Italian) ducato, florin, million, (German) cobalt, nickel, zinc. Also Czech (robot), Russia (Lunik, sputnik, Soviet, steppe, vodka, troika), India (bungalow, jungle, jute, khaki, loot, punch, pyjamas, yoga, thug) and American Indians (moccasin, opossum, skunk, tomahawk, wigwam) borrowed its terms to English. Everyday words as e.g. check, divan, pajamas, tiger came from the Persian language and terms such as admiral, caravan ,cotton, sirup, sash, sofa from Arabic. Moreover, the English language absorbed words from such languages as Greenland Inuit (anorak), Hawaiian (hula), Finnish (sauna), Africaans (aardvark), Chinese (kung fu), Japanese (kimono), Malay (ketchup), Australian Aboriginal (dingo), Tahitian (tattoo), Maori (kiwi), West African (storey house). The considerable influence of Greek and Latin on the English language is evident from the previous text. However, the impact of classical languages on the English vocabulary is much greater. This fact can be observed in the following chapters.
2. The influence of classical languages on the English vocabulary
2.1 New words of classical origin in English
Greek and Latin belong to the Indo-European language family. Classical words were absorbed into the English vocabulary either directly from Latin and Greek or by way of French. But also many Greek terms were Latinized, it means they were adopted to English through Latin. Moreover, the Greek language left lesser mark on the English vocabulary than Latin.
The vocabulary is the most open part of the language system. From times of the Old English to the Modern English period, the English vocabulary has been expanded severalfold as a result of e.g. expansion over new lands, progress of culture and literature as it is stated in the first chapter. Moreover, word formation processes and the replacement of old words and meanings by new ones greatly enriched the English language inspite the fact that many other words were lost and forgotten.
2.1.2 Affixes
One way how to form new words is by the word formation process called affixation, in other words by adding affixes to the stem of a word. Affixes that are attached to the beginning of a word are called prefixes. On the other hand affix forms added to the end of a word are called suffixes.
The fact that learners of English may find the knowledge of classical affixes beneficial is one of the reasons why this chapter also concentrates on this area. Almost every prefix has its special meaning that can help us recognize the meaning of the whole word, in spite we are unfamiliar with it. According to Krill (1990, p.59) some prefixes “assume no special meaning. In such cases, the meaning of the root to which they happened to be attached is intensified.” The recognition and classification of words into particular word classes according to their suffixes can be another advantage. The ability to recognize classical suffixes could also be helpful in various transformations of words from nouns into verbs, verbs into adjectives and so on.
2.1.3 Compounds
Another word-building type that is together with conversion and affixation among the most productive word formation processes, is so-called compounding. Compounds were already represented by several classical examples in the chapter
1.4 Modern English Period, therefore the principle of compounding was outlined and it is evident that “new words are produced by combining two or more stems” (Antrushina, Afanasyeva, Morozova, 2001, p.104). According to Antrushina, Afanasyeva and Morozova there exist three types of compounds. The first of them form compounds that are combined without any linking elements as e.g. bedroom, bookcase, film-goer, honey-moon, TV-set, T-shirt, wallpaper and are called neutral. Compounds formed by a linking vowel or consonant such as Anglo-Saxon, handicap, spokesman belong to the second group, called morphological compounds. The last type, syntactic compounds, are combined by the aid of speech elements as articles, prepositions and others, for example brother-in-law, good-for-nothing and so on.
The chapters above concentrated on two word formation processes, affixation and compounding, in general and so the following chapters deal with Greek and Latin affixes and bases in more detail in that they represent productive means of creation of many English words.
2.2 Greek and the Greek alphabet
The Greeks present one of the civilizations that greatly influenced the English language. They were wise and creative people that affected almost every sphere of their life. The direct contact between English and Greek was developed mostly during the period of Renaissance.
THE GREEK ALPHABET
The Greeks adapted the alphabet into their own language from their trade partners called the Phoenicians.
Greek name Greek name
2.2.1 Greek affixes
Several of Greek affixes are presented in the following charts. Each chart contains either the list of prefixes or suffixes together with their meanings and examples. Moreover, suffixes are divided into noun-, adjective- and verb – forming and therefore lists in charts correspond to this classification.
Greek affixes and their meanings are quoted from English Words from Latin and Greek Elements by M.A.Donald (1980). More examples of Greek affixes can be seen in the appendix 1.
Greek prefixes
Before consonant Before vowel Meaning Example
α’- a- an- not, without anarchism, atheist
αντί anti- ant- against, opposite antithesis,
antihistamine
δυς- dys- dys- bad, disordered, dyspepsia,
difficult dyslexia, dysfunction
ευ eu- ev- good,well euphoric, euphemism
υπερ hyper- hyper- above, excessive, hyperactive,
over hypersomy
hypersensitive
υπό hypo- hyp- under, below hypogeal, hypothesis
μετά meta- met- after, beyond, metabolism,
change metaphysics
Greek suffixes
Adjective-forming suffixes
Suffix Meaning Example
-al pertaining to, like, belonging to, hysterical, visual,
having the character of abnormal
-an, -ian pertaining to, like, one concerned with theologian, australian,
academician
-ic, -tic pertaining to, like egoistic, geometric
-ics, -tics art, science, study of politics, genetics
-oid like, having the shape of adenoid, scleroid
-ous, -ious full of, pertaining to, like anonymous
Noun-forming suffixes
Suffix Meaning Example
-archy rule by patriarchy, oligarchy
-ism belief in, practice of, condition of animalism,
spritualism
- ist one who believes in, one engaged in protagonist, specialist
-logy science of, systematic study of kynology, mycology
-t, -te he who, that which militant
-y, -ia quality of, state of, act of cheesy, leukemia
Verb-forming suffixes
Suffix Meaning Example
-ize (-ise) to make, to do something with, specialize, criticize
to subject to verbalize, sensitize
2.2.2 Greek numerals
As roots of English compounds may be represented by different word classes, various words may also be produced by combining parts of Greek words representing numerals with English ones. In that there exist a huge amount of such words and because they do not belong to one particular area only, they are commonly used in almost every branch of science. Therefore they can also be found in the scientific prose style dealing with the field of history.
Greek Cardinal numeral English meaning Base Example
‘έν (μόνος) hen (monos) one, single hen-, mon- monarch
δυο dyo two dy- dyadic
τρεις treis three tri- triangle
τέσσαρες tessares four tetr(a)- tetrarchy
τέτταρες tettares four tetr(a)- tetraatomic
πέντε pente five pent(a)- pentagon
‘έξ hex six hex(a)- hexagon
‘επτά hepta seven hept(a)- heptathlon
’οκτώ oktō eight oct(a)- octave
’εννέα ennea nine enne(a)- ennead
δέκα deka ten dec(a)- decathlon
‘εκατόν hekaton hundred hect- hectare
χίλιοι chilioi thousand kil(o)- kilometer
Moreover, there are other Greek numerical bases that are parts of English words. For instance, the Greek word ‘ήμισυς provides the root hemi- („half“) that could be found in such words as hemisphere, hemistich, hemistrumectomy.
The following chapter concentrates on Latin and follows similar arrangement of chapters as the previous one dealing with Greek. Besides Latin bases and affixes, Latin abbreviations are presented as they are largely used in the English language.
2.3 Latin and the Latin alphabet
Latin was the language of the ancient Romans. They, unlike the Greeks, were not devoloping their own cultural life, but they were absorbing Greek literary forms and philosophical theories. Greek and Latin were in contact during various periods in the past. Etruscans, ancestors of Romans, were already influenced by Greek culture and language, because Greeks kept colonies in the southern Italy.
THE LATIN ALPHABET
The English alphabet used today is basically the same as that used by the Romans in the past. The classic Latin alphabet consisted of 23 letters:
A B C D E F G H I K L M N O P Q R S T V X Y Z
a b c d e f g h i k l m n o p q r s t u (v) x y z
It is obvious that some Latin words or their roots are still used in different languages, even though Latin is the language that is no more spoken. The following text deals with the English words formed with the help of the Latin affixes that are still in common use in English.
1. Latin affixes
There should be stated that many of suffixes which appear in Greek are found also in Latin. The following charts present some of Latin affixes and contain quotations of affixes and their meanings from English Words from Latin and Greek Elements by M.A.Donald (1980). A larger list of Latin suffixes is presented in the appendix 2.
Latin prefixes
Prefix Meaning Example
ab-, a-, abs- away, from abdicate, abduct, abjure
circum- around circumlocution,
circumstance, circumvent
dis-, di-, dif- apart, in different directions, disqualify, disable,
not disantvantage, disagree
extra-, extro- outside, beyond extrovert, extranet,
extraction
in-, im- in, into, against inside, imprint
not immortal, involuntary
post- after, behind postmortal, post-war,
post-modernism
sub-, sus-, suc- under, up from under, secretely subaqua, subjection
super- above, over super-ego, superimpose
Latin suffixes
Adjective-forming suffixes
Suffix Meaning Example
-able, -ible able to be, able to, tending to eatable, permissible
-al, -ial, -eal pertaining to, like, belonging to medical, equal,
natural
having the character of surreal, dictatorial
-ant, -ent, -ient person who, that which arrogant, participant, absent
-ary pertaining to, connected with, planetary, primary,
having the character of obituary
-ive tending to, inclined to passive, imaginative
-ous, -ious, -eous full of , having the character of, like gorgeous, numerous
Noun-forming suffixes
Suffix Meaning Example
-ance, -ancy quality of –ing, state of –ing abundance, assistance
-ary, -arium place for antiquary, planetarium
-ate office of, holder(s) of the office of delegate, directorate
-ence, -ency quality of –ing, state of –ing absence, confidence
-ment result of, means of, act of, state of unemployment, excitement
-ion act of, state of, result of rebellion, production
-or state of, result of horror
one who does, that which does adaptor, toreador, orator
Verb-forming suffixes
Suffix Meaning Example
-ate to make, to do something with compensate, nitrate
to subject to, to take translate, negotiate
-(i)fic making, causing pacific, specific
-igate, -egate to make, to drive congregate, delegate
2.3.2 Latin numerals
As well as Greek numerical bases occur in some English words the same is true with Latin numerical roots as can be seen in the chart below. These words are widely spread and cover large areas of human interest. Therefore they are used in miscellaneous fields of science. The scienfific prose style, area of history, also includes such kind of words.
Cardinal numeral English meaning Base Example
ūnus, -a, -um one un- unicycle
duo, -ae, -o two du- duel
trēs, tria three tri- triacontane
quattuor four quadr(u)- quadrant
quīnque five quint- quintan
sex six sext- sextuple
septem seven sept(em)- septempartite
octō eight oct- octagon
novem nine novem- November
decem ten decem- December
centum hundred cent- centena
mīlle thousand mill- millennium
There exist several other Latin numerical bases found in English. For istance, the Latin cardinal number sēmi that means „half“ can be found in such English words as e.g. semicircle, semicoma, semiconductive, semicular or cardinal numbers prīmus (“first”), secundus (“second”), tertius (“third”) are used in English words such as primacy, primal, secondary, secondo, tertiary, tertio.
Similarly the Roman numerals can be found in a number of sciences and beacause they are also extensively used in the field of history, the most common Roman symbols are presented in the table below. Various numerical values are produced with different combinations of such symbols.
I = 1 X=10 C=100 M=1000
V= 5 L=50 D=500
1 Latin abbrevations
When the same words are used frequently in the written form it is effective to use abbreviations. Latin abbreviations are used so largely that it is not hard to find them also in the scientific prose style. Abbreviations that are presented in the charts below could be find also in the field of history.
The following Latin phrases together with their corresponding abbreviations and English meanings are quotated from English Words from Greek and Latin in English Today by R.M. Krill (1990).
Several Latin abbreviations and expressions are still employed in formal writings in English. The chart below presents a few of such Latin abbreviations.
Latin Phrase Abbreviation Meaning
circā ca. approximately, around
et cētera etc. and other things, and so forth
exemplī gratiā e.g. for example
id est i.e. that is
notā bene n.b. mark well
opere citātō op.cit. in the work cited
post scriptum p.s. written after
ut dictum ut dict. as directed
vidēlicet viz. that is to say, namely
The following chart contains several examples of academic titles that are in common use within the English language.
Latin Phrase Abbreviation Meaning
Artium Baccalaureus A.B. Bachelor of Arts
Baccalaureus Artium B.A Bachelor of Arts
Artium Magister A.M. Master of Arts
Magister Artium M.A. Master of Arts
Scientiae Baccalaureus Sc.B. Bachelor of Science
Scientiae Magister Sc.M. Master of Science
Jūris Doctor J.D. Doctor of Law
Philosophiae Doctor Ph.D. Doctor of Philosophy
Abbreviations are also used as a reference to various aspects of time. This fact has a very close relation to the field of medicine where we use abbreviations as an indication when e.g. medication should be taken.
Latin Phrase Abbreviation Meaning
annō Doiminī A.D. in the year of the Lord
ante merīdiem a.m. before moon
post mēridiem p.m. after noon
bīs in diē b.i.d twice a day
quāque hōrā q.h. every hour
māne et nocte m. et n. morning and night
si opus sit s.o.s. if necessary
Moreover, symbols representing units of English money have their origin in Latin as for e.g. symbol for the pound sterling - £ (libra), shilling - s. (solidus),
pence - d. (denarius).
As the 1st chapter shows the English vocabulary was enriched by various languages and fields of human activity. One of the areas that had a notable influence on English was mythology and religion. The following chapter provides several classical words and phrases belonging to this field.
3. Mythology and religion
The lines below deal shortly with the history and religion of the Greeks and the Romans as words that belong to the field of mythology and religion could also be found in the field of history. It is evident that any kind of faith is somehow connected with the history. In most cases religion or mythology together with history represent inseparable parts, one is unimaginable without the other and that is the reason why this chapter is included in this work.
“In the area of theology Hesiod’s Theogony (Race of the Gods) composed about 700 B.C., stands as the earliest Greek work devoted strictly to their gods, the Olympians.” (Krill, 1990, p.208). Also Greek unforgettable legends present their supernatural gods as e.g. Zeus (the sky god), Apollo (the sun god), Aphrodite (the goddess of love), Athena (the goddess of wisdom) and others. At that times people believed in omens, i.e. they tried to predict future by means of various phenomena. Words such as ominous, abominate, augurs, auspicium, monster are connected with this kind of foretelling.
Many words from the Greek mythology possess very interesting historical meaning. The following examples can serve as an illustration:
Chimera was a fire-breathing creature that was a mixture of three animals. It had lion’s had, goat’s body and dragon’s trail.
Herculean is the word derived from Hercules that was the strongest hero in the Greek mythology. The goddess Hera believed that he would die in one of the acts which she required from him.
Labyrinth was a construction with several complicated ways. King Minos ordered to built this structure in an ambition to imprison the Minotaur (a monster - half man, half bull) that would eat King’s enemies placed in the labyrinth.
Odyssey was the Greek hero who is also present in Homer’s poem. After the Trojan War Odysseus had experienced adventures accompanied by the anger of the gods. Finally he came back to his family.
Siren was a nymph (part woman, part bird) that used a magic singing to lure sailors and destruct them. Even though Odysseus had heard the nymph’s song he survived, because he had been bound to his ship.
Titanic is a word connected with the word Titans that had been rulers of the universe. These children of Earth and Heaven had been in the war with Olympian gods that finally defeated them.
The Romans conquered a large deal of the world including Greece and spread their language throught the Italy to their provinces and colonies. Similarly the introduction of Christianity was the instrument of the Latin extension. It reached various parts of Europe and became the chief religion. As was stated earlier in the first chapter a lot of Greek words and borrowings influenced Latin at that times - the basic language of Roman Catholic Church.
Even today people are borrowing names of famous historical personalities from Bible. For example, when someone is a traitor we refer to him as a Judas or a misbeliever is called a doubting Thomas.
Classical words such as animism, baptism, canonical, catholic, censorship, communion, creation, eulogy, evangelism, evolution, hierarchy, immortality, incarnation, inspiration, liturgy, monastery, obscene, occult, parable, prophecy, sacrament, schism, spirituality, synagogue belong to the area of religion and spirutalism.
The following table presents several of Latin (Greek) mottoes from biblical or classical literature that are used in areas of government and education even today. Such phrases usually “contain an uplifing message or espouse a virtue, such as courage, hope, justice, truth, wisdom or knowledge.” (Krill, 1990, p.242) Others concentrates mainly on religion.
Latin / Greek Motto Translation
Ad majōrem Deī glōriam To the greater glory of God.
Deī sub nūmine viget Under the providence of God it flourishes.
In Deō spērāmus In God we trust.
Incipit vīta nova A new life is beginning.
ПІΣТЕІ ТΗΝ ΑΡΕТΗΝ, ΕΝ ΔΕ Courage is your faith, but knowledge
ТНΙ ΑРΕТΗΙ ТΗΝ ГΝΩΣΙΝ in your courage.
Vēritās Christō et ecclēsiae Truth to Christ and the church.
The chart above contains quotations of Latin and Greek mottoes and their translations from English Words from Greek and Latin in English Today by R.M. Krill (1990).
It was already stated that the vocabulary of the English language has undergone many changes. It should also be mentioned that the English vocabulary does not represent a homogeneous system but it can be classified into layers and so the following chapter presents such a view on the English vocabulary.
3. The English vocabulary
Elements of the English vocabulary are interrelated, interconnected and independent. However, according to some linguists it is hard to classify the vocabulary precisely into a system. According to Galperin (1981, p.70) the vocabulary of the English language is divided into:
1. the literary layer
2. the neutral layer
3. the colloquial layer
These layers, except one-neutral layer, are divided into subgroups that share a common feature within a layer, called aspect. The common words of above mentioned layers form so-called the standard English vocabulary. The scheme of the English vocabulary can be seen in the appendix 3.
Antrushina, Afanasyeva and Morozova (2001, p.38) refer to words that are classed under the Galperin’s literary layer as formal and on the other hand to words belonging to the colloquial layer as informal words.
As various languages have affected English to such an extent that borrowed words form a dominant element in the English vocabulary, it can be said that “ ‘current’ English is a mixture of words derived from different languages at different times.” (Wright, Hope, 1996, p.204)
According to Wright and Hope the majority of words that are used today come back to the period of Old English. From Old English and Old Norse words representing various word classes penetrated into the English language, for instance articles (the), prepositions (at, up), conjuctions (and), pronouns (they, their), verbs (take, want), nouns (battle), adjectives (happy), adverbs (almost). From such languages as Latin, Old French, French for example adjectives (different), verbs (allow, enter) and nouns (court, mixture) were absorbed by the English vocabulary. It is evident that words that are most commonly used and by help of which phrases are formed - are the oldest one. This closed class of words can be found in all kinds of texts as they form an informal or neutral stratum of the vocabulary. On the other hand, words that have their origin in Old French, French and Latin tend to be used in more formal styles. Moreover, words derived from Germanic languages i.e. Old English and Old Norse are much more shorter than the classical or French ones to which we usually refer as “long” words. This fact can be seen in the following examples: rise (German) – mount (French) – ascend (Latin), ask – question – interrogate. It is obvious that German words are less abstract than French ones and simirarly French words are less abstract than Latin ones.
3.1 Basic lexicological units of speech
The aim of this work is the investigation of classical terms in the scientific prose style, therefore the text below concentrates on the difference between two grammatical units, terms and words.
Words are studied in a branch of linguistics called Lexicology. Before the distinction between words and terms will be outlined, it should be pointed out that there is no precise and sufficient definition of a word. Moreover, linguists do not agree on several problems dealing with terms, as can be seen in the following lines.
A word can be defined as “a speech unit used for the purposes of human communication, materially representing a group of sounds, possessing a meaning, susceptible to grammatical employment and characterized by formal and semantic unity.” (Antrushina, Afanasyeva, Morozova, 2001, p.10) So the word is a grammatical unit that functions within the sentence or its part and convey one of its meanings, it means the word is capable of getting the new meaning. On the other hand, a term is “a word or a word-group which is specifically employed by a particular branch of science, technology, trade or the arts to convey a concept peculiar to this particular acitivity.” (Antrushina, Afanasyeva, Morozova, 2001, p.33) In other words it can be said that in fact all terms are words that are used within one or more fields of science, but not all words represent terms as e.g. if they are used in the colloquial speech. In that it is evident that terms are mainly used in the scientific prose style, thus it can be said that terms belong to the style of the scientific language. Also terms, unlike words, can be substituted by other terms with more simplicity. Although terms belong to special literary vocabulary of English, as can be obvious from the appendix 3., when they become well-known to common people they enter the neutral stratum of the vocabulary. At this point a question whether a term loses its terminological status or not arises. Another problem is that some linguists claim that terms should be monosemantic, but in fact there exist not only a large number of polysemantic terms, but also terms synonymous in their meanings.
The next chapter concentrates on the functional styles of the English language, as the style of scientific prose represent one of them. Moreover, there are also present some fields of human acitivity where this type of style is used.
4. Style of language
The word style is used in a variety of senses for example the life style, the style of behaviour, painting, dancing, living, speaking, writing. It is evident that all objects that are classified under the same kind of style share some common features e.g. healthy life-style, diplomatic style of behaviour etc. The word style is derived from the Latin word stilus that was used in a completely different sense as it is used in English nowadays.
A branch of general linguistics, Stylistics, deals with spoken and written styles of language i.e. with certain types of texts. These types of texts are called functional styles of language. “Stylistics means the study of style, with a suggestion, from the form of the word, of a scientific or at least a methodical study.” (Turner, 1973, p.8) There exists a great number of heterogenous definitons of the word style in Stylistics. But all these definitions somehow suggest that style is some kind of an individual “language” that is used by an individual author. For instance, Vachek (1991, p.125) writes “Style we regard as individual, unifying character which is present in any work resulting from intentional activity.” Also Seymour Chatman provides the most frequent definition of style and claims that “Style is a product of individual choices and patterns of choices (emphasis added) among linguistic possibilities.”(Galperin, 1981, p.12)
Another field of investigation in Stylistics is the study of special language means called expressive means and stylistic devices dealing with the aesthetic function of language, synonymous ways of expression, emotional colouring of ideas, individual manner of author’s expression etc.
4.1 Functional styles
Functional styles represent mainly a part of the standard English literary language. The development of writing caused that English literary language was devided into several subsystems and every one of these obtained particular features and distinctive style of writing. A functional style of language can be characterized as “a system of interrelated language means which serves a definite aim in communication.” (Galperin,1981, p.33)
There exist several divisions of functional styles in language. Galperin (1981, p.33) distinguishes 5 types of functional styles:
1. The language of belles-lettres
2. The language of publicistic literature
3. The language of newspapers
4. The language of scientific prose
5. The language of official documents
Each of the above mentioned functional styles contains several substyles. These substyles share common features within particular functional style and moreover within particular substyle.
|Functional styles |Division |Description of a FS |
|1.The belles-lettres |A. The language of poetry |aesthetico-cognitive function, |
| Style |B. Emotive prose |genuine lingustic features, huge |
| |C. The language of the |amount of words with more than |
| | drama |one meaning, personal attitude |
| | |of the author, colloquial language, |
| | |individual selection of |
| | |language means and vocabulary |
|2. Publicistic style |A. Oratory and speeches |deep influence on recipients, |
| |B. The essay |persuasive, coherent, logical |
| |C. Journalistic articles |structure of utterances, emotional |
| | |words, individual style |
|3.Newspaper style |A. Brief news items |informative , instructive and |
| |B. Advertisements and |influential character, individual |
| | announcements |style - specific vocabulary |
| |C. The headline | |
| |D. The editorial | |
|4.The style of |A. The language of |use of special system of clichés, |
| official documents | business documents |terms and set expressions, use |
| |B. the language of legal |of abbreviations, conventional |
| | documents |symbols, contractions, use of |
| |C. of diplomacy |of words in their logical |
| |D. of military documents |dictionary meaning, greetings, |
| | |conventional phrases, |
| | |informative in character |
The table above contains the classification of functional styles and the most important features of each style. The next chapter deals with the scientific prose style in more detail and so this type of functional style is not present in the table.
4.1.1 Scientific prose style
The aim of the scientific prose style is “to prove a hypothesis, to create new concepts, to disclose the internal laws of existence, development, relations between different phenomena, etc.” (Galperin, 1981, p.307)
According to Galperin (1981, p.34) the scientific prose style can be devided into the following three substyles:
▪ The language style of humanitarian sciences
▪ The language style of “exact” sciences
▪ The language style of popular scientific prose
Galperin (1981, p.307) says that there are several main features that characterize the scientific prose style:
1. logical sequence of utterances
The utterances are interdependent. Scientific prose style is the one in which the utterances are arranged in such a logical way that is hardly found in any other functional style.
2. use of terms
Every science possesses its own terminology. However, it is possible to
find the same terms in more than one science as a result of exchanging terms among various branches of science. Also many scientific and technical terms used outside a particular science acquire new meanings. This process is called de-terminization. Terms used in the scientific prose style are concise and unambiguous. It should also be stated that there is no other field that produces new words in such extent as an area of science. These new words are called literary coinages or neologisms. The words naming new concepts as a result of the development of the science are called terminological coinages. As noted in previous chapters neologisms often consist of Latin or Greek elements.
3. sentence – patterns can be divided into the following tree types:
a) postulatory
Every scientific work is based on facts that are known and therefore need no proof.
b) argumentative
Writer’s ideas, arguments within sentences by the help of which he sum up the result of his investigation.
c) formulative
Formulative sentence-patterns are author’s expressed ideas that represent theories of a principle.
4. quotations and references
Any piece of the scientific prose contain quotations that fit into the
context. “A quotation is a repetition of a phrase or statement from a book, speech and the like used by way of authority, illustration, proof or as a basis for further speculation on the matter in hand.”(Galperin, 1981, p.186) Quotations are accompanied by references to authors quoted or reffered to, titles of works, places and years works were published etc.
5. foot – notes
Foot-notes are used when some idea is connected with the context but it is not logical to use this idea in the context because it can interrupt coherence of the text.
6. impersonality
The science “must be ‘invariant to all observers’ and experiments, not experimenters, were the centre of interest.” (Turner, 1973, p.181) This is one of the reasons why the impersonal style is implied by authors of scientific works. The impersonality is emphasized by the use of passive constructions and frequent use of verbs as suppose, assume, conclude, point out and others. Another indicator of impersonality is an extensive use of abstract nouns that are formed from adjectives or verbs. Since language of science concentrates on facts therefore it must be unemotianal, objective, factual.
It should be pointed out that there are used so called supra-phrasal units, that is units larger than a sentence, in all the types of functional styles. For instance, a paragraph may serve as an example of such supra-phrasal unit. “A paragraph is a graphical term used to name a group of sentences marked off by indentation at the beginning and a break in the line at the end.” (Galperin, 1981, p.198) There are different requirements for the usage of the paragraph in different functional styles.
The paragraph, as a linguistic category, can be charecterized by the use of
purely linguistic means as intonation, pauses, semantic ties, etc. When the paragraph is built on logical principles, it is used as a logical category and so there must be coherence and unity of ideas expressed. This is the case with the scientific prose style as it is noticeable from the beginning of this chapter. The paragraph in the scientific prose style usually has a topic sentence that indicates the main ideas within the paragraph.
Moreover, the scientific prose style could also be found in other functional styles and their substyles. At this point it should be stated that there is some transformation of the style of scientific prose as it is used for special purposes wanted to be achieved in another functional style. Therefore it is possible to use scientific language in belles-lettres style or in other functional styles.
From the chart in the chapter 3.2.1 Functional styles and from this chapter it is obvious that there are some features shared within more functional styles. For instance, logical sequence and connectivenes of utterances within paragraphs is important besides the scientific prose style also in the publicistic style. Or another example is the usage of non-emotinal words in both scientific prose style and the style of official documents.
4.2 Science
Many names representing particular branches of science have their origin in Latin or Greek as for instance philosophy, chemistry, biology, medicine and they together with many other worldwide known words form a group of international words.
This chapter deals with several fields of science that have been influenced by classical languages to a large extent, as it is already known that Latin and Greek have been important languages in the developing terminology of various sciences in the past and even today.
The charts in each chapter below contain quotations of Latin, Greek and English
phrases, bases and meanings from English Words from Greek and Latin in English Today by R.M. Krill (1990).
4.2.1 Medicine
One of the branches of science greatly influenced by classical languages is the field of medicine. The fact that modern medical terminology contains a great number of words of Latin and Greek origin is not surprising as many works dealing with medical subjects dated to ancient times have survived to this day.
Some medical examples denoting external body parts are presented in both Latin and Greek in the chart below.
Greek English base Latin English base Meaning
πρόσωπον prosop- faciēs faci- face
στόμα(τος) stom(at)- ōs, ōris or- mouth
χειλος ch(e)il- labium labi- lip
χείρ ch(e)ir- manus manu- hand
δάκτυλος dactyl- digitus digit- finger
κνήμη cnem- crūs, crūris crur- leg
γόνυ gon(y)- genu genu- knee
It is known that Latin universal technical names are given to specific medical
conditions or diseases in the field of medicine and therefore they are used all over the world. The following table presents several of such examples.
Latin phrase English phrase
anorexia nervōsa nervous loss of appetite
maculae albidae white spots
partus caesareus Cesarean birth
angīna pectoris pain of the chest
encephalītis neonātōrum brain inflammation of new-borns
4.2.2 Botany
Many classical terms are also found in the field of botany. Scientists were interested in plants and animals and their categorizing already in the antiquity. Since the 18th century Latin has become the basic language for assigning names to plants, animals and other subjects connected with botany thanks to scientist Carolus Linnaeus that followed Aristotle’s scientific classifications made in Greek.
The following table presents several scientific binomial names of some specific trees and plants.
Latin name English name
Aeschylus hippocastānum horse chestnut
Citrus sineenis orange
Liriodendron tulipfera tulip tree
Mālus pumila apple
Abiēs balsamea balsam fir
Pīnus resinōsa red pine
Cholorophytum comōsum spider plant
Begonia semperflōrēns wax begonia
Gladiōlus psittacinus gladiola
Narcissus incomparābilis daffodil
4.2.3 Zoology
As there were developed several divisions of plants and trees in the field of botany, scientists established several classifications of animals and their related topics also in the field of zoology. Today all animals, from the smallest to the largest one, are identified with its binomial Latin names.
The table below contains several examples of simple Latin names as well as scientific binomial terms denoting animals.
Latin name English name
aquila eagle
canis dog
tīgris tiger
ursus, ursa bear
Equus caballus domestic horse
Ailuropoda melanoleuca giant panda
Delphīnus delphis common dolphin
4.2.4 Astronomy
Modern technologies used today did not exist in ancient times and so several speculations and theories about the Earth and universe were established by a number of scientists and philosphers. Already “the Egyptians and Babylonians were quite active in the study of the stars.” (Krill, 1990, p.229)
All planets’names of the solar system have their origin in classical languages in that they were named after Greek or Roman gods as can be seen below.
English name Latin
Venus Venus, Veneris
Roman god of love and beauty
Mars Mars, Martis
Roman god of war
Uranus Uranus
Greek sky god, personification of “heaven”
Pluto Pluto
Roman god of the underworld
Moreover terms denoting signs of the zodiac for instance Leo, Aries, Scorpius, Taurus have their origin in classical languages as well as names of constellations and stars such as e.g. Aquila, Cassiopeia, Draco, Orion, Pegasus, Vulpecula.
4.2.5 Pharmaceutics and Chemistry
“Just as thousands of words unique to medicine and other sciences have entered the English language from Greek and Latin, so also is the case with chemistry and pharmacy.” (Krill, 1990, p.234)
Symbols denoting chemical elements are derived not from English but from their Latin names as it is obvious from the following chart.
Latin Abbreviation English
argentum Ag silver
ferrum Fe iron
hydrargyrum Hg mercury
plumbum Pb lead
stannum Sn tin
5. Interference of Greek and Latin in the field of history
Each language is a great and complex system and so it is studied from variuos angles by many linguistic sciences. These branches of science help people to understand a lot of possible questions about languages as for e.g. why there exist so many languages in the world, how they are related or why some words we use in one language are similar or even the same in the other one. Similarly, this work might help see the richness of the English vocabulary in that various languages have influenced each other to such an extent that even sometimes it is impossible to specify the origin of a particular word.
As noted earlier words of classical origin can be found in various fields within the English language so the field of history is not an exception to this fact. The very term history that is used in various senses and contexts has its origin in Greek. What does this word suggest? The statement that the history can be understood as a chain of events might be sufficient enough. The history is present in books, magazines, media and so it has become a part of the everyday human life, althought it might happen unconsciously. Also the fact that modern people know more about the past than ever before is undisputed. Within a minute we can see or learn about something that in fact lasted for several hundred years. We can witness the great transformation from the first civilisations, through wars, revolutions, economic, cultural, political changes and life to a modern man.
People retain their past in the form of memoirs, experiences, photographs, letters, various objects important for them. Alike the history of religion, nations, cultures, customs, science etc. has retained in different forms. For instance, there remained scarce books about history of almost everything through the use of “written word”.
5.1 The investigation
Practical part of this work consists in finding out the foreign nature of English words. This is also the major task of the linguistic science called Etymology that studies the origin of words. The English book of history The Western Experience served as a material for the exploration of classical origin of English words in this field.
We may distinguish the following historical periods:
Primeval Ages - 3000 B.C.
Antiquity 3000 B.C. - 500
Middle Ages 500 - 1492
Modern Times 1492 - 1918
Recent Epoch 1918 -
It must be said that words of classical origin occur in large numbers in English. For the reason that this work is limited and there is not enough space for all such words that occur in the above mention book, the list of words presented in the appendix 4. contains words of Latin and Greek origin from the period of Antiquity only. Words found in the appendix 4. are presented in their basic form but for illustration their derivations can be seen in the chapters below within the morphological aspect. The appendix 4. is available on CD-ROM that is attached to this work.
As words of Latin or Greek origin occur in all the historical periods the following lines show several examples of words found in other four periods:
Primeval Ages
abandon Latin (bannum) proclamation
calendar Latin (calendae) first day of the month
domesticate Latin (domus) house
excercise Latin (arcere) to restrain
fashion Latin (facere) to make
gorilla Greek (gorillai) name given to wild, hairy people
Homo erectus Latin (Hom rctus) upright man
Homo sapiens Latin (Hom sapins) wise man
irrigate Latin (irrigare) to water
mathematics Greek (manthanein) to learn
territory Latin (terra) earth, land
valid Latin (valere) be strong
Middle Ages
aggressive Latin (aggredi) to approach, attack
Byzantine Latin (Byzantinus) art style, later in reference to the
complex, devious, and intriguing character of the royal court of Constantinople
discussion Latin (discutere) dash to pieces
effect Latin (efficere) work out, accomplish
farmer Latin (firmus) firm
period Greek (periodos) cycle, circuit, period of time
philosopher Greek (philosophia) love of knowledge, wisdom
protect Latin (protectus) protect, cover in front
qualification Latin (qualificare) attribute a quality to
rule Latin (regula) straight stick, standard
sacred Latin (sacrre) sacred
theme Greek (tithenai) put down, place
Modern Times
activity Latin (agere) to do, set in motion, drive, urge, chase
colonist Latin (colere) to inhabit, cultivate, frequent, practice
change Latin (cambire) exchange
expertise Latin (experiri) try out
impact Latin (impactus) to push against, to push into, dash against
missionary Latin (mittere) to send
monarch Greek (monarkhia) absolute rule, ruling of one
occupant Latin (occupationem) a taking possession, business
product Latin (productus) something produced
rival Latin (rivalis) a rival
superstition Latin (superstitionem) prophecy, soothsaying, excessive fear of the gods
traditionally Latin (traditus) deliver, hand over
Recent Epoch
appeal Latin (appellare) to accost, address, appeal to, summon, name
balance Latin (bilanx) scale, having two pans
chapter Latin (caput) head
decade Greek (dekas) group of ten
destruction Latin (destruere) tear down
figure Latin (fingere) make, shape
legal Latin (lex) law
million Latin (mille) thousand
minister Latin (ministeri) servant, priest's assistant
rapidly Latin (rapidus) hasty, snatching
reform Latin (reformare) to form again, change, alter
summary Latin (summa) whole, gist
5.1.2 Words from the period of Antiquity
The following five chapters are arranged according to the approach that is used for the analysis of words of the classical origin belonging to the period of Antiquity. There is a sample of English words of Latin or Greek origin present in each chapter.
5.1.2.1 Semantic aspect
Each word has its own one or more meanings althought there are some words in English that denote similar or even the same things. Words used in any language can be classified into various semantic fields according to their meaning and relationship among objects they represent e.g. bread, butter, wine can be classified under the semantic field named food. Consequently the first classification of words applied is according to the semantics of words. Words of classical origin from the period of Antiquity are placed into several semantic groups, which names are related to human life and interest at those times (art, education, government, religion, science). It must also be stated that many of words are hard to classify and therefore they are placed among general words. And on the other hand several words may belong to more than only one semantic field.
Words sharing common features are divided into the following semantic fields:
1. art
architecture, bust, collonnade, comedy, drama, inspiration, museum, picture, portray, prologue, style, talent, theme
2. a change of status (words denoting a change of status)
collapse, conquer, consolidate, desert, destruction, enlarge, enclose, expanded, explosion, intrusion, locate, modify
3. education
alphabet, Aristotle, cuneiform, diameter, docile, Horace, language, letter, pi (π), scholar, Socrates
4. general words and words hard to classify
attempt, condition, control, decision, estimate, exclusive, included, level, movement, normal, preserve, severe, sudden, transmit
5. geographical names and objects
Athens, Babylon, delta, Egypt, lake, Macedonia, Mediterranean, Mesopotamia, mountain, Orient, Re, river, valley
6. government
administration, court, dynasty, empire, govern, judgement, legal, military, occupation, official, politics, province, reign, rule, state
7. land
agriculture, area, country, farming, grain, nature, province, region, street, territory, terrace
8. man’s products
bust, channel, chant, compass, discovery, fable, invention, monument, pyramid, sphinx, survey, stele, story, tower, villa
9. metals and currency
bronze, coin, copper, drachma, florin, metal
10. names of people or gods
Achilles, Antigone, Aphrodite, Aristotle, Cleopatra, Epicurus, Horace, Lucius, Julius, Pericles, Pindar, Socrates, Themistocles
11. numbers, measures and words connected with them
dual, dozen, inch, million, mile, meter, unique
12. words denoting people
citizen, collector, commoner, creator, Egyptian, expert, genius, historian, human, invander, judge, slave, Macedonian, mother, noble, parent, Roman
13. qualities and features
beauty, character, feature, fertility, honor, identical, immense, original, parallel, particular, patience, permanent, primitive, principal, special
14. relations
adultery, commitment, compete, discussion, dispute, divorce, enemy, incest, jealous, offend, rivalry
15. religion
creation, Christian, demon, divine, miracle, monotheism, Nike, pray, resurrection, salvation, spirit, temple, Venus
16. science
astrology, calendar, cure, diagnosis, diameter, geography, germ, mathematics, medicine, mythology, planet, suffix, surgery, symptom, theory, Venus
17. words denoting “something written” or “someone who writes”
almanac, biography, catalog, chapter, chronicle, document, epigram, scribe, script, sign, testament, text
18. time
almanac, chapter, chronicle, date, era, future, interval, Lunar, millenium, minute, November, Paleolithic, period
5.1.2.2 Morphological aspect
Words found in the period of Antiquity belong to various word classes. As it was stated earlier there is only the basic form of words applied in the appendix 4. and so this chapter provides a list of words that are derived from them.
According to Yule (1985, p. 60) we disthinguish the following types of morphemes:
free morphemes
• ordinary words
bound morphemes
• derivational
New words are produced by means of affixation and therefore often belong to a different word class as the word they were derived from.
• inflectional
These morphemes indicate aspects of the grammatical function of words (singular, plural, comparative, past tense and so on.)
It is worth to say that there occurs the past form of the verbs very frequently, but it is not surprising as the investigation was made in the field of history and verbs denote things that had happened in the past. The similar case is with the singular and plural form of nouns.
Several examples are chosen for the illustration of all the forms of particular basic words that can be found in the period of Antiquity. This fact is obvious from the lines below.
Basic word Derivational Inflectional
morphemes morphemes
change exchange (ex)changes, (ex)changed,
(ex)changing
Christ Christian(ity), christen Christians
connect interconnected, connection connected, connections
constant constantly, constancy
defeat defeater, defeation, defeating, defeated, defeats
defeated defeations
Hellene Hellenistic, (Pan)Hellenic Hellenes
individual individuality, individualism individuals, individualities
individualized, individually,
individualist(ic,ally)
loyal (dis)loyalty, loyally, loyalties
loyalist
military militarism, militarily, militia
militarization, militarist(ic),
militarized
rival rivalry, unrivalled rivals, rivalling, rivalled
slave slavery, enslave(ment) slaves
tyranny tyrannical(ly), tyrannized, tyrants
tyrannize, tyrant
5.1.2.3 Shift of meaning
Sometimes the meaning of words has remained the same from the past to the present days and sometimes it has been changed completely. It is also the case with the investigated words from the period of Antiquity. This chapter provides a couple of words of classical origin for the illustration of both above mentioned possibilities. From appendix 4. it is obvious that more words of classical origin remained their original meanings to the present. Even some words used in English today do not mean exactly the same as the words they are derived from, but their new meaning is connected with their primary one logically, for example the English word advice meant in my view in Latin.
Words with unchanged meaning:
ability Latin (habilis) easy to manage, handy
complete Latin (completus) fill
doubt Latin (dubitare) hesitate, waver in opinion
fidelity Latin (fidelitatem) faithfulness, adherence
Greek Greek (Grakoi) a Greek
import Latin (importare) bring in, convey
olive Greek (elaia) olive
paradox Greek (paradoxos) contrary to opinion
senior Latin (senior) older
theory Greek (theoria) contemplation, theory
Words with changed meaning:
adorn Latin (ordo) order
amateur Latin (amatorem) lover
calendar Latin (calendae) first day of the month
era Latin (aes) copper, money, bronze coin
falcon Latin (falx) sickle
place Greek (plateia) broad
prestige Latin (præstigiæ) juggler's tricks
problem Greek (proballein) propose
strategy Greek (stratos) multitude, army, expedition, that which is spread out
temenos Greek (temenos) to cut
The following graph shows percentual presentation of English words that retained their original Greek or Latin meaning to the present and on the other hand words used in a completely different sense as the classical words they are derived from.
[pic]
Fig. 1. Shift of meaning of English words
5.1.2.4 Lexicological aspect
This chapter provides another point of view on words of classical origin. As it can be seen in the appendix 4. there exist several English words that have their origin in the same Latin or Greek word. The sample of words in the following table shows that some English words derived from the same classical word denote completely different things today. It should be stated this chapter does not concentrate on morphemes of derivated English words.
The table below presents both the classical word and its meaning and English words derived from the particular classical base (right column).
the classical word meaning example of the English word
caput head capital
chapter
chief
civis townsman city
civilization
finis end final
financial
fine
nasci be born nation
nature
ordo order adorn
ordain
order
ordinary
stare to stand constant
contrast
stage
state
tribus one of the three political/
ethnic divisions of the tribe
original Roman state tribute
unus one unique
unit
videre to see envy
evident
revise
villa country house villa
villein
The major part of the graph below presents English words that are derived from the common classical base. It means that there must be at least two English words that are derived from the same Greek or Latin base. The other part of the graph is created by such English words when there is only one English word derived from one classical word.
[pic]
Fig. 2. Common classical origin of English words
5.1.2.5 Etymological aspect
Words of classical origin did not appear all at the same time in the English language and consequently the last approach consists in the grouping of words according to the time words of Latin and Greek origin appeared and started to be used in the English language. It should be stated that majority of words of classical origin belonging to the period of Antiquity appeared in English in the period from the 11th to the 19th century.
The lines below contain examples of such words that are arranged uplink according to centuries.
13th century: year
capital 1225 Latin ( caput) head
mayor 1297 Latin (major) large, great
14th century:
Babylon 1362 Greek (Bab-ilani) the gate of the gods
genius 1390 Latin (gignere) beget, produce
prologue 1300 Greek (prologos) prologue of a play, speaker of a
prologue
15th century:
column 1440 Latin (columna) pillar, top, summit
dynasty 1460 Greek (dynasthai) be able to have power
succumb 1489 Latin (succumbere) submit, sink down, lie under
16th century:
anarchy 1539 Greek (anarkhia) lack of a leader
collect 1573 Latin (collectus) gather together 1573
17th century:
compete 1620 Latin (competere) strive in common, to come
together, agree
series 1611 Latin (serere) to join, link, bind together, put
5.2 Interpretation of particular results
This chapter provides three interpretations of the words of classical origin. Each point of view is accompanied by a particular graph for illustration.
The first analysis of words was made according to the ten pages chosen randomly from the period of Antiquity. A further investigation showed that from all the words covering the ten pages (3500) there is 2048 words of classical origin. In percentual formulation it is 59 % that present words of Latin and Greek origin and 41% representing words of other than the classical origin. The graphical illustration can be seen in the graph below.
[pic]
Fig. 3. Amount of English words of classical origin according to the above mentioned statistics
Later statistics was applied according to whether words of classical origin found earlier were of Greek or Latin origin. It was found out that from all the words of classical origin (2048) there are 311 words, that is 15% of Greek and the rest, that is 1737 (85%) of Latin origin. This fact can be observed in the following graph.
[pic]
Fig. 4. The proportion between the English words of Latin and Greek origin according to the above mentioned statistics
As all the words of classical origin belonging to the period of Antiquity are present in the appendix 4., consequently the last graph illustrates the proportion between the words of Latin and Greek origin applied in the above mentioned historical period.
[pic]
Fig. 5. The proportion between the English words of Latin and Greek origin according to appendix 4.
.
Conclusion
English belongs to the most widely used languages. This fact is not surprising as the English language is the native language of such great nations as USA or Great Britain. In the past English has been in contact with various languages but as the most influential are considered classical languages i.e. Latin and Greek.
This work proves that the interference of Greek and Latin on the English language has been enormous. Because we want to show that classical languages have already been extending the Eglish vocabulary from the times of Old English, the work starts with the brief description of the English language development. For illustration, words of classical origin that penetrated into the English language in particular historical periods are presented in each subchapter. As Latin and Greek are not the only languages that helped the English vocabulary to expand there are also mentioned other main influential languages.
The following second chapter deals with Greek and Latin in more detail. A list of Greek and Latin affixes is presented as they are used frequently in everyday English. Similarly a lot of English words consists of classical roots representing numerals and so examples of such English words together with classical numerals and bases are applied in this chapter. Moreover, there can be observed examples of Latin abbreviations as they are known and used quite frequently in English. One subchapter is devoted to Greek and Latin religion as we always come across allusions about faith of people and mythology in the field of history.
The next third chapter pays attention to the structure of the English vocabulary. The main concern of this chapter is to show the possible distinction between two lexical units i.e. words and terms.
The last chapter of the theoretical part concentrates on functional styles and their classification. The chart with functional styles together with their main features is presented. As the purpose of this work is the field of scientific prose style there is the special subchapter dealing with this type of functional style only. In that scientific prose style is the “language” of science there are chosen several fields of science and particular classical examples in the following subchapter.
The founding and consistent analysis of words of classical origin is the major interest of the practical part. Because of limitations for this work we chose words of Latin and Greek origin from the period of Antiquity. But for illustration there can be found several examples of words belonging to other historical periods. There are applied five approaches according to which the further analysis of words was made. Each approach is presented in the special subchapter.
At first words are placed according to their semantics into the eighteen semantic fields. As these words could also be used outside the group they are classified into it can be stated that such words of classical origin cover large areas of human interests and many of them are used in the everyday English.
The second approach provides several examples of words of Latin or Greek origin together with all their forms they occur in the period of Antiquity. The most frequent form of words is the past tense in that they describe historical events.
The following third aspect consists in classifying of English words according to whether their present meanings differ from their original one or not. The fact that more words have the same or similar meanings as the classical words they are derived from is obvious from the particular graph.
The major task of the fourth approach was the research of English words that have their origin in the same classical word. The number of such words is not very high as it is also evident from the appendix 4.
The next etymological point of view shows several examples of words of Latin and Greek origin together with the year they had occured in the English language.
From the following statistics it is obvious that words of classical origin cover a great number of English words. Moreover, there is a greater number of words of Latin origin than words of Greek origin in English. These facts can also be seen from particular graphs that accompany this subchapter.
This work may serve as a helpful material for further study of Latin and Greek within the English language. It could be a model for the investigation of classical words in other areas than the field of history. Moreover, both teachers and students might benefit from this work as they can enrich their English vocabulary. This work may also extend the knowledge teachers and students have about Greek and Latin and finally about English. Teachers could use the information given in the work during their lessons. Also students would better understand the meaning of English words if they are familiar with Latin and Greek affixes and bases.
Résumé
Anglický jazyk patrí k najpoužívanejším svetovým jazykom. Táto skutočnosť nie je prekvapujúca, keďže angličtina je materský jazyk takých mocných krajín ako USA alebo Veľká Británia. V minulosti sa anglický jazyk dostal do kontaktu s rôznymi inými jazykmi, z ktorých za najvplyvnejšie sa považujú dva antické jazyky t.j. latinčina a gréčtina.
Táto práca je dôkazom toho, že latinčina a gréčtina mala veľmi veľký vplyv na anglickú slovnú zásobu. Keďže antické jazyky ovplyvňovali slovnú zásobu anglického jazyka už v časoch Starej angličtiny, táto diplomová práca začína stručným historickým vývojom anglického jazyka. V každej podkapitole sú pre ilustráciu uvedené slová antického pôvodu, ktoré prenikali do angličtiny v jednotlivých obdobiach jej vývinu. Taktiež je tu zmienených niekoľko ďalších významných jazykov, ktoré mali vplyv na rozšírenie anglickej slovnej zásoby.
Nasledujúca druhá kapitola sa podrobnejšie zaoberá latinským a gréckym jazykom. Sú tu uvedené predpony a prípony antického pôvodu, vzhľadom k faktu, že sa bežne používajú v každodennej angličtine. Navyše, mnoho anglických slov je utvorených z antického základu reprezentujúceho slovný druh číslovky. Preto sa v tejto kapitole nachádzajú príklady takýchto anglických slov spolu s antickými číslovkami a slovnými základmi. Podobným prípadom sú latinské skratky, ktoré sú tiež známe a pomerne často vyskytujúce v angličtine. Keďže v oblasti histórie veľa krát narazíme na zmienky o mytológii a viere človeka, jednu podkapitolu sme venovali antickému náboženstvu.
V tretej kapitole sme sa zaoberali slovnou zásobou anglického jazyka a jej štruktúrou. Hlavným cieľom tejto kapitoly je poukázanie na prípadný rozdiel medzi dvomi lexikálnymi jednotkami t.j. slovami a termínmy.
Hlavnou problematikou poslednej kapitoly patriacej do teoretickej časti sú Funkčné jazykové štýly a ich klasifikácia. Jednotlivé jazykové štýly sú usporiadané do prehľadnej tabuľky, v ktorej sú naviac uvedené ich hlavné znaky. Keďže zámerom tejto diplomovej práce je výskum v oblasti vedecko-odborného štýlu, jedna podkapitola sa zaoberá výlučne týmto funkčným štýlom. Je zrejmé, že vedecko-odborný štýl je hlavným “jazykovým prostriedkom” v oblasti vedy. Vzhľadom k tomuto faktu sa v tejto kapitole nachádadza niekoľko vedeckých disciplín, v rámci ktorých sú uvedene príklady latinských a gréckych slov.
Praktická časť tejto práce pozostávala z vyhľadávania a následnej analýzy slov antického pôvodu. Keďže je táto práca obmedzená počtom strán, zamerali sme sa na slová latinského a gréckeho pôvodu patriace do obdobia Staroveku. Pre ilustráciu sme uviedli aj príklady slov antického pôvodu z iných historických období. Na analýzu jednotlivých slov sme použili päť metód, z ktorých každá zodpovedá osobitnej kapitole.
Nájdené slová sme najprv rozdelili podľa ich významu do osemnástich sémantických polí. Keďže roztriedené slová môžu byť použité aj mimo skupiny do ktorej boli zaradené, prišli sme k záveru, že slová antického pôvodu pokrývajú širokú oblasť ľudskej činnosti a záujmov. Taktiež v každodennej angličtine je možné nájsť veľké množstvo slov latinského a gréckeho pôvodu.
Druhý prístup poskytuje vzorku slov antického pôvodu, ktoré sú uvedené v ich základnom tvare a tiež vo všetkých ďalších tvaroch v akých sa nachádzajú v období Staroveku. Najčastejšie používanou morfémou je minulý čas slovies, keďže sa odvolávajú na udalosti, ktoré sa odohrali v minulosti.
Nesledujúce hľadisko spočíva v roztriedení anglických slov podľa toho, či sa ich súčasný význam odlišuje od pôvodného. Z príslušného grafu je zrejmé, že väčšina anglických slov má v súčasnosti taký istý alebo podobný význam ako slová z ktorých sú odvodené.
Dominantnou úlohou štvrtej použitej metódy bolo vyhľadanie anglických slov, ktoré vznikli z rovnakého antického základu. Z prílohy 4. je evidentné, že počet týchto slov nie je veľmi vysoký.
Nasledovný etymologický aspekt poskytuje niekoľko príkladov slov latinského a gréckeho pôvodu zároveň s rokmi ich výskytu v anglickom jazyku.
Fakt, že angličtina má veľké množstvo slov antického pôvodu vyplýva z nasledovnej štatistiky. Z tejto kapitoly je zrejmé, že väčšina anglických slov má svoj pôvod v latinčine. Konkrétne výsledky výskumu sú znázornené graficky.
Táto diplomová práca môže poslúžiť ako pomocný materiál pre ďalšie štúdium latinčiny a gréčtiny v rámci anglického jazyka. Taktiež je možné použiť ju ako vzor pre výskum antických slov v iných oblastiach ako je oblasť histórie. Učitelia aj žiaci by mohli nájsť úžitok v tejto práci a obohatiť si svoju slovnú zásobu a tiež si rozšíriť svoje doterajšie vedemosti o latinčine a gréčtine a nakoniec aj o angličtine. Učitelia môžu používať informácie zahrnuté v práci počas svojich vyučovacích hodín a prednášok. Navyše, znalosť latinských a gréckych prípon, predpôn a základov by mohla pomôcť študentom k lepšiemu porozumeniu významu anglických slov.
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Appendix 1.
GREEK AFFIXES
Greek prefixes
Regural form Before vowel Meaning Example
amphi- amph- both, around amphitheatre,
amphibious
ana- an- back, again, up anaesthesia, analogue
apo- ap- from, off apologetic
cata- cat- down, against, very catadioptre
dia- di- through, across, diaglyph, diagonal,
between diameter, diaphragm
ec- ex- out, out of exaggerate, eccentric
en-, em-, el- en-, -em,-el in , into encapsulate,
enarthrum
endo-, ento- end-, ent- within endoscope
epi- ep- upon, to, epicolic,
in addition to epicentral
exo-, ecto- exo-, -ecto outside, external exodus, exorcise
para- par- beside, disordered parachromatopsia
peri- peri- around, near perimeter
pro- pro- before, in front of prognosis
pros- pros- toward, in addition to prostration
syn-, sym-, syl-, sy-, sys with, together, alike symbiosis, sympathy
Greek suffixes
Noun-forming suffixes
Suffix Meaning Example
-arch one who rules patriarch, monarch
-cracy rule by, type of government democracy
-crat one who advocates or practices rule by bureaucrat
-gram thing written autogram
-graph writing, instrument for writing barograph, autograph
-graphy writing, art or science of writing calligraphy
-ician specialist in, practitioner of physician, electrician
-ite one connected with, inhabitant of
(also used to denote chemicals, minerals..) anthracite
-ma, -m, -me result of dilemma, stigma
-mania madness about, passion for bibliomania,
pyromania
-maniac one having a madness or passion for kleptomaniac
-meter measure, instrument for measuring, photometer,
number of feet in poetry speedometer
-metry art or science of measuring geometry
-nomy science of, system of laws physiognomy
-phobia abnormal fear of homophobia,
pedophobia
- phobe one who fears or hates Anglophobe
-sis, -se, -sy, -sia act of, state of, result of synthesis, amnesia
-scope instrument for viewing, to view thermoscope,
rhinoscope
Appendix 2.
LATIN AFFIXES
Latin prefixes
Prefix Meaning Example
ad-, ac- to, toward adopt, admit, adhere
ambi- both, around ambient, ambiguity
ante- before, in front of antecedent, anteroom
con-, com-, co- with, together, very cooperate, cohabit
contra-, contro- against contrary, contradict
de- down, of, thoroughly deprecate, defrost
e-, ef-, ex- out, from, completely exacerbate, effective,
ex -wife
infra- below, beneath infralinear, infrapatellar
inter- between, among interaction, intercession
intra-, intro- within introduce, introvert
non- not noncomformity
ob-, oc- toward, against, completely obstruct, obdurability
per- through, wrongly, completely perambulate, perdition
pre- before, in front of preside, premature
pro- forward, in front of, for probation, prognosis
re-, red- back, again reactivate, realign
retro- backward, behind retrograde, retrospect
se-, sed- aside, away separate, secret
tra-, tran-, trans- across, through transcontinental
ultra beyond, exceedingly ultralight, ultraviolent
Latin suffixes
Adjective-forming suffixes
Suffix Meaning Example
-acious tending to, inclined to audacious
-an, -ane, -ian pertaining to, like, belonging to, Lutheran, optician,
having the character of suburban
-ar pertaining to, like, belonging to, triangular, popular,
having the character of spectacular
-ate possessing, being, characterized by passionate, affectionate
-ic, -tic pertaining to, like romantic , scenic, plastic
-id tending to, inclined to stupid, lurid
-il, -ile pertaining to, like, belonging to, sterile, fragile
having the character of senile
-ile able to be, able to, tending to reptile
-ine pertaining to, like, of feminine
-itious tending to, characterized by repetitious
-u(lent), -(o)lent full of, disposed to malevolent, turbulent
-ory tending to, serving for illusory, advisory
-ose, -iose full of verbose
-ulous tending to, inclined to tremulous
-ous tending to, inclined to conspicious, poisonous
Noun-forming suffixes
Suffix Meaning Example
-acity quality of being inclined to capacity
-acy quality or state of being or having adequacy, federacy
-i(mony) quality of , state of harmony
-(i)tude quality of, state of exactitude, latitude
-ity, -ety, -ty quality of, state of polarity, variety
-(u)lence, -(o)lence state or quality of being full of violence, turbulence
-men result of, means of, act of, state of specimen
-ory ,-orium place for laboratory, observatory
-rix she who does testatrix
-ure act of, result of pleasure, posture
-y quality of, state of, act of, result of affinity, sterility
Verb-forming suffixes
Suffix Meaning Example
-esce to begin, to become coalesce
-(i)fy, -(e)fy to make verify, specify, crucify
The diminutive suffix
In Latin a diminutive suffix was used to reflect smallness of an object.
Suffix Meaning Example
-cule, -(i)cle little folicule, clavicle
-el little vessel
-il(e) little chervil, codicil
-ol(e), -ule little capsule
Appendix 3.
THE ENGLISH VOCABULARY ACCORDING TO GALPERIN (1981, p.71)
[pic]
Appendix 4.
WORDS OF CLASSICAL ORIGIN BELONGING TO THE PERIOD OF ANTIQUITY (3200 B.C – 500)
abduct Latin (abducere) lead away
ability Latin (habilis) easy to manage, handy
abolish Latin (abolescere) to die out, decay little by little
abrupt Latin (abruptus) broken off, precipitous, disconnected
absent Latin (absentem) be away
absolute Latin (absolutus) to set free, make separate
absorb Latin (absorbere) to swallow up
absurd Latin (absurdus) out of tune, senseless
abstract Latin (abstrahere) to drag away
abundant Latin (abundantia) fullness
abyss Greek (abyssos) bottomless
acanthus Greek (akanthos ) flower with thorns
accept Latin (acceptare) take or receive willingly
accelerate Latin (accelerare) quicken
accident Latin (accidentum) happen, fall out
accompany Latin (companionem) bread fellow, messmate
accomplish Latin (accomplere) to fill up
account Latin (computare) calculate
accumulate Latin (accumulare) to heap up in a mass
acquisition Latin (acquirere) get in addition
accuracy Latin (accuratus) prepared with care, exact
acquiesce Latin (acquiescere) to have a rest
acquire Latin (aequirere) gain, profit
acropolis Greek (akropolis) citadel
act Latin (agere) to do
actual Latin (actualis) active
acute Latin (acutus) sharp, pointed
add Latin (addere) add to, join
address Latin (directus) straight, direct
adequate Latin (æquus) level, even, just
adjust Latin (adjuxtare) to bring near
administer Latin (administrare) serve, manage
admire Latin (admiratus) admire
adopt Latin (adoptare) to choose
adorn Latin (ordo) order
adult Latin (adultus) grow up, mature
adultery Latin (adulterare) to corrupt
advance Latin (abante) from before
adverse Latin (adversus) turned against, hostile
advice Latin (mi est visum) in my view
advocate Latin (advocatus) to call
aegis Greek (Aigis) the shield of Zeus or Athena
aesthete Greek (aisthanesthai) to perceive, to feel
affect Latin (affectre) to strive after, to affect, influence
affirm Latin (affirmare) to make steady, strengthen, corroborate
affront Latin (frons) forehead
age Latin (aevum) lifetime, period of life
agent Latin (agere) to do
aggression Latin (aggredi) to approach, attack
agora Greek (ageirein) to assemble
agriculture Latin (agri + cultura) cultivation of land
aim Latin (aestimare) appraise
alien Latin (alienus) of or belonging to another
allege Latin (allegare) to dispatch, cite
ally Latin (alligare) bind to
alluvial Latin (alluere) wash against
almanac Greek (almenichiakon) calendar
alphabet Greek (alphabetos) Greek alpha and beta
altar Latin (altare) burnt offerings
amateur Latin (amatorem) lover
ambiguity Latin (ambiguus) having double meaning, shifting, changeable, doubtful
ambition Latin (ambitus)to go around
amenity Latin (amoenus) pleasant
amnesty Greek (amnestia) oblivion
amount Latin (admontem) mountain
analogy Greek (analogia) proportion
analysis Greek (analyein) to break up
anarch Greek (anarkhia) lack of a leader
ancestor Latin (antecedere) precede
anchor Greek (ankyra) anchor, hook
ancient Latin (ante) before
angel Greek (angelos) messenger
annex Latin (annexare) to bind to
annihilate Latin (annihilare) to reduce to nothing
anonym Greek (anonymos) without a name
anthropomorphic Greek (anthropos) human being
antique Latin (antquus) former, ancient
anual Latin (annus) year
anxiety Latin (anxietatem) anger
apathy Greek (apathes) without feeling
apex Latin (apex) summit, peak, tip
apostle Greek (apostellein) send away, send forth
appeal Latin (appellare) to accost, address, appeal to, summon, name
appear Latin (apparere) to appear
appease Latin (pacem) peace
approach Latin (appropiare) go nearer
appropriate Latin (appropriatus) to make one's own
April Latin (Aprilis) (month) of Venus
aqueduct Latin (aquæductus) conveyance of water
arbitrary Latin (arbitrarius) witness, judge
arch Latin (arcus) a bow, arch
archeology Greek (archaiologia) archeology
Spodná časť formulára
archetype Greek (archetypos) archetypal
architect Latin (architectus) architect
archive Greek (arche) rule, government
archon Greek (arkhon) ruler
area Latin (area) flat piece of unoccupied land, open space
arena Latin (harena) place of combat
aristocracy Greek (aristokratia) government, rule of the best
arm Latin (armata) to arm, act of arming
arrogance Latin (arrogantem) assuming, overbearing, insolent
art Latin (ars) art
article Latin (artus) joint, limb
artifice Latin (artificium) of or belonging to art
ascetic Greek (askein) to exercise, train, to train for athletic competition, practice
aspect Latin (aspectus) seeing, looking, appearance
assemble Latin (assimulare) to make like, think like, to gather together
assert Latin (serere) join, connect
assess Latin (taxare) to evaluate, estimate
assign Latin (assignare) to mark out, to allot by sign
assist Latin (assistere) assist, stand by
associate Latin (associatus) join with
assume Latin (assumere) to take up
aster Latin (aster) star
astonish Latin (extonare) to thunder
astrology Greek (astrologia) telling of the stars
astronomy Greek (astronomia) arranging, regulating of stars
athlete Greek (athletes) contestant in the games
atmosphere Greek (atmosphaera) the air of a locality
atom Greek (atomos) uncut
atrium Latin (atrium) central court or main room of an ancient Roman house
atrocity Latin (atrocitatem) cruelty
attempt Latin (temptare) to try, test
attend Latin (attendere) give heed to, to stretch toward
attention Latin (attentus) to heed
attitude Latin (aptitudinem) fit
attract Latin (trahere) to draw, pull
attribute Latin (attributus) assign to
audacity Latin (audacis) brave
audience Latin (audire) to hear
audit Latin (audire) to hear
aura Greek (aura) breath, breeze
austere Greek (austeros) bitter, harsh
authentic Greek (authentes) one acting on one's own authority
author Latin (auctor) enlarger, founder
authority Latin (auctor) enlarger, founder
autocracy Greek (autokrates) ruling by oneself
automatic Greek (automatos) self-acting
autonomy Greek (autonomos) independent, living by one's own laws
avenge Latin (vindicare) to claim, avenge, punish
axis Latin (axis) axle, pivot, axis of the earth or sky
balance Latin (bilanx) scale, having two pans
bankrupt Latin (rupta) to break
baptize Greek (baptizein) to immerse
barbar Greek (barbaros) foreign, strange, ignorant
barber Latin (barba) beard
barrage Latin (barra) bar, barrier
base Latin (bassus) thick, stumpy, low
beast Latin (bestia) wild creature
beauty Latin (bellus) fine, beautiful
benefactor Latin (benefactum) good deed
benefit Latin (benefactum) good deed
besiege Latin (sedere) sit
bias Greek (epikarsios) slanting, oblique
bible Greek (biblion) paper, scroll, the ordinary word for book
bill Latin (bulla) decree, seal, document, amulet for the neck
biography Greek (biographia) biograhpy
biology Greek (biologia) study of life
bishop Greek (episkopos) watcher, overseer
blasphemy Greek (blasphemein) to speak evil of
bound Latin (bodina) boundary, boundary marker
branch Latin (branca) a claw, paw
brave Latin (pravus) crooked, depraved
brilliant Latin (berillus) beryl, precious stone
bronze Latin (bronzium) bronze
brute Latin (brutus) heavy, dull, stupid
bucolic Greek (boukolos) herdsman
burlesque Latin (burra) trifle, nonsense, flock of wool
bust Latin (bustum) funeral monument, tomb, funeral pyre
calamity Latin (calamitatem) damage, disaster, adversity
calculate Latin (calculus) reckoning, account, pebble used in counting
calendar Latin (calendae) first day of the month
camera Greek (kamara) vaulted chamber
camp Latin (campus) open field
campaign Latin (campus) a field
canal Latin (canna) reed
cancel Latin (cancelli) grating, lattice
candidate Latin (candidatus) white-robed
canon Greek (kanon) rule
capacity Latin (capere) to take
capital Latin ( caput) head
captive Latin (captus) to take, hold, seize
capture Latin (captus) to take, hold, seize
career Latin (carrus) chariot, car
cartography Latin+ Greek (carta graphein) cartography
castrate Latin (castrationem) to castrate, prune
catacomb Latin (catacumbae) the region of underground tombs
catalog Greek (katalogos) a list, register
catastrophe Greek (katastrephein) to overturn
catholic Greek (katholikos) universal, general
cause Latin (causa) a cause, reason, judicial process, lawsuit
cavalry Latin (caballus) horse
cede Latin (cedere) to yield, to go, leave
celebrate Latin (celebratus) to frequent in great numbers, assemble to honor
celibacy Latin (cælebs) unmarried
cell Latin (cella) small room, hut
cemetery Greek (koiman) to put to sleep
census Latin (censere) to appraise, value, judge
center Greek (kentein) to prick
century Latin (centum) hundred
ceremony Latin (cærimonia) awe, reverent rite
certain Latin (certus) determined, decide
chain Latin (catena) chain
challenge Latin (calumnia) trickery
chamber Latin (camera) a chamber, room
champion Latin (campus) field (of combat)
chance Latin (cadentem) to fall
change Latin (cambire) exchange
channel Latin (canalis) groove, channel, waterpipe
chant Latin (canere) sing
chaos Greek (khaos) abyss, that which gapes wide open, is vast and empty
chapter Latin (caput) head
character Greek (kharax) pointed stake
chariot Latin (carrum) chariot
charisma Greek (charis) grace, beauty, kindness
charm Latin (canere) to sing
chaste Latin (castus) pure, chaste
cheap Latin (caupo) petty tradesman, huckster
chief Latin (caput) head
chisel Latin (caesellum) to cut
chivalry [pic] Latin (caballus) a horse
choir Latin (chorus) choir
choral Latin (chorus) choir
chronicle Greek (chronika, biblia) (books of) annals
chronology Greek (chronlogy) chronology
church Greek (kyrios) ruler, lord
circle Latin (circulus) small ring
circuit Latin (circuitus) a going around
circulate Latin (circulare) to form a circle
circumstance Latin (circumstare) stand around
circus Greek (kirkos) a circle
citadel Latin (civis) townsman
city Latin (civis) townsman
civivilian Latin (civis) townsman
claim Latin (clamare) to cry out, shout
clan Latin (planta) offshoot
class Latin (classis) political class
clause Latin (clausula) a closing, termination
clergy Greek (kleros) lot, inheritance
client Latin (cliens) follower, retainer
climate Greek (klinein) to slope, slope of the Earth from equator to pole
climax Greek (klinein) to slope
clinic Greek (klinikos) of the bed
close Latin (claudere) to close, block up, put an end to, enclose, confine
coalition Latin (coalitus) fellowship
coast Latin (costa) a rib
code Latin (caudex) trunk of a tree, block of wood, book, set of statutes
coerce Latin (coercere) to control, restrain
coherent Latin (cohærentem) cohere
coin Latin (cuneus) a wedge
coincide Latin (coincidere) to fall upon
coliseum Latin (colosseum) amphitheater of Vespasian at Rome
collaborate Latin (collaborare) work with
collapse Latin (collapsus) fall together
collateral Latin (collateralis) accompanying, side by side
collect Latin (collectus) gather together
collision Latin (collidere) strike together
colonnade Latin (columna) pillar
colony Latin (colere) to inhabit, cultivate, frequent, practice, tend, guard, respect
color Latin (colos) a covering, conceal
colossal Greek (kolossos) giant
column Latin (columna) pillar, top, summit
combat Latin (combattere) to beat, fight
combine Latin (combinatio) joining
comedy Greek (komodios) singer in the revels
comfort Latin (confortare) to strengthen much
command Latin (commendare) to recommend
commemorate Latin (commemorare) to call to mind
comment Latin (comminisci) to contrive, devise
commerce Latin (commercium) trade, trafficking
commission Latin (commissionem) delegation of business
commit Latin (committere) person to whom something is committed
commodity Latin (commoditatems) fitness, adaptation
common Latin (communis) in common, public, general, shared by all or many
communicate Latin (communis) in common, public, general, shared by all or many
company Latin (companio) bread fellow, messmate
comparative Latin (comparare) make equal with, liken
comparison Latin (comparare) make equal with, liken
compass Latin (compassare) to pace out
compassion Latin (compati) to feel pity
compel Latin (compellere) to drive together
compensate Latin (compensare) to weigh one thing (against another)
compete Latin (competere) strive in common, to come together, agree
compilation Latin (compilare) to snatch together, plunder, heap
complete Latin (completus) fill
complex Latin (plectere) to plait
component Latin (componere) to put together
composite Latin (compositus) to put together
compose Latin (pausare) to cease, lay down
comprise Latin (comprehendere) contain, involve
compromise Latin (compromissus) to make a mutual promise
compulsion Latin (compellere) compel
compute Latin (computare) to count, sum up
comrade Greek (kamara) vaulted chamber
concentrate Latin (centrum) centre
concept Latin (concipere) to take in
concern Latin (concernere) to sift, mix, as in a sieve
conclude Latin (concludere) to shut up, enclose
concrete Latin (concrescere) to grow together
concubine Latin (concubina) to lie with
condition Latin (condicionem) agreement, situation
conduct Latin (conductus) to lead or bring together
confederate Latin (confoederatus) to unite by a league
confer Latin (conferre) to bring together, compare
confess Latin (confessus) to acknowledge
confidence Latin (confidentem) to trust
confiscate Latin (confiscare) confiscate
conflict Latin (conflictus) to strike together
confront Latin (confrontare) assign limits, adjoin
confuse Latin (confundere) to pour together, to confuse
congenial Latin (comgenialis) agreeable
congregate Latin (congregare) to herd together
conglomerate Latin (conglomeratus) to roll together, a ball
connect Latin (connectere) to fasten together
conquer Latin (quaerere) seek
conscience Latin (conscientia) knowledge within oneself, a moral sense
consequence Latin (consequentem) to follow after
consider Latin (considerare) to observe, think about
consist Latin (consistere) to stand firm
consolidate Latin (consolidare) to make solid
constant Latin (stare) to stand
constitution Latin (constitutus) to fix, establish
construct Latin (construere) pile up together, build
consult Latin (consulere) to deliberate, take counsel
consume Latin (consumptionem) a using up, wasting
contact Latin (contactus) a touching
contemporary Latin (contemporarius) with time
contempt Latin (contemptus) scorn
contend Latin (contendere) to stretch out, strive after
contest Latin (contestari) to call to witness, bring action
context Latin (contextus) a joining together
continent Latin (continentem) hold together
continue Latin (continuus) uninterrupted
contradict Latin (contradicere) speak against
contrast Latin (contrastare) to withstand
contribute Latin (contribuere) bring in together, to grant
control Latin(contrarotulare) check against a duplicate register
controversy Latin (controversus) disputed, turned against
convene Latin (convenire) unite, be suitable, agree
convention Latin (convenire) come together
conversate Latin (conversationem) act of living with
convert Latin (convertere) turn around, transform
convey Latin (conviare) to accompany on the way
convict Latin (convictus) life togehter
copper Greek (Kupros) Cyprus
copy Latin (copia) plenty, means
core Latin (cor) heart
corporate Latin (corpus) body
corpus Latin (corpus) body
correct Latin (corrigere) make straight, put right
correspond Latin (correspondere) correspond
corrupt Latin (corruptus) to destroy, spoil, bribe
cosmopolitan Greek (kosmopolites) citizen of the world
cosmos Greek (kosmos) orderly arrangement
council Latin (concilium) group of people, meeting
counsel Latin (consilium) plan, opinion
country Latin (contra) opposite
courage Latin (cor) heart, which remains a common metaphor for inner strength
course Latin (cursus) a running race or course
court Latin (cortem) enclosed space
courtesan Latin (cortem) enclosed space
covenant Latin (convenire) come together
create Latin (creare) bring forth, make, produce
creature Latin (creatura) thing created
credible Latin (credibilis) that can be believed
credit Latin (credere) entrust, believe
creed Latin (credo) to believe, heart to put
crime Latin (cernere) to decide, to sift
crisis Greek (krinein) to separate, decide, judge
criterion Greek (krinein) to separate, decide, judge
critic Greek (krinein) to separate, decide, judge
cross Latin (crux) cross
crown Latin (corona) crown, wreath, garland
crucial Latin (crux) cross
crucify Latin (crucifigere) to fasten to a cross
crude Latin (crudus) raw, rough
cruel Latin (crudelis) cruel
cubicle Latin (cubare) to lie down, bend oneself
cult Latin (cultus) care, cultivation, worship
cultivate Latin (cultus) care, cultivation, worship, tended, cultivated
culture Latin (colere) inhabit, cultivate
cuneiform Latin (cuneus) wedge
cure Latin (cura) care, concern, trouble
currency Latin (currentum) to run
cursive Latin (cursus) a running
custom Latin (suescere) become accustomed
cycle Greek (kyklos) circle, wheel
cylinder Greek (kylindein) to roll
cynic Greek (kynikos) dog-like
dagger Latin (daca) Dacian knife
danger Latin (dominus) lord, master
date Greek (daktylos) date, finger, toe
deacon Greek (diakonos) servant of the church, religious official
debt Latin (debere) owe
decade Greek (dekas) group of ten
decapitate Latin (decapitatus) cut off a head
decease Latin (decessus) death, departure
December Latin (decem) ten
decision Latin (decisionem) decision, agreement
declare Latin (declarare) make clear
decline Latin (declinare) to bend from, inflect
decorate Latin (decus) an ornament
decree Latin (decretum) to decree, decide, pronounce a decision
deduce Latin (ducere) to lead
defeat Latin (diffacere) undo, destroy
defect Latin (deficere) to fail, desert
define Latin (definire) to limit, determine, explain
degree Latin (degredare) to step
deliberate Latin (deliberare) to consider carefully
delicate Latin (delicatus) alluring, delightful, dainty, addicted to pleasure
delta Greek (daleth) tent door
demagogue Greek (demagogos) leader of the people
demand Latin (demandare) entrust, charge with a commission
deme Greek (demos) people, land
democracy Greek (demokratia) rule for common people
demon Greek. (daimon) lesser god, guiding spirit, tutelary deity
demonstrate Latin (demonstrare) to point out, show
depart Latin (departire) divide
depend Latin (dependere) hang down
depict Latin (depictus) to paint down
deposit Latin (deponere) lay aside, put down, deposit
depress Latin (deprimere) press down
descend Latin (descendere) to climb down
description Latin (describere) write down, transcribe, copy, sketch
desert Latin (deserere) forsake, to abandon
designate Latin (designare) mark out, devise
despot Greek (despotes) master of a household, lord, absolute ruler
destiny Latin (destinare) make firm, establish
destroy Latin (destruere) undo results of building
destruction Latin (destruere) tear down
detect Latin (detectus) uncover, disclose
determine Latin (determinare) set limits to
devastate Latin (devastare) lay waste completely
device Latin (divisus) to divide
devil Greek (diabolos) accuser, slanderer
devote Latin (devotionem) dedicate by a vow
diadem Greek (diadein) to bind across
diagnosis Greek (diagignoskein) discern, distinguish
diagonal Greek (diagonios) from angle to angle
dialect Greek (dialegesthai) converse with each other
dialogue Greek (dialogos) speak across
diameter Greek (diametros) diagonal of a circle
diaspora Greek (diaspeirein) to scatter about, disperse
dictate Latin (dictare) say often, prescribe
different Latin (differre) distinguish from
difficult Latin (difficilis) not easy
diffuse Latin (diffundere) scatter, pour out
digest Latin (digerere) to separate, divide, arrange
dignity Latin (dignus) worthy, proper, fitting
dilemma Greek (dilemma) double proposition
diligent Latin (diligere) value highly, love, choose
dimension Latin (dimetri) to measure out
diploma Latin (diploma) official document conferring a privilege
direct Latin (directus) straight
disaster Greek (dis- + astron) away, without stars
discipline Latin (disciplina) instruction given to a disciple
discover Latin (discooperire) uncover
discrete Latin (discernere) to separate, distinguish
discuss Latin (discutere) dash to pieces
disk Greek (dikein) throw
dismember Latin (membrum) limb, member of the body, part
disparity Latin (disparitatem) inequality
disperse Latin (dispergere) to disperse
display Latin (displicare) to scatter
dispute Latin (disputare) to discuss
disrupt Latin (disrumpere) break apart, split
distant Latin (distantem) standing apart, separate, distant
distinct Latin (distinguere) define, orientate
distort Latin (distorquere) to twist different ways, distort
distribute Latin (distribuere) deal out in portions
disturb Latin (disturbare) throw into disorder
diverse Latin (diversus) different in character or quality
divine Latin (divus) god
division Latin (dividere) to divide
divorce Latin (divertere) to separate, leave one's husband, turn aside
docile Latin (docere) teach
doctrine Latin (doctor) teacher
document Latin (docere) to show, teach
dogma Greek (dokein) to seem good, think
domain Latin (domus) house
dome Greek (doma) house, housetop
dominant Latin (dominari) to dominate
dominate Latin (dominari) to dominate
donate Latin (donum) gift
doubt Latin (dubitare) hesitate, waver in opinion, to have to choose between two things
doury Latin (durus) hard
dozen Latin (duodecim) twelve
drachma Greek (drakhme) an Attic coin and weight, a handful
drama Greek (dran) to do, act, perform
drastic Greek (dran) to do, act, perform
dual Latin (duo) two
duke Latin (ducere) to lead
duplicate Latin (duplicatus) to double
duty Latin (debitus) to owe
dynamic Greek (dynasthai) be able to have power
dynasty Greek (dynasthai) be able to have power
echo Greek (ekho) sound
eclipse Greek (ekleipein) to orsake a usual place, fail to appear, be eclipsed
eclogue Greek (ekloge) selection
economy Greek (oikonomos) manager, steward
ecumenical Greek (oikos) house, habitation
edict Latin (edicere) publish, proclaim
educate Latin (educatus) bring up, rear, educate
efface Latin (facies) face
effect Latin (efficere) work out, accomplish
efficient Latin (efficere) to do, make
elaborate Latin (elaborare) work out, produce by labor
elect Latin (electionem) pick out, select
elegant Latin (elegantem) choice, fine, tasteful
element Latin (elementum) element
elevate Latin (elevatus) lift up, raise
eliminate Latin (ex limine) off the threshold
elite Latin (eligere) choose
eloquent Latin (eloqui) speak out
emancipate Latin (emancipare) declare (someone) free, give up one's authority over
embryo Greek (embryon) young animal, fruit of the womb, that which grows
emergence Latin (mergere) dive, plunge
eminent Latin (eminentem) stand out, project
emotion Latin (emovere) move out, remove, agitate
emperor Latin (imperare) to command
emphasis Greek (emphainein) to show, indicate
empire Latin (imperare) to command
encounter Latin (incontra) in front of
endow Latin (dotare) bestow
endure Latin (indurare) make hard
enemy Latin (inimicus) enemy, unfriendly
energy Greek (energos) active
enforce Latin (fortis) strong
engineer Latin (ingenium) ability
enjoy Latin (gaudere) rejoice
enlarge Latin (largus) abundant, copious, plentiful, liberal
enormous Latin (enormis) irregular, extraordinary, very large
enter Latin (intra) within
enthusiasm Greek (entheos) inspired, possessed by a god
entitle Latin (intitulare) inscription title
envoy Latin (inviare) send on one's way
envy Latin (invidere) envy, cast an evil eye upon
ephor Greek (ephoros) overseer
epic Greek (epos) word, story, poem
epicure Greek (Epicouros) Athenian philosopher
epigram Greek (epigraphein) to write on, inscribe
episode Greek (epeisodion) addition
epistle Latin (epistellein) send to
epitome Greek (epitemnein) cut short, abridge
epoch Greek (epekhein) to pause, take up a position
equal Latin (æquus) level, even, just
equator Latin (æquare) make equal, equate
equestrian Latin (equus) horse
equivalent Latin (aequivalere) to have equal power
era Latin (aes) copper, money, bronze coin
erect Latin (erigere) raise or set up
erosion Latin (erodere) gnaw away
erupt Latin (erumpere) break out, burst forth
escape Latin (excappare) get out of one's cape
eschatology Greek (eskhatos) last, furthest, remote
establish Latin (stabilis) stable
estimate Latin (aestimare) to value, estimate, assess
ethics Greek (ethos) moral character
ethnic Greek (ethnos) band of people living together, nation, people
evacuate Latin (tradere) deliver, surrender
evaluate Latin (valere) be strong, be well, be of value
event Latin (evenire) to come out, happen, result
evident Latin (videre) see
evolve Latin (evolvere) unroll
exact Latin (exigere) to drive out, demand, measure
exaggerate Latin (exaggeratus) heighten, amplify, magnify
examine Latin (exigere) weigh accurately
example Latin (emere) take
excavate Latin (excavatus) to hollow out
exceed Latin (excedere) depart, go beyond
excellent Latin (excellentem) elevated
except Latin (exceptus) take out
excercise Latin (arcere) to restrain
excess Latin (excedere) to depart, go beyond
exclusive Latin (excludere) isolate, exclude
execute Latin (executivus) throw, cut, shot
exegesis Greek (exegeisthai) explain, interpret
exempt Latin (eximere) release, remove
exile Latin (exul) banished person
exist Latin (existere) stand forth, appear
exodus Greek (exodus) a going out
exotic Greek (exotikos) foreign, from the outside
expand Latin (expansum) to extend
expedient Latin (expedire) make fit or ready, prepare
expedite Latin (expeditus) make fit or ready, prepare, free the feet from fetters
expend Latin (expendere) pay out
expense Latin (expensa) disbursement
experience Latin (experientia) try
experiment Latin (experiri) try out
expert Latin (experiri) try out
expiate Latin (expiare) atone completely
explain Latin (explanationem) to make plain or clear, explain
explicit Latin (explicitus) unfold, unravel, explain
exploit Latin (explicitum) a thing settled, ended, displayed
explore Latin (explorare) investigate, search out
explode Latin (explodere) drive out by clapping
exponent Latin (exponere) set forth, put forth, set out, explain
export Latin (exportare) carry away
expose Latin (exponere) set forth, put forth, set out, explain
expound Latin (exponere) set forth, put forth, set out, explain
express Latin (expressare) represent, describe, to press out
expulsion Latin (expellere) drive out
exquisite Latin (exquisitus) carefully sought out
extend Latin (extendere) stretch out
external Latin (externus) outside, outward
extinct Latin (extinguere) quench, wipe out, obliterate
extirpate Latin (extirpare) root out
extort Latin (torquere) to twist
extract Latin (extractus) draw out
extraordinary Latin (extraordinarius) out of order
extravagant Latin (extravagans) wander, special
extreme Latin (extremus) outermost, utmost
exuberant Latin (exuberare) be abundant, grow luxuriously
fable Latin (fabula) story, play, fable, that which is told
face Latin (facies) appearance, form, figure
facile Latin (facilis) easy
fact Latin (facere) do, make
faculty Latin (facultatem) power, ability, wealth
fail Latin (fallere) deceive, be lacking or defective
faith Latin (fidere) to trust
falcon Latin (falx) sickle
family Latin (famulus) servant
fame Latin (fama) story, rumour
fanatic Latin (fanum) temple
fantasy Greek (phainesthai) appear, to imagine, have visions
farm Latin (firmus) firm
fascinate Latin (fascinare) bewitch, enchant
fatal Latin (fatalis) ordained by fate
fate Latin (fatum) thing spoken (by the gods), one's destiny
favor Latin (favorem) good will or support
feature Latin (facere) make, do, perform
federate Latin (foedus) a league
ferment Latin (fervere) to boil, seethe
fertile Latin (fertilis) rich, productive
fest Latin (festum) feast
fiction Latin (fingere) to shape, form, devise, feign, to knead, form out of clay
fidelity Latin (fidelitatem) faithfulness, adherence
figure Latin (fingere) make, shape
final Latin (finis) end
finance Latin (finis) end
fine Latin (finis) end
fiscal Latin (fiscus) treasury, purse, basket made of twigs
fix Latin (fixus) to fix, fasten
florin Latin (florem) flower
flower Latin (florem) flower
fluid Latin (fluere) to flow
focus Latin (focus) hearth, fireplace
foil Latin (fullo) one who cleans cloth, fuller
force Latin (fortia) strong
foreign Latin (foris) outside, out of doors
form Latin (forma) mold, shape, beauty
formidable Latin (formido) terror, dread
fortify Latin (fortis) strong
fortune Latin (fortuna) chance, luck
forum Latin (forum) marketplace
founding Latin (fundatus) a founding
fragment Latin (frangere) break
frenzy Latin (phrenesia) delirious
frequent Latin (frequentare) visit regularly
friction Latin (fricare) to rub
frieze Latin (frisium) embroidered border
front Latin (frontem) forehead, that which projects
fruit Latin (fructus) fruit, produce, profit
frustrate Latin (frustratus) to deceive, disappoint, frustrate
fuel Latin (focalia) right to demand material for making fire
function Latin (fungi) to perform
fund Latin (fundus) bottom, piece of land
fundamental Latin (fundamentum) foundation
fury Latin (furia) violent passion, rage, madness
future Latin (futurus) going to be, about to be
genealogy Greek (genealogia) genealogy
general Latin (genus) race, kind
genius Latin (gignere) beget, produce
gentile Latin (gens) race, clan
genuine Latin (gignere) beget
geocentric Greek (geocentric) in the centre of earth
geography Greek (geographia) description of the earth's surface
geometry Greek (geometria) measurement of earth or land, geometry
germ Latin (germen) sprout, bud
gesture Latin (gestus) gesture, carriage, posture
gladiator Latin (gladius) sword
glory Latin (gloria) great praise or honor
glutton Latin (gula) throat
gorgon Greek (gorgos) terrible
govern Greek (kubernan) steer or pilot, ship, direct
grace Latin (gratus) pleasing, agreeable
grade Latin (gradus) to walk, step, go
grain Latin (granum) seed
grammar Greek (graphein) to draw or write
grand Latin (grandis) big, great, full-grown
grandiose Latin (grandis) big
granite Latin (granum) grain
grant Latin (credentem) to believe, to trust
gravity Latin (gravis) heavy
grief Latin (gravis) weighty
griffin, gryphon Greek (gryps) curved, hook-nosed
grocer Latin (grossus) coarse (of food), great, gross
gulf Greek (kolpos) bay, gulf, bosom
gymnasion Greek (gymnazein) to exercise or train, to train naked
gymnasium Greek (gymnazein) to exercise or train, to train naked
habit Latin (habitus) condition, demeanor, appearance, dress
harmony Greek (harmos) joint, harmony
hegemony Greek (hegeisthai) to lead
heir Latin (heres) heir, heiress
helot Greek (Heilotes) helots
hero Greek (heros) demi-god, defender, protector
hexameter Greek (hexametros) six meters
hierarchy Greek (hierarches) high priest, leader of sacred rites
hieroglyph Greek (hieroglyphe) sacred carving
history Greek (histor) learned man
homicide Latin (homicidium) act of killing of a man
homosexual Greek (homos+sexus) same sex
honor Latin (honorem) honor, dignity, office, reputation
horizon Greek (horizein) bound, limit, divide, separate
horror Latin (horrere) to bristle with fear, shudder
host Latin (hostis) enemy, stranger
hostage Latin (obses) hostage
hostile Latin (hostis) enemy
human Latin (humanus) human being
humiliate Latin (humilis) humble
hygiene Greek (hygies) healthy, living well
hymn Greek (hymnos) song or ode in praise of gods or heroes
hypocrisy Greek (hypokrinesthai) play a part, pretend, answer
hypothesis Greek (hypothesis) base, basis of an argument, supposition, a placing under
hysteria Greek (hystera) womb
idea Greek. (idein) to see
identical Latin (identitas) identity, the same
identity Latin (identitas) identity, the same
idiot Greek (idiotes) layman, person lacking professional skill
idol Greek (eidos) form
illusion Latin (illudere) mock at, to play with
illustrate Latin (illustrare) light up, embellish, distinguish
imagine Latin (imaginari) imagine
imitate Latin (imitatari) to copy, portray, imitate
immense Latin (immensus) immeasurable, boundless
immutable Latin (immutabilis) unchangeable
impact Latin (impactus) to push against, to push into, dash against
imperative Latin (imperare) to command
imperial Latin (imperialis) of the empire or emperor
impetus Latin (impetus) attack, assault, onset, impulse, violence, vigor, force, passion
implicit Latin (implicitus) prove, make out
import Latin (importare) bring in, convey
impress Latin (imprimere) press in
impulse Latin (impulsus) a push against, pressure, shock, incitement, instigation
incest Latin (incestus) unchaste, impure
inches Latin (uncia) a twelfth part
include Latin (includere) to close
incorporate Latin (incorporare) unite into one body
increase Latin (increscere) to grow
incredible Latin (incredibilis) that cannot be believed
indicate Latin (indicare) point out, show
indispensable Latin (indispensabilis) indivisible
individual Latin (individuus) indivisible
industry Latin (industria) diligence, to build
infantry Latin (infantem) infant
inflate Latin (inflare) blow into, puff up
influence Latin (influentem) to flow into
inform Latin (informationem) outline, concept, idea
infuriate Latin (in furia) in a fury
infusion Latin (infundere) to pour into
ingenious Latin (ingenium) inborn talent
inhabitant Latin (inhabitare) to live in
inherit Latin (inhereditare) to appoint as heir
initiate Latin (inire) to go into, enter upon, begin
innovate Latin (innovatus) to renew or change
inquire Latin (inquirere) inquire
inscription Latin (inscriptus) to write on or in anything
insect Latin (insectum) animal with a notched or divided body, cut into
insist Latin (insistere) persist, dwell upon, stand upon
inspirate Latin (inspirare) inspire, inflame, blow into
instance Latin (instantia) presence, earnestness, urgency, a standing near
institute Latin (institutionem) institution
instruct Latin (instructus) arrange, inform, teach
instrument Latin (instruere) arrange, furnish
insult Latin (insultare) to assail, to leap upon
intact Latin (intactus) untouched, uninjured
integer Latin (integer) whole
intellect Latin (intellectus) intellect, concept, sense
intelligent Latin (intelligentem) discerning
intensity Latin (intendere) to stretch out, strain
intercession Latin (intercessionem) a going between
interest Latin (interresse) to concern, make a difference, be of importance
interior Latin (interior) inner
internal Latin (intern) within, between
interpret Latin (interpres) agent, translator
interrupt Latin (interruptus) break apart, break off
interval Latin (intervallum) space between palisades or ramparts
intervene Latin (intervenire) to come between, interrupt
intimate Latin (intimare) make known, announce
intricate Latin (intricatus) entangled
intrigue Latin (intricare) entangle
intrinsic Latin (intrinsecus) interior, internal
introduce Latin (introductus) to lead in, bring in, to introduce
introspection Latin (introspicere) to look into, look at
intrude Latin (intrusus) to thrust, push
invade Latin (invadere) to invade
invent Latin (inventus) devise, discover, find
invest Latin (investire) to clothe in, cover, surround
investigate Latin (vestigium) footprint, track
invincible Latin (invincibilis) unconquerable
invoke Latin (invocare) call upon, implore
iris Greek (iris) a lily, iris of the eye, messenger of the gods
irony Greek (eiron) dissemble
irrigate Latin (irrigare) to water
isolate Latin (insula) island
issue Latin (exire) go out
isthmus Greek (isthmos) narrow neck of land
item Latin (item) likewise, just so
January Latin (Januarius (mensis)) (the month) of Janus
jealous Greek (zelos) jealousy, enthusiasm
jewel Latin (jocus) pastime, sport
journal Latin (diurnalis) daily
judge Latin (judicem) to judge
July Latin (Julius) name of a Roman gens
jury Latin (jurata) an oath, an inquest
justice Latin (justus) upright, just
labor Latin (laborare) toil, pain
labyrinth Greek (labyrinthos) maze, large building with intricate passages
lake Latin (lacus) pond, lake, basin, tank
lamp Greek (lampein) to shine
language Latin (lingua) tongue, speech, language
lapse Latin (lapsus) a slipping and falling, flight (of time), falling into error
large Latin (largus) abundant, copious, plentiful
laurel Latin (laurus) laurel tree
league Latin (ligare) to bind
legal Latin (lex) law
legend Latin (legenda) legend, story, (things) to be read
legible Latin (legere) to choose, gather, to read
legion Latin (legere) to choose, gather, to read
legislate Latin (legis lator) proposer of a law
leisure Latin (licere) be permitted
lethargy Greek (lethargos) forgetful, inactive through forgetfulness
latrine Latin (lavatrina) washbasin, washroom
letter Latin (littera) letter of the alphabet
level Latin (libra) balance, scales
lever Latin (levare) to raise
lexicography Greek (lexikographos) to write wordbook
liberate Latin (liber) free
library Latin (liber) book, paper, parchment, the inner bark of trees
limit Latin (limitem) a boundary, embankment between fields, border
line Latin (linum) flax, linen
linear Latin (linea) string, line
linen Latin (linum) flax, linen
linguist Latin (lingua) language, tongue
liquid Latin (liquere) be fluid
literal Latin (lit(t)era) letter
literate Latin (lit(t)eratus) educated, learned, one who knows the letters
literature Latin (lit(t)era) letter
liturgy Greek (leitourgos) one who performs a public ceremony or service, public servant
locate Latin (locus) place
logic Greek (logos) reason, idea, word
loyal Latin (lex) law
lubricate Latin (lubricus) slippery
lunar Latin (luna) moon
luxury Latin (luxus) excess, extravagance, magnificence
lyceum Greek (lykeion) grove or garden with covered walks near Athens where Aristotle taught
lyric Greek (lyra) lyre
machine Greek (makhana) device, means
magistrate Latin (magister) chief, director
magnificent Latin (magnificus) magnificent
majesty Latin (major) large, great
major Latin (major) large, great
manage Latin (manus) hand
manifest Latin (manifestus) caught in the act, plainly apprehensible, clear, evident
manipulate Latin (manipulus) handful, sheaf
manner Latin (manus) hand
monogram Greek (monogrammon) a character formed of several letters in one design
monotony Greek (monotonos) monotonous, of one tone
manual Latin (manus) hand
manufacture Latin (manufactura) hand work
manuscript Latin (manu scriptus) written by hand
marriage Latin (maritatus) to wed, marry, give in marriage
marry Latin (maritus) married man, husband
martial Latin (martialis) of Mars or war
martyr Greek (martys) martyr, witness
mass Greek (maza) barley cake, lump, mass, ball
massacre Latin (macellum) provisions store, butcher shop
master Latin (magister) chief, head, director, teacher
material Latin (materia) matter, stuff, wood, timber
mathematics Greek (manthanein) to learn
matron Latin (mater) mother
mature Latin (maturus) ripe, timely, early
maximum Latin (maximus) greatest
mayor Latin (major) large, great
measure Latin (mensura) a measuring, a thing to measure by
mechanic Greek (mekhanikos) an engineer, resourceful, inventive, pertaining to machines
medal Latin (medialia) little halves
mediate Latin (medius) middle
medicine Latin (medicina) the medical art
medium Latin (medium) middle
medieval Latin (medi(um)) middle age
meditate Latin (meditatus) to meditate, to think over, consider
melancholy Greek (melankholia) sadness, black bile
member Latin (membrum) limb, member of the body, part
memory Latin (memor) mindful
mental Latin (mens) mind
mention Latin (mention) calling to mind
mercenary Latin (merces) pay, reward, wages
merit Latin (meritum) desert, reward, merit
metal Greek (metallon) mine, ore, metal
metamorphosis Greek (metamorphoun) to transform
metaphor Greek (metapherein) transfer, carry over
meter Greek (metron) measure
methaphysics Greek (ta meta ta physika) the (works) after the Physics
method Greek (methodus) scientific inquiry, method of inquiry
metropolis Greek (metropolis) mother city
migrate Latin (migrare) to move from one place to another
mile Latin (mille) thousand
military Latin (miles) soldier
millenium Latin (mlle annus) thousand years
million Latin (mille) thousand
mineral Latin (minerale) something mined
miniature Latin (minium) red lead
minimum Latin (minimum) smallest (thing)
minister Latin (ministeri) servant, priest's assistant
minor Latin (minor) lesser, smaller, junior
minute Latin (minuere) make small
miracle Latin (mirus) wonderful
mirror Latin (mirus) wonderful
missile Latin (missile) weapon that can be thrown
mission Latin (mittere) to send
mix Latin (mixtus) to mix
mobile Latin (movere) to move
model Latin (modus) measure, standard
modern Latin (modus) measure
modify Latin (modus) measure, manner
moment Latin (momentum) movement, moving power, instant
monarch Greek (monarkhia) absolute rule, ruling of one
money Latin (Moneta) a title of the Roman goddess Juno, in or near whose temple money was coined
monk Greek (monakhos) monk
monogamy Greek (monogamos) monogamous
monopoly Greek (monopolion) right of exclusive sale
monotheist Greek (monos+theos) believe in only one god
monster Latin (monstrum) monster, monstrosity, omen, portent, sign
monument Latin (monumentum) memorial
moral Latin (moralis) proper behavior of a person in society
mortal Latin (mortalis) subject to death
mortar Latin (mortarium) mortar, crushed drugs
mosaic Greek (Mousa) muse, music, song
motif, motive Latin (movere) to move
motion Latin (movere) to move
motto Latin (muttire) to mutter
mountain Latin (montanus) mountainous
move Latin (movere) move, set in motion
multiple Latin (multiplus) manifold
mundane Latin (mundus) world
muscle Latin (musculus) a muscle, little mouse
muse Greek (Mousa) muse, music, song
museum Greek (Mousa) muse, music, song
music Greek (Mousa) muse, music, song
mutilate Latin (mutilatus) to cut or lop off
myrrh Greek (myrrha) was bitter
mystery Greek (myein) to close, shut
mythhology Greek (muthologia) science of myths
narration Latin (narrare) to tell, relate, recount, explain, to make acquainted with
nation Latin (nasci) be born
nature Latin (nasci) be born
navy Latin (navis) ship
neglect Latin (neglegere) choose to gather pick up
Neolithic Greek (neo+lithos) New Stone Age
nerve Latin (nervus) sinew, tendon
neutral Latin (neutralis) of neuter gender
noble Latin ((g)nobilis) well-known, famous, renowned, of superior birth
nomad Greek (nomos) pasture
normal Latin (normalis) made according to a carpenter's square
note Latin (nota) letter, note, a mark, sign
notion Latin (notus) known
notorious Latin (notus) known
November Latin (novem) nine
nucleus Latin (nucula) little nut
number Latin (numerus) a number, quantity
nurse Latin (nutrix) wet nurse
nurture Latin (nutrire) to nourish, suckle
obedience Latin (oboediens) obey
obelisk Greek (obeliskos) a spit, pointed pillar, needle
obey Latin (oboedire) obey, pay attention to, give ear, listen to
object Latin (obicere) to throw in the way, present, hinder
obligate Latin (obligationem) an engaging or pledging, a binding
obol Greek (obolos) a spit, needle
obscene Latin (obscenus) offensive, boding ill, inauspicious
obscure Latin (obscurus) covered over, dark, obscure, indistinct
observe Latin (observare) watch over, guard, look to, attend to
obtain Latin (obtinere) hold, take hold of, acquire
obverse Latin (obvertere) to turn toward or against
occasion Latin (occasum) fall down, go down
occupy Latin (occupationem) a taking possession, business, employment
ocean Greek (okeanos) the great river or sea surrounding the disk of the Earth
October Latin (octo) eight
octopus Greek (oktopous) eight-footed
ode Greek (aeidein) sing
offend Latin (offendere) strike against, stumble, commit a fault, displease
offer Latin (offerre) to present, bestow, bring before
office Latin (officium) doing work
oil Greek (elaia) olive
oligarchy Greek (oligarkhia) government by the few
olive Greek (elaia) olive
omen Latin (omen) omen
opera Latin (opus) a work
operate Latin (operari) to work, labour
opinion Latin (opinari) think, judge, suppose, opine
opponent Latin (opponere) oppose, object to, set against
opportunity Latin (opportunitatem) fitness, suitableness, favorable time
opprobrium Latin (opprobare) to reproach, taunt
opress Latin (oppressus) to press against
optimism Latin (optimus) the best
optimum Latin (optimus) the best
oracle Latin (oraculum) divine announcement, oracle
oral Latin (os) mouth, opening, face, entrance
oration Latin (orare) speak before a court or assembly, plead
orbit Latin (orbita) wheel track, course, orbit
ordain Latin (ordo) order
order Latin (ordo) order, sequence
ordinary Latin (ordo) order
organize Latin (organum) instrument, organ
orgy Greek (orgia) secret rites
origin Latin (oriri) arise
ornament Latin (ornare) equip, adorn
orthodox Greek (orthodoxos) having the right opinion
ostracism Greek (ostrakizein) to ostracize
oval Latin (ovum) egg
pacify Latin (pacificus) peaceful, peace-making
pagan Latin (pagus) rural district, district limited by markers
pain Greek (poine) punishment
palace Latin (palatium) palace
Paleolithic Greek (paleos+lithos) Old Stone Age
palette Latin (pala) spade, shoulder blade
panache Latin (pinnaculum) small wing, gable, peak
panel Latin (pannus) piece of cloth
panic Greek (Panikos) the god of woods and fields who was the source of mysterious sounds that caused contagious, groundless fear in herds and crowds, or in people in lonely spots
panorama Greek (horan) to look, see
pantheon Greek (pantheion) all gods
papa Latin (papa) a child's word
paper Latin (papyrus) paper, paper made of papyrus stalks
papyrus Greek (papyros) any plant of the paper plant genus
parade Latin (parer) arrange, prepare, adorn
paradox Greek (paradoxos) contrary to opinion
paragraph Greek (paragraphein) write by the side
parallel Greek (parallelos) parallel
paralyze Greek (paralyein) disable, enfeeble
paranoia Greek (paranoos) mentally ill, insane
parasite Greek (parasitos) person who eats at the table of another
parent Latin (parere) give birth
part Latin (partem) part, piece, side, share
participate Latin (participare) participate
particle Latin (particula) little bit or part
partisan Latin (partem) part, piece, side, share
partner Latin (partitionem) portion
passion Latin (passio) passion
pasture Latin (pastus) to feed, graze
patient Latin (patientem) patient
patriarch Greek (patriarches) the leader of a family
patrician Latin (patres conscripti) Roman senators, fathers
patricide Latin (patricidium) to kill a father
patriot Greek (patris) fatherland
patron Latin (patronus) a lord-master, protector
pattern Latin (patronus) a lord-master, protector
pay Latin (pax) peace
peace Latin (pax) treaty of peace, tranquility, absence of war
peasant Latin (pagus) country or rural district
pediment Latin (pedamentum) vine-stalk, prop
penalty Greek (poine) blood-money, fine, penalty, punishment
penetrate Latin (penetratus) to put or get into, enter into
peninsula Latin (pæninsula) almost an island
people Latin (populus) people
percent Latin (per centum) by the hundred
perfect Latin (perfectus) completed
perimeter Greek (perimetros) circumference
period Greek (periodos) way around rounded sentence, cycle, circuit, period of time
permament Latin (permanere) remain through
perpendicular Latin (perpendere) balance carefully
persecute Latin (persecutionem) pursue, start a legal action
persist Latin (persistere) continue steadfastly
person Latin (persona) human being, character in a drama, mask
perspective Latin (perspicere) inspect, look through
persuade Latin (persuadere) persuade
pessimism Latin (pessimus) worst, bottom-most
phase Greek (phasis) appearance (of a star), phase (of the moon)
philippic Latin (orationes Philippicæ) speeches made by Cicero against Marc Antony
philosophy Greek (philosophia) love of knowledge, wisdom
phonetic Greek (phonein) to sound with the voice
phrase Greek (phrazein) to express, tell
physics Greek (physike) natural science
pi Greek (pi) Greek letter
pictogram Latin (pictus+gram) pictogram
pictograph Latin (pictus +graph) pictograph
pictorial Latin (pingere) to paint
picture Latin (pingere) to paint
pinnacle Latin (pinnaculum) gable
pious Latin (pius) dutiful, kind, devout
pirate Greek (peiran) to attack, make a hostile attempt on, try
placate Latin (placare) to calm, appease
place Greek (plateia) broad
plague Latin (plaga) stroke, wound
plain Latin (planus) flat, even, level
plan Latin (planus) flat, even, level
plane Latin (plantum) flat surface
planet Greek (planasthai) to wander
plant Latin (planta) sole of the foot
plantation Latin (plantare) to plant
pleasant Latin (placere) to be acceptable, be liked, be approved
plebeian Latin (plebs) Roman plebs
plunge Latin (plumbum) lead
poem Greek (poein) to make or compose
point Latin (pungere) prick, pierce
poison Latin (potare) to drink
policy Greek (apodexis) proof, declaration
polis Greek (polis) city
politics Greek (politika) politics
pollute Latin (polluere) to soil, defile, contaminate
polytheism Greek (polytheos) polytheistic, of many gods
pomp Greek (pempein) to send
pontifex Latin (pontifex) pontifex
pontoon Latin (pontonem) flat-bottomed boat
pope Greek (papas) patriarch, bishop, father
popular Latin (populus) people
populace Latin (populus) people
port Latin (portus) port, harbor, entrance, passage
portion Latin (portionem) share, part
portray Latin (trahere) to draw forth, reveal, expose to drag
pose Latin (pausare) to halt, rest, pause
position Latin (ponere) to lay down, put, place
positive Latin (positus) put, place
possess Latin (possidere) to possess
post Latin (postis) post
potent Latin (potis) powerful, able, capable
power Latin (potis) able, powerful
practice Greek (prattein) to do
praetor Latin (prætor) one who goes before, a consul as leader of an army
praise Latin (pretium) price
pray Latin (prex) prayer, request, entreaty
preach Latin (predicare) to proclaim publicly, announce
prerogative Latin (prærogere) ask before others
precedent Latin (cedere) to yield, to go, leave
precious Latin (pretium) price
predecessor Latin (praedecessor) somebody who has departed before
predict Latin (prædicere) foretell, advise, give notice
prejudice Latin (præjudicium) prior judgment
prelude Latin (præludere) to play beforehand for practice, preface
prepare [pic] Latin (præparare) prepare
presence Latin (praesentare) make present
preserve Latin (praeservare) guard beforehand
press Latin (pressare) keep on pressing
pressure Latin (pressura) action of pressing
prestige Latin (præstigiæ) juggler's tricks
pretense Latin (prætendere) stretch in front, put forward, allege
prevalent Latin (prævalentem) to be more able
prevent Latin (prævenire) come before, anticipate, hinder
prey Latin (praeda) booty
price Latin (pretium) reward, prize, value, worth
priest Latin (presbyter) presbyter, elder
prime Latin (primus) first
primeval Latin (prim ævus) first age
primitive Latin (primus) first
prince Latin (princeps) first, chief, prince
principal Latin (principalis) first in importance
principle Latin (princeps) first, chief, prince
prior Latin (prior) former, superior
prison Latin (prehendere) to take
private Latin (privatus) isolated, not in public life, privare to deprive
privilege Latin (privilegium) law applying to one person, privilege
probable Latin (probare) to try, to test
problem Greek (proballein) propose
proceed Latin (procedere) go forward, advance
process Latin (processus) procedere
proclaim Latin (proclamare) cry or call out
product Latin (productus) something produced
profess Latin (professionem) public declaration
proficient Latin (proficere) accomplish, make progress, be useful
profile Latin (filum) thread
profound Latin (profundus) deep, bottomless, vast, obscure, profound
prognosis Greek (progignoskein) come to know beforehand
program Greek (prographein) to write publicly
progress Latin (progressus) progress
project Latin (projectum) something thrown forth
proletariat Latin (proles) offspring, progeny
prologue Greek (prologos) prologue of a play, speaker of a prologue
prolong Latin (prolongare) to prolong, extend
prominent Latin (prominere) jut or stand out
promiscuity Latin(promiscuus) mixed, indiscriminate
promise Latin (promissum) a promise
prompt Latin (promptus) brought forth, at hand, ready, quick
proof Latin (proba) a proof
propaganda Latin (propaganda) committee of cardinals
property Latin (proprius) your own, particular, special
prophecy Greek (prophetia) gift of interpreting the will of the gods
proportion Latin (proportionem) comparative relation, analogy
prospect Latin (prospectus) view, outlook
prosperity Latin (prosperitatem) good fortune
prostitute Latin (prostituere) to expose to prostitution, expose publicly
protect Latin (protectus) protect, cover in front
protest Latin (protestari) declare publicly, testify, protest
prototype Greek (prototypon) a first or primitive form
provide Latin (providere) look ahead, prepare, supply
province Latin (provincia) territory under Roman domination
provision Latin (providere) look ahead
psychology Greek (psykhe+logia) study of soul
public Latin (populus) people
publish Latin (publicus) public
pulley Greek (polos) pivot, axis
pungent Latin (pungere) to prick, pierce, sting
punish Latin (poena) penalty
pupil Latin (pupilla) little girl-doll, orphan, ward, minor
pure Latin (purus) pure, innocent
purport Latin (portare) to carry
pursuit Latin (prosequi) follow up
pyramid Greek (pyramis) pyramid
quaestor Latin (quaerere) to inquire
qualify Latin (qualificare) attribute a quality to
quality Latin (qualis) of what sort
quantity Latin (quam) how, how much
quarrel Latin (queri) to complain, lament
quarry Latin (quadrare) to square
quarter Latin (quartus) fourth
quotate Latin (quotare) to number
radical Latin (radix) root
radius Latin (radius) staff, spoke of a wheel, beam of light
rage Latin (rabies) madness, rage, fury
rapacious Latin (rapere) seize
rapid Latin (rapidus) hasty, snatching
ratify Latin (ratus) fixed, valid
ratio Latin (ratio) reckoning, calculation, business affair, procedure, reason
ray Latin (radius) ray, spoke, staff, rod
real Latin (res) matter, thing
reality Latin (realis) real existence
realm Latin (regimen) system of government, rule
reason Lation (ratus) to reckon, think
rebel Latin (rebellare) to rebel, wage war against
receipt Latin (recipere) to receive
receive Latin (recipere) to receive
receptacle Latin (recipere) to hold, contain
recite Latin (recitare) read aloud, repeat from memory
recognize Latin (cognoscere) know
record Latin (recordare) bring back to the heart
recover Latin (recuperare) to recover
recruit Latin (crescere) to grow
rectangle Latin (rectangulum) a triangle having a right angle
redeem Latin (redimere) to redeem, buy back
redemption Latin (redimere) to redeem, buy back
reflect Latin (reflexionem) a reflection, a bending back
reform Latin (reformare) to form again, change, alter
refuge Latin (refugium) place to flee back to
refute Latin (refutare) drive back, repress, repel, rebut
regent Latin (regens) ruler, governor
regime Latin (regimen) rule, guidance, government
region Latin (regere) to rule
regular Latin (regula) rule
regulate Latin (regula) rule
reign Latin (regnum) kingship, dominion, rule, realm
reject Latin (reicere) to throw back
relapse Latin (relabi) slip back
relation Latin (relationem) a bringing back, restoring
relevant Latin (relevare) to raise, alleviate
reliance Latin (religare) fasten, bind fast
relief Latin (relevare) to raise, lighten
religion Latin (religio(n)) obligation, reverence
reminiscence Latin (reminisci) remember, recall to mind
remorse Latin (remordere) to vex, disturb, to bite back
remote Latin (remotus) afair off, remote
reparate Latin (reparare) restore
repeat Latin (repetitus) do or say again
report Latin (reportare) carry back
represent Latin (praeesse) be in front of
republic Latin (respublica) public interest, the state
repudiate Latin (repudium) divorce, rejection
reputate Latin (reputatus) reflect upon, reckon
require Latin (requirere) ask,seek to know, seek in return
requisite Latin (requirere) ask,seek to know, seek in return
resemble Latin (simulare) to copy
resent Latin (sentire) perceive, feel
reside Latin (residere) to remain behind, rest
resist Latin (resistere) to resist, to stand back, withstand
resolve Latin (solvere) to loosen, dissolve, untie
resource Latin (surgere) to rise
respect Latin (respectus) regard, act of looking back at one
response Latin (responsum) answer
responsible Latin (respondere) to respond
restore Latin (restaurare) repair, rebuild, renew
restitution Latin (restitutus) restore, rebuild, replace
restrict Latin (restringere) restrict, bind fast, restrain
result Latin (resultare) spring back, reverberate
resurrect Latin (resurgere) rise again
retribution Latin (tributum) tribute, a thing contributed or paid
reveal Latin (revelare) reveal, uncover, disclose
revenue Latin (revenire) return, come back
reverence Latin (revereri) to revere
revise Latin (revisere) look at again, visit again
revive Latin (revivere) to live again
revolt Latin (revolvitare) to overturn, overthrow
revolution Latin (revolution) to revolve turn, roll back
rhetoric Greek (rhetor) orator
rhytm Greek (rhythmos) measured flow or movement, rhythm
ridicule Latin (ridere) to laugh
rigor Latin (rigidus) hard, stiff, rough, severe
rite Latin (ritus) religious observance or ceremony, custom, usage
rival Latin (rivalis) a rival
river Latin (ripa) river bank, shore
roll Latin (rotula) small wheel
romance Latin (Roma) Rome
rostrum Latin (rostrum) name of the platform stand for public speakers in the Forum in ancient Rome
rotate Latin (rotare) revolve, roll
royal Latin (rex) king
ruin Latin (ruere) to fall, headlong, collapse
rule Latin (regula) straight stick, standard
rural Latin (rus) open land, country
rustic Latin (rus) open land, country
sacred Latin (sacrre) sacred
sacrifice Latin (sacra) sacred rites
saint Latin (sanctus) holy, consecrated
salary Latin (salarium) salary, stipend, oldier's allowance for the purchase of salt
salvation Latin (salvare) save
sample Latin (exemplum) a sample
sandal Greek (sandalion) sandal
sanitation Latin (sanus) healthy, sane
sarcophagus Greek (sarkophagos) limestone used for coffins, flesh-eating
satire Latin (satira) satire, poetic medley
satisfy Latin (satisfacere) satisfy
save Latin (salvus) safe
scandal Greek (skandalon) stumbling block, trap with a springing device
scarce Latin (excerpere) pluck out
scene Greek (skene) scene, stage, tent or booth
sceptic Greek (skeptesthai) to reflect, look, view
scheme Greek (skhema) figure, appearance, the nature of a thing
schism Greek (skhizein) to split
scholar Greek (skhole) school, lecture, discussion, leisure, spare time
school Greek (skhole) school, lecture, discussion, leisure, spare time
science Latin (scire) to know, to separate one thing from another, to distinguish
scope Greek (skopein) to look
scribe Latin (scribere) write
script Latin (scribere) write
sculpture Latin (scalpere) to carve, cut
season Latin (serere) to sow
seclude Latin (secludere) shut off, confine
second Latin (sequi) follow
secret Latin (secretus) set apart, withdrawn, hidden
sect Latin (secta) manner, mode, following, school of thought
section Latin (secare) to cut
secure Latin (securus) without care, safe
seduce Latin (seducere) lead away, lead astray
segment Latin (secare) to cut
select Latin (selectus)hoose out, select
senate Latin (senex) old man, old
senior Latin (senior) older
sense Latin (sensus) perception, feeling, undertaking, meaning
sentiment Latin (sentire) to feel
sepulcher Latin (sepulcrum) grave, tomb
serene Latin (serenitatem) clearness, serenity
serf Latin (servum) slave
series Latin (serere) to join, link, bind together, put
serious Latin (serius) weighty, important, grave
sermon Latin (sermonem) discourse, speech, talk, a stringing together of words
service Latin (servus) slave
set Latin (secta) a following
several Latin (separe) to separate
severe Latin (severus) stern, strict, serious
sexagesimal Latin (sexaginta) sixty
sex Latin (sexus) state of being either male or female, gender
siege Latin (sedere) sit
sign Latin (signum) mark, sign, token image, seal
significant Latin (significans) meaning, force, energy
silent Latin (silere) silent
simplify Latin (simplex) single
sincere Latin (sincerus) honest
single Latin (singulus) one, individual, separate
site Latin (sinere) to leave, allow put
situation Latin (situatus) to locate
slave Latin (Slavic) slave
society Latin (socius) companion
soldier Latin (solidus) a Roman gold coin
solemn Latin (sollemnis) formal, ceremonial, traditional
solid Latin (solidus) firm, whole, entire
solon Greek (Solon) name of early lawgiver of Athens
solve Latin (solvere) to loosen, untie, solve, dissolve
sophist Greek (sophos) wise, clever
sorcery Latin (sors) lot, fate, fortune
sound Latin (sonus) sound
source Latin (surgere) to rise
space Latin (spatium) room, area, distance, stretch of time
special Latin (species) kind
spectacle Latin (spectare) to view, watch
speculate Latin (specere) to look at, view
spend Latin (expendere) to weigh out money, pay down
sphere Greek (sphaira) globe, ball
sphinx [pic] Greek (Sphinx) the strangler
spiral Greek (speira) coil, twist, wreath
spirit Latin (spiritus) of breathing, of the spirit
splendid Latin (splendere) be bright, shine
sponsor Latin (sponsus) give assurance, promise solemnly
sporadic Greek (spora) a sowing
square Latin (quattuor) four
stable Latin (stabilis) steadfast, firm
stadium Latin (stadium) stadium
stage Latin (stare) to stand
state Latin (stare) to stand
stagnate Latin (stagnatum) standing water
station Latin (stationem) a standing, post, job, position
statistics Latin (stare) to stand
statue Latin (stare) to stand
stele Greek (stele) standing block, slab
stimulate Latin (stimulus) goad, stake
stoa Greek (stoa) colonnade, corridor
stoicism Greek (stoikos) pertaining to a member of or the teachings of the school founded by Zeno
stop Latin (stuppare) to stop or stuff with tow or oakum
story Latin (historia) picture, story
strait Latin (stringere) bind or draw tight
strategem Greek (strategein) to be a general, command
strategy Greek (stratos) multitude, army, expedition, that which is spread out
street Latin (sternere) pave, throw down
stress Latin (stringere) draw tight
structure Latin (struere) to construct
studio Latin (studere) be diligent
study Latin (studere) be diligent
stupendous Latin (stupendus) be stunned
style Latin (stilus) stake, instrument for writing
subdue Latin (subducere) draw, lead away, withdraw
subordinate Latin (subordinatus) placed in a lower order, made subject
subsist Latin (subsistere) stand still or firm
substance Latin (substans) stand firm, be under or present
subtle Latin (subtilis) fine, thin, delicate, finely woven
suburb Latin (suburbium) an outlying part of a city
success Latin (succedere) come after
succumb Latin (succumbere) submit, sink down, lie under
sudden Latin (subire) come up, go secretly
suffer Latin (sufferire) to bear, undergo, endure, carry or put under
suffix Latin (suffixus) fastened
suit Latin (secutus) to attend, follow
sum Latin (summa) whole, gist
summit Latin (summus) highest
superb Latin (superbus) grand, proud, sumptuous
superstition Latin (superstitionem) prophecy, soothsaying, excessive fear of the gods
supply Latin (supplere) fill up, complete
support Latin (supportare) bear up
suppose Latin (supponere) put or place under
suppress Latin (supprimere) press down, stop, check, stifle
supreme Latin (supremus) highest
sure Latin (securus) free from care, untroubled, heedless, safe secure
surgery Greek (kheirourgos) working or done by hand
surplus Latin (superplus) excess, surplus
survey Latin (supervidere) oversee
survive Latin (supervivere) live beyond
syllable Greek (syllabe) a syllable, several sounds or letters taken together
symbol Greek (sumbolon) mark
sympathy Greek (sympathes) having a fellow feeling, affected by like feelings
symptom Greek (sympiptein) to befall
synagogue Greek (synagein) to gather, assemble
synchronism Greek (synchronos) quality of being synchronous
synonym Greek (synonymon) word having the same sense as another
system Greek (histanai) set up to, cause to stand
tactics Greek (taktike techne) art of arrangement
talent Greek (talanton) balance, weight, sum
tangible Latin (tangere) to touch
tarsus Greek (tarsos) ankle, sole of the foot, rim of the eyelid
task Latin (tasca) a duty
tavern Latin (taberna) shop, inn, tavern, hut, shed
tax Latin (taxare) evaluate, estimate, assess, handle, censure, charge
technique Greek (tekhne) art, skill, craft, method, system
technology Greek (tekhnologia) systematic treatment
teleology Greek (teleologia) teleology
temenos Greek (temenos) to cut
temperature Latin (temperare) to moderate
temple Latin (templum) sacred place, place for worship
tempo Latin (tempus) time
temporary Latin (tempus) time, season
tempt Latin (temptare) to feel, try out, attempt to influence, test
tenacious Latin (tenax) tough, holding fast
tenant Latin (tenere) hold, keep
tendency Latin (tendere) tend, be inclined to
tense Latin (tendere) to stretch
term Latin (terminus) end, boundary line
terrace Latin (terra) earth, land
terrain Latin (terra) earth, land
territory Latin (terra) earth, land
terror Latin (terrere) fill with fear, frighten
terse Latin (tersus) wiped off, clean, neat
test Latin (testum) earthen pot
Testament Latin (testis) witness
testimony Latin (testimonium) evidence, proof, testimony
tetrarch Greek (tetrarkhes) leader of four companies, tetrarch
text Latin (textus) texture, context
theater Greek (theatron) theater, place for viewing
theme Greek (tithenai) put down, place
theogony Greek (theogonia) generation or birth of the gods
theorem Greek (theorein) to consider
theory Greek (theoria) contemplation, theory
tholos Greek (tholos) round building with a conical roof
throne Greek (thronos) elevated seat, chair, throne
title Latin (intitulare) inscription title
toga Latin (toga) cloak or mantle
tolerate Latin (tolerans) to bear, endure, tolerate
tomb [pic] Greek (tymbos) burial mound, grave, tomb
tone Greek (tonos) vocal pitch, raising of voice, accent, key in music
topography Greek (topographos) describing a place
torch Latin (torquere) to twist
total Latin (totus) all, whole, entire
toxic Greek (toxicon) poison (for use on arrows)
tower Greek (tyrsis) castle, building
trace Latin (tractus) track, course, a drawing out
tradition Latin (traditus) deliver, hand over
traffic Latin (transfricare) to rub across
tragedy Greek (tragodia) a dramatic poem or play in formal language and having an unhappy resolution
traitor Latin (tradere) deliver, surrender
tranquil Latin (tranquillus) tranquil
transact Latin (transactus) accomplish, drive or carry through
transcend Latin (transcendere) climb over or beyond, surmount
transit Latin (transition) a going across or over
translate Latin (translatus) translate
transmit Latin (transmittere) send across
transport Latin (transportare) carry across
treasure Greek (thesauros) store, treasure, treasure house
treat Latin (tractare) manage, handle, deal with, drag about
triangle Latin (triangulum) triangle
tribe Latin (tribus) one of the three political/ethnic divisions of the original Roman state
tribune Latin (tribus) one of the three political/ethnic divisions of the original Roman state
tribute Latin (tributum) tribute, a thing contributed or paid
trilogy Greek (trilogia) series of three related tragedies performed at Athens at the festival of Dionysus
trinity Latin (trinus) threefold, triple
trireme Latin (triremis) ancient ship with three rows of oars
triumph Greek (thriambos) hymn to Dionysus
triumvir Latin (tres viri) three men
trouble Latin (turbidare) to trouble, make turbid
tumult Latin (tumultus) commotion, disturbance
turbulent Latin (turba) turmoil, crowd
turmoil Latin (trimodia) vessel containing three modii
turn Latin (tornus) turning lathe
tutor Latin (tutorem) guardian, watcher
type Greek (typtein) to strike, beat
typical Greek (typos) impression
tyranny Greek (turannos) tyrant
ultimate Latin (ultimus) last, final
unify Latin (unificare) make one
unique Latin (unus) one
unit Latin (unitatem) oneness, sameness, agreement
universe Latin (universum) the universe
universal Latin (universus) all together, whole, entire
urban Latin (urbs) city
usual Latin (usus) custom
uterus Latin (uterus) womb, belly
utility Latin (utilis) usable
utopia Greek (outopos) nowhere
vacant Latin (vacare) to be empty
vacillation Latin (vacillare) sway to and fro
vague Latin (vagus) wandering, rambling, vacillating, vague
valerian Latin (Valerius) the personal name
valid Latin (valere) be strong
valley Latin (vallis) valley
value Latin (valere) be strong, be well, be of value
vapor Latin (vaporem) exhalation, steam, heat
variety Latin (varius) various
vegetarianism Latin (vegere) to be alive, active, to quicken
vegetation Latin (vegetare) to grow, to enliven
vehicle Latin (vehere) to carry
venerate Latin (venus) beauty, love, desire
vengeance Latin (vindicare) to set free, claim, avenge
venial Latin (venia) forgiveness, indulgence, pardon
venture Latin (aventura) a thing about to happen
vernal Latin (ver) spring
verse Latin (versus) verse, line of writing
version Latin (versionem) a turning
vertical Latin (vertex) highest point
vessel Latin (vascellum) small vase or urn, a ship
veteran Latin (vetus) old
veto Latin (veto) I forbid
vicar Latin (vicis) turn, change, exchange, substitution
vicious Latin (vitiosus) faulty, defective, corrupt
victim Latin (victima) person or animal killed as a sacrifice
victory Latin (victoria) victory
view Latin (videre) see
vigor Latin (vigere) be lively, flourish, thrive
villa Latin (villa) country house
villein Latin (villa) country house
vindicate Latin (vindicare) to set free, lay claim to, assert, avenge
vindictive Latin (vindicta) revenge
violent Latin (violentus) vehement, forcible
virgin Latin (virginem) maiden, unwedded girl or woman
virile Latin (virilis) of a man, manly
virtue Latin (vir) man
virulent Latin (virus) poison
vision Latin (videre) to see
visit Latin (visitare) to go to see, come to inspect
vital Latin (vita) life
vivid Latin (vivus) alive
vocabulary Latin (vocabulum) word, name, noun
vocal Latin (vox) voice
voice Latin (vocem) voice, sound, utterance, cry, call, speech, sentence, language, word
voluntary Latin (voluntas) will
vote Latin (votum) a vow, wish, promise, dedication
voyage Latin (via) road, journey, travel
vulgar Latin (vulgus) the common people, multitude, crowd, throng
vulgate Latin (vulgus) the common people
vulnerable Latin (vulnus) wound
wall Latin (vallus) stake, palisade
zeal Greek (zelos) zeal, ardour, jealousy, eager rivalry
Poďakovanie
Moja vďaka patrí mojej konzultantke PaedDr. Marte Kadorovej, ktorej cenné rady a inštrukcie mi boli veľkou pomocou.
Acknowledgement
My gratitude belongs to my consultant PaedDr. Marta Kadorová, whose valuable pieces of advice and instructions were very helpful for me.
Čestné vyhlásenie
Čestne prehlasujem, že problematiku diplomovej práce som riešila a napísala samostatne na základe preštudovaného materiálu a použité zdroje som na príslušných miestach uviedla.
Declaration of originality
I, the undersigned, solemnly declare that this diploma work is the result of my own independent research and was written solely by me using the literature and sources listed in the Bibliography.
Žilina, 12. apríl 2006 …………………………………
Lucia Struhárová
-----------------------
Ν ν νυ nu
Ξ ξ ξι xi
Ο ο ’όμικρόν omicron
Π π πι pi
Ρ ρ ‘ρω rho
Σ σ,( σιγμα sigma
“ ( ’άλφα alpha
Β ( βητα beta
Γ ( γάμμα gamma
Δ ( δέλτα delta
Ε ( ’έψιλόν epsilon
Ζ ζ ζητα zeta
Η ( ’ητα eta
Θ ( θητα theta
Ι ι ’ιωτα iota
Κ κ κάππα kappa
Λ λ λάμβδα lambda
Μ μ μυ mu
Τ τ ταυ tau
Υ υ ’υψιλόν upsilon
Φ ( φι phi
Χ χ χι chi
Ψ ψ ψι psi
Ω ω ’ωμέγα omega
words with changed meaning
words with unchanged meaning
words with common clas楳慣慢敳瑯敨潷摲൳眍牯獤漠瑯敨桴湡挠慬獳捩污漠楲楧൮眍牯獤漠慌楴湡片敥牯杩湩潷摲sical base
other words
words of other than classical origin
words of Latin and Greek origin
words of Greek origin
words of Latin origin
words of Greek origin
words of Latin origin
................
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