Saladin 5e Extended Outline



Copyright ? 2018 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.Saladin A&P, 8e Extended Chapter OutlineChapter 1 Major Themes of Anatomy and PhysiologyI. The Scope of Anatomy and Physiology (pp. 2–3)A. Anatomy is the study of form. (p. 2)1. Anatomy and dissection both mean “cutting apart,” and dissection is essential for study.2. Comparative anatomy studies bodies of more than one species.3. Exploratory surgery has now been largely replaced by medical imaging.4. Radiology is the branch of medicine concerned with imaging.5. Gross anatomy involves structures that can be seen with the naked eye.6. Histology is the observation of tissue specimens microscopically. a. Histopathology is studying tissue for signs of disease.b. Cytology is the study of individual cells.c. Ultrastructure is the fine detail of tissue revealed by the electron microscope. B. Physiology is the study of function. (p. 2–3)1. Physiology has many subdisciplines that study specific systems or disease in general.2. Comparative physiology is the study of biological functions of different species.3. Comparative physiology is often the basis of new drugs and new procedures.II. The Origins of Biomedical Science (p. 3–6)A. The Greek and Roman legacy begins with Hippocrates. (p. 3)1. Hippocrates, in Greece ca. 400 BCE, is considered the “father of medicine.”2. Aristotle, in Greece ca. 350 BCE, tried to identify unifying themes in nature.3. Galen, in Rome ca. 160, wrote the most noteworthy medical text of his time.B. Modern medicine began in the Middle Ages and continues to present day. (pp. 3–6) (Fig. 1.1a)1. The Christian culture of Europe in the Middle Ages severely repressed scientific study.2. Rabbi Moses ben Maimon (Maimonides), ca. 1180, wrote 10 medical texts.3. Ibn Sina (Avicenna), ca. 1000, wrote The Canon of Medicine, which was the leading text in Europe for 500 years.4. In China, medical arts evolved independently from those in Europe.5. Modern Western medicine began in the sixteenth century when the Catholic Church relaxed rules against dissection.a. Andreas Vesalius, ca. 1530, taught anatomy and was able to conduct autopsies. (Fig. 1.1b)i. Vesalius found that much of the anatomy of Galen was wrong. ii. Vesalius published the first atlas of anatomy in 1543.b. William Harvey, ca. 1630, was to physiology what Vesalius was to anatomy. i. Harvey and Michael Servetus discovered the continuous circulation of blood.c. Robert Hooke, ca. 1670, designed microscopes and was able to view cells. (Fig. 1.2)d. Antony van Leeuwenhoek, ca. 1665, improved the magnification of microscopes to about 200×.e. Carl Zeiss and Ernst Abbe, in the mid-1800s, improved the compound microscope.f. Schleiden and Schwann, also in the mid-1800s, set forth the cell theory—that all organisms were composed of cells.6. Until the twentieth century, medicine was not practiced by physicians trained in scientific disciplines.C. The twentieth century was a time of medical revolution, and the twenty-first century promises further advances in genetics and technology. (p. 6)III. Scientific Method (pp. 6–9)A. In Europe, during the 1600s, Francis Bacon and Rene Descartes viewed science as capable of becoming a systematic method of study that would have enormous implications for human health and welfare. (p. 7)B. The scientific method is a combination of disciplined creativity, careful observation, logical thinking, and honest analysis. (p. 7)C. The inductive method involves making numerous observations and drawing a generalization from them. (p. 7)1. Anatomy is a product of the inductive method.D. The hypothetico–inductive method involves formulating a hypothesis—a possible answer to the question—and then making observations or performing tests to support or refute the hypothesis. (p. 7)E. Proper experimental design helps ensure that results obtained are not biased in some way. (pp. 7–8)1. An adequately large sample size allows greater confidence in results.2. Control groups help ensure that observed differences are due to the factors being tested.3. Use of placebo substances helps to eliminate psychosomatic effects of treatment differences.4. The double-blind method guards against experimenter bias by hiding the identity of the treatment groups versus control groups.5. Statistical testing allows evaluation of whether a result has occurred simply by chance.F. Peer review is evaluation of a completed project by other experts in the field to help ensure honesty, objectivity, and quality of research. (p. 8)G. A scientific fact is information that can be independently verified by any trained person. (p. 8) H. A law of nature is a generalization about the ways in which matter and energy behave. (p. 8)1. Some laws are expressed as verbal statements, such as the law of complementary base pairing in DNA.2. Other laws are expressed as mathematical formulae, such as Boyle’s law about the inverse relation of gas volume to pressure.I. A theory is a statement or set of statements derived from facts, laws, and confirmed hypotheses, such as the cell theory, the fluid-mosaic theory of membranes, and the sliding filament theory of muscle contraction. (p. 8–9)1. The terms law and theory have different meaning in science than in common usage. a. A law of nature is a description; laws do not govern the universe.b. Scientists use the word hypothesis for what in common usage is termed atheory.c. The different usages can be confusing when people conclude that something like evolution is “just a theory,” meaning a guess or conjecture.IV. Human Origins and Adaptations (pp. 9–11)A. The cell theory and the theory of natural selection have broad implications for human origins and understanding the human body. (p. 9)1. Charles Darwin’s book On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection (1859)presented the first well-supported theory of evolution.2. In The Descent of Man (1871), Darwin addressed the issue of human evolution.B. Evolution means the change in the genetic composition of a population of organisms. (p. 9) C. Natural selection is the principle theory of how evolution works. (p. 9)1. Some individuals have hereditary advantages over competitors that allow them to produce more offspring, thus increasing their characteristics in a population.2. Selection pressures are forces such as climate, predators, disease, competition, and the availability of food.3. Adaptations are features of an organism that have evolved in response to selection pressures.4. The DNA of humans has a difference of only 1.6% compared to that of chimpanzees on the basis of hybridization studies.5. Our evolutionary relationship to other species makes possible the testing of drugs on other species, especially those considered closer to us.a. An animal species selected for research on a question is termed a model.Insight 1.1 Vestiges of Human EvolutionD. Humans belong to an order of mammals called Primates, which also includes monkeys and apes. (pp. 10–11)1. The earliest primates were descended from squirrel-sized insectivores that lived in trees 60 million years ago.2. The shoulder of these early primates adapted to become more mobile, allowing reaching in any direction.a. Arboreal animals also developed fully opposable thumbs that made hands prehensile, or able to grasp branches. (Fig. 1.3a)3. Eyes of primates became more forward-facing, allowing for stereoscopic vision. (Fig. 1.3b)4. Color vision, rare in mammals, also evolved in primates.a. Color vision allowed identification of ripe fruits and tender young leaves.5. Humans did not evolve from monkeys or apes, but from a common ancestor.E. Four to five million years ago, primates living on savanna (grassland) evolved adaptations that allowed them to walk upright. (p. 11)1. Bipedalism means standing and walking on two legs, and adaptations of the feet, legs, pelvis, spine, skull, and arms were necessary.a. Fossil footprints of bipedal primates have been found dating to 3.6 million years ago.2. Brain volume increased dramatically as adaptations for bipedalism occurred.a. Increased skull size would make birth difficult and may explain why human infants are born in an immature state.b. Helplessness of young increased the need for parental care and may explain the development of family ties.3. The oldest bipedal primates were in the genus Australopithecus.4. About 2.5 million years ago, the genus Homo arose.a. Homo erectus migrated from Africa to parts of Asia about 1.8 million years ago.b. Homo sapiens originated in Africa about 200,000 years ago, and is the sole surviving hominid species.F. Evolutionary medicine is an emerging science studying the differences between the environment Homo sapiens were biologically adapted to and the environment in which we live. (p. 11)V. Human Structure (pp. 11–13)A. Humans exhibit a hierarchy of complexity in body structures. (pp. 11–12) (Fig. 1.4)1. The organism is a single, complete individual.2. An organ system is a group of organs with a unique collective function.a. Examples of organ systems include circulation, respiration, and digestion. b. The human body has 11 organ systems.3. An organ is a structure composed of two or more tissue types that work together to carry out a particular function.a. Organs have definite anatomical boundaries and are distinguishable from other structures.b. Organs within organs exist. The skin is the body’s largest organ, but contains thousands of smaller organs such as glands, hairs, nerves, etc.4. A tissue is a mass of similar cells and cell products that forms a discrete region in an organ and carries out a specific function.a. The body is composed of only four primary tissue classes: epithelial, connective, nervous, and muscular.5. Cells are the smallest units of an organism that carry out all the basic functions of life.6. Organelles are microscopic structures in a cell that carry out its individual functions. a. Examples include mitochondria, centrosomes, and lysosomes.7. Molecules are groups of two or more atoms bonded together.8. Cells and their organelles contain highly complex macromolecules.9. Atoms are the smallest particles of matter that have unique chemical identities.10. Reductionism is the theory that a large, complex system can be understood by studying its simpler components.a. Reductionism has been a highly productive approach, but is not the last word in understanding human life.11. Holism is the theory that whole organisms have “emergent properties” that cannot be predicted from the properties of their component parts.a. Human beings are more than the sum of their parts.b. To be most effective, health-care providers must treat the whole person, not just a disease or an organ system.B. Anatomical variation is normal, and reference books and materials usually provide only the most common form based on 70% of the population. (p. 14) (Fig. 1.5)1. Some people lack certain organs, such as certain muscles.2. Some people have variations in structures, such as four or six lumbar vertebrae instead of five, or differences in number and morphology of kidneys.Insight 1.2 Situs Inversus and Other Unusual AnatomyVI. Human Function (pp. 13–19)A. Life is characterized by several properties: organization, cellular composition, metabolism and excretion, responsiveness and movement, homeostasis, development, reproduction, and evolution. (pp. 13–15)1. Living things exhibit a higher level of organization than the nonliving world around them.2. Living matter is composed of cells.3. Living things take in molecules from the environment, change them, and excrete molecules they can no longer use.a. Metabolism is the sum of all internal chemical changes and comprisesanabolism, or synthesis reactions, and catabolism, or breakdown reactions.b. Excretion is required to remove the waste molecules produced by metabolism.4. Organisms can react to stimuli and are capable of movement.a. The ability to sense and react to stimuli is called responsiveness, irritability,or excitability.b. Most organisms can move from place to place, or are at least capable of moving materials internally within their bodies and cells.5. Homeostasis is the ability to maintain stable internal conditions.6. Development is any change in form or function over an organism’s lifetime.a. Differentiation is the transformation of generalized cells into cells with specialized tasks.b. Growth is an increase in size and occurs via chemical change.7. All living things are capable of producing copies of themselves (offspring) and passing on their genes.8. All living species exhibit genetic change from generation to generation and thereforeevolve.a. Mutations, changes in DNA structure, are inevitable.b. Selection pressures mean that some individuals will be more successful than others.c. Clinical and legal criteria for life are different from the biological criteria. A person may be declared legally dead if they show no brain function for 24 hours, no reflexes, no respiration, and no heartbeat other than provided by artificial means.B. Physiological variables differ depending on sex, age, weight, diet, activity, environment, etc.(p. 15)1. Values given in textbooks are for a healthy young adult, unless otherwise stated.C. Homeostasis is the ability to maintain stable internal conditions, and it is accomplished by the body’s negative feedback mechanisms. (pp. 15–17)1. Physiology is largely a group of mechanisms for maintaining homeostasis. a. Loss of homeostatic control can lead to illness or death.b. Pathophysiology studies unstable conditions.2. Internal conditions are not constant but fluctuate within a range.a. The internal state of the body is best described as dynamic equilibrium.b. The body’s characteristics, such as temperature, tend to vary around a certain set point or average value.3. Negative feedback is a process in which the body senses a change and activates a process to reverse it.a. A thermostat that controls room temperature is an example of a negative feedback system.i. The thermostat is set to a temperature—the set point.ii. The furnace turns on when the temperature drops too low, and off when the temperature rises above the set point.b. Feedback mechanisms are often called feedback loops because they alter the changes that triggered them. (Fig. 1.6a)4. Body temperature is regulated by a negative feedback system. (Fig. 1.6b)Insight 1.3 Men in the Ovena. When overheated, the body’s internal “thermostat” in the brain triggers vasodilation (widening of blood vessels) in the skin to lose heat to the air, and activates sweating for evaporative cooling.b. When chilled, the body’s thermostat triggers vasoconstriction (narrowing of blood vessels) in the skin to retain heat, and activates shivering to generate heat from muscles.5. Blood pressure is also regulated by negative feedback. (Fig. 1.7)a. If pressure is too low, baroreceptors in the wall of large arteries near the heart send signals to a cardiac center in the brain stem.b. The cardiac center increases the heart rate to raise blood pressure.6. Feedback loops include a receptor, an integrating (control) center, and an effector that brings about a change.D. Positive feedback is a self-amplifying cycle. (p. 17) (Fig. 1.8)1. In positive feedback, a physiological change leads to an even greater change in the same direction.2. The process of birth is an example of a positive feedback loop.a. Oxytocin is the hormone responsible for stimulation of uterine contractions, which build in a positive feedback cycle until the fetus is expelled.b. Blood clotting, protein digestion, and the generation of nerve signals are other examples of processes that utilize positive feedback.3. Positive feedback may be harmful or life-threatening if the effects of the loop push the body too far from homeostasis.a. Fever is one example; if the body’s temperature rises above 104°F, the metabolic rate increases, which causes the body’s temperature to rise further.E. Matter and energy tend to flow down gradients. (pp. 17–19) (Fig. 1.9)1. A physiological gradient is a difference in variables, such as chemical concentration, electrical charge, physical pressure, or temperature, between two points.a. Movement from a point of higher value to a point of lower value represents movement down the gradient.b. Movement from a point of lower value to a point of higher value represents movement up the gradient.2. Matter and energy in the body flow down gradients, without the expenditure of energy. Movement in the opposite direction (up the gradient) requires energy.a. Blood circulation is an example of movement down a pressure gradient. With each heartbeat, blood flows down its pressure gradient away from the heart. (Fig. 1.9b)b. Dietary starch flows down its concentration gradient from the intestinal space into the intestinal cells. (Fig. 1.9c)c. Charged particles flow down electrical gradients. Increasing sodium ions outside of a cell (causing the outer surface of the cell to have a relatively positive charge and the inner surface a relatively negative charge) and opening sodium channels will result in sodium flowing down their electrical gradient. (Fig. 1.9d)VII. The Language of Medicine (pp. 19–21)A. Anatomical terminology is codified in the Terminologia Anatomica (TA) (1998). (p. 19)1. About 90% of medical terms are formed from just 1,200 Greek and Latin roots.2. Many structures were given eponyms, terms coined from the names of people.B. Scientific terms are typically composed of one or more of these elements: roots, combining vowels, prefixes, and suffixes. (pp. 19–20)1. A root has the core meaning of the word: In cardiology, the root is cardi- (heart).2. A combining vowel is often inserted to join roots, such as the a in ligament and the uin ovulation.3. A prefix may modify the core meaning, such as epigastric, hypogastric, endogastric,etc.4. A suffix may also modify the core meaning, such as microscope, microscopy, andmicroscopist.5. Being able to break down a word into its components helps one to understand and remember its meaning, but this approach is no help with acronyms—words that are formed from the first letter or letters of a group of words, such as PET scan (for positron emission tomography).C. Plurals, adjectival, and possessive forms of medical terms follow a set of rules based on the languages of origin. (pp. 20–21) (Table 1.1)Insight 1.4 Obscure Word Origins1. Brachium denotes the arm, and brachii means “of the arm,” etc.2. Digiti means “of a single finger or toe,” but digitorum means “of multiple fingers or toes,” etc.3. Following the Greek and Latin practice, adjectives are placed after the noun.D. Pronunciation is an important part of anatomical terminology. Simple pronunciation guides are given in this book. (p. 21)E. Precision is critical in spelling medical terms, because a simple error in one letter may misidentify the structure or disease being discussed. (p. 21)1. Trapezius is a muscle, but trapezium is a bone in the wrist; occipitalis is a muscle name, but occipital is a bone; ileum is part of the small intestine, while ilium is the hip bone; etc.VIII. Review of Major Themes (p. 21)A. Unity of form and function: Form and function complement each other; physiology cannot be divorced from anatomy.B. Cell theory: All structure and function result from the activity of cells. C. Evolution: The human body is a product of evolution.D. Hierarchy of complexity: Human structure can be viewed as a series of levels of complexity. E. Homeostasis: The purpose of most normal physiology is to maintain stable conditions within the body.F. Gradients and flow: Matter and energy tend to flow down gradients.Insight 1.5 Medical Imaging (Fig. 1.10, Fig. 1.11)Cross ReferencesAdditional information on topics mentioned in Chapter 1 can be found in the chapters listed below.Chapter 3 and Chapter 4: CytologyChapter 5: HistologyChapter 22: Boyle’s law ................
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