Current issues in the development of fetal growth ...
Current issues in the development of fetal growth references and standardsEric O. Ohuma1* , Tsi Njim2, Megan C. Sharps31 Nuffield Department of Obstetrics of Medicine, Centre for Tropical Medicine and Global Health, Oxford OX3 7BN, UK2 Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Pembroke Place, Liverpool L3 5QA, United Kingdom.3 Maternal and Fetal Health Research Centre, Division of Developmental Biology and Medicine, School of Medical Sciences, Faculty of Biology, Medicine and Health, University of Manchester, Manchester, UK, M13 9WLCorresponding author* Dr. Eric O. OhumaEmail: eric.ohuma@ndm.ox.ac.ukAbstractPurpose of Review: This paper discusses the current issues in the development of fetal charts and is informed by a scoping review of studies constructing charts between 2012 and 2018.Recent findings: The scoping review of twenty articles revealed that there is still a lack of consensus on how fetal charts should be constructed and whether an international chart that can be applied across populations is feasible. Many of these charts are in clinical use today and directly affect the identification of at-risk newborns that require treatment and nutritional strategies. However, there is no agreement on important design features such as inclusion and exclusion criteria; sample size and agreement on definitions such as what constitutes a healthy population of pregnant women that can be used for constructing fetal standards. Summary: This paper therefore reiterates some of these current issues and the scoping review showcases the heterogeneity in the studies developing fetal charts between 2012 and 2018. There is no consensus on these pertinent issues and hence if not resolved will lead to continued surge of fetal reference and standard charts which will only exacerbate the current problem of not being able to make direct comparisons of fetal size and growth across populations.Important points:A scoping review of 20 studies between 2012 and 2018 showed several differences in the design considerations and methodologies for the development of fetal charts.Important study design features requiring consideration to produce these charts include: the type of approach, sampling methods, sample size and the definition of a healthy population of women.The current point arousing much debate around the construction of fetal growth charts is whether ethnicity plays a role in fetal growth and if it should be taken into account during the creation of these charts.Key words: fetal growth, references, standards, charts, fetal measurements, fetal biometryIntroduction:A reference or standard chart depicts a family of curves representing a few selected centiles of the distribution of some physical characteristic of the reference population as a function of age. Such charts allow an individual to be placed in the context of like individuals. Charts of measurements are useful for assessing humans at all stages: fetuses, neonates, children, and adults. Adolphe Quetelet (1796–1874) was the first to investigate the statistical properties of anthropometry and apply the concept of the normal distribution to anthropometry data ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Cole</Author><Year>2012</Year><RecNum>477</RecNum><DisplayText>(1)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>477</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="f9wzxtppaxzztwez5zr52ezsrsz0vedf0te0" timestamp="1519321447">477</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Cole, T. J.</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>The development of growth references and growth charts</title><secondary-title>Annals of human biology</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Ann Hum Biol</full-title><abbr-1>Annals of human biology</abbr-1></periodical><pages>382-394</pages><volume>39</volume><number>5</number><dates><year>2012</year><pub-dates><date>07/11</date></pub-dates></dates><isbn>0301-4460
1464-5033</isbn><accession-num>PMC3920659</accession-num><urls><related-urls><url>;(1). Francis Galton (1822 - 1911) introduced the use of percentile scores for comparing measurements with the normal distribution using data on attained height from birth to adulthood ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Jensen</Author><Year>2002</Year><RecNum>392</RecNum><DisplayText>(2)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>392</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="f9wzxtppaxzztwez5zr52ezsrsz0vedf0te0" timestamp="1451404300">392</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Jensen, A. R.</author></authors></contributors><auth-address>School of Education, University of California, Berkeley, USA.</auth-address><titles><title>Galton's legacy to research on intelligence</title><secondary-title>J Biosoc Sci</secondary-title><alt-title>Journal of biosocial science</alt-title></titles><periodical><full-title>J Biosoc Sci</full-title><abbr-1>Journal of biosocial science</abbr-1></periodical><alt-periodical><full-title>J Biosoc Sci</full-title><abbr-1>Journal of biosocial science</abbr-1></alt-periodical><pages>145-72</pages><volume>34</volume><number>2</number><edition>2002/04/03</edition><keywords><keyword>Continental Population Groups/genetics</keyword><keyword>Eugenics/*history/methods</keyword><keyword>Factor Analysis, Statistical</keyword><keyword>History, 19th Century</keyword><keyword>History, 20th Century</keyword><keyword>Humans</keyword><keyword>Intelligence/*genetics</keyword><keyword>Intelligence Tests/history</keyword><keyword>Mental Processes</keyword><keyword>Psychometrics/*history/methods</keyword><keyword>Research/history</keyword><keyword>Sex Factors</keyword></keywords><dates><year>2002</year><pub-dates><date>Apr</date></pub-dates></dates><isbn>0021-9320 (Print)
0021-9320</isbn><accession-num>11926452</accession-num><urls></urls><remote-database-provider>NLM</remote-database-provider><language>eng</language></record></Cite></EndNote>(2). A first application of this approach was in growth in height, which is normally distributed from birth to adulthood. Fetal growth monitoring during pregnancy has been an important practice amongst obstetricians usually done to ascertain the health status of a fetus and relevant interventions may be provided when the health of a fetus is compromised PEVuZE5vdGU+PENpdGU+PEF1dGhvcj5CcmljZW5vPC9BdXRob3I+PFllYXI+MjAxMzwvWWVhcj48
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ADDIN EN.CITE.DATA (3, 4). Growth charts are intended to aid clinical judgements. Fetal growth charts are primarily used: to compare the size of a fetus with reference data when gestational age (GA) is known at a specified time PEVuZE5vdGU+PENpdGU+PEF1dGhvcj5QYXBhZ2VvcmdoaW91PC9BdXRob3I+PFllYXI+MjAxNDwv
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ADDIN EN.CITE PEVuZE5vdGU+PENpdGU+PEF1dGhvcj5QYXBhZ2VvcmdoaW91PC9BdXRob3I+PFllYXI+MjAxNDwv
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ZXl3b3JkPk1hdGVybmFsIEFnZTwva2V5d29yZD48a2V5d29yZD5QcmVnbmFuY3k8L2tleXdvcmQ+
PGtleXdvcmQ+UHJvc3BlY3RpdmUgU3R1ZGllczwva2V5d29yZD48a2V5d29yZD5SZWZlcmVuY2Ug
U3RhbmRhcmRzPC9rZXl3b3JkPjxrZXl3b3JkPlVsdHJhc29ub2dyYXBoeSwgUHJlbmF0YWwvc3Rh
bmRhcmRzPC9rZXl3b3JkPjxrZXl3b3JkPlVyYmFuIEhlYWx0aDwva2V5d29yZD48a2V5d29yZD5Z
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dWItZGF0ZXM+PGRhdGU+U2VwIDY8L2RhdGU+PC9wdWItZGF0ZXM+PC9kYXRlcz48aXNibj4xNDc0
LTU0N1ggKEVsZWN0cm9uaWMpJiN4RDswMTQwLTY3MzYgKExpbmtpbmcpPC9pc2JuPjxhY2Nlc3Np
b24tbnVtPjI1MjA5NDg4PC9hY2Nlc3Npb24tbnVtPjx1cmxzPjxyZWxhdGVkLXVybHM+PHVybD5o
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ZE5vdGU+AG==
ADDIN EN.CITE.DATA (5); to estimate GA from fetal size (e.g., crown-rump length, and fetal head circumference are commonly used for this purpose) PEVuZE5vdGU+PENpdGU+PEF1dGhvcj5Sb2JpbnNvbjwvQXV0aG9yPjxZZWFyPjE5NzU8L1llYXI+
PFJlY051bT4xODwvUmVjTnVtPjxEaXNwbGF5VGV4dD4oNi04KTwvRGlzcGxheVRleHQ+PHJlY29y
ZD48cmVjLW51bWJlcj4xODwvcmVjLW51bWJlcj48Zm9yZWlnbi1rZXlzPjxrZXkgYXBwPSJFTiIg
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b24gb2Ygc29uYXIgJnF1b3Q7Y3Jvd24tcnVtcCBsZW5ndGgmcXVvdDsgbWVhc3VyZW1lbnRzPC90
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L3JlYy1udW1iZXI+PGZvcmVpZ24ta2V5cz48a2V5IGFwcD0iRU4iIGRiLWlkPSJmOXd6eHRwcGF4
enp0d2V6NXpyNTJlenNyc3owdmVkZjB0ZTAiIHRpbWVzdGFtcD0iMTQyNjE1OTE2MiI+MjU8L2tl
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c3RldHJpY3MgJmFtcDsgR3luZWNvbG9neTwvc2Vjb25kYXJ5LXRpdGxlPjwvdGl0bGVzPjxwZXJp
b2RpY2FsPjxmdWxsLXRpdGxlPlVsdHJhc291bmQgaW4gT2JzdGV0cmljcyAmYW1wOyBHeW5lY29s
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dWx0cmFzb3VuZCBkYXRpbmcgb2YgcHJlZ25hbmN5PC90aXRsZT48c2Vjb25kYXJ5LXRpdGxlPlVs
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ADDIN EN.CITE PEVuZE5vdGU+PENpdGU+PEF1dGhvcj5Sb2JpbnNvbjwvQXV0aG9yPjxZZWFyPjE5NzU8L1llYXI+
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ADDIN EN.CITE.DATA (9, 10). For example, a fetus classified as being >97th centile according to an estimated fetal weight chart would prompt clinicians to either deliver early or consider a caesarean section to avoid complications that may be associated with delivering a large baby. The systematic review of 83 published reference charts of fetal biometry across 32 countries were identified in 2012 by Ioannou et. al revealed wide variations between the centile values reported by published studies. There was considerable methodological heterogeneity: the charts were based on different populations and created with different sample selection, methodology, and statistical modelling methods ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Ioannou</Author><Year>2012</Year><RecNum>82</RecNum><DisplayText>(11)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>82</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="f9wzxtppaxzztwez5zr52ezsrsz0vedf0te0" timestamp="1430474137">82</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Ioannou, C</author><author>Talbot, K</author><author>Ohuma, E</author><author>Sarris, I</author><author>Villar, J</author><author>Conde‐Agudelo, A</author><author>Papageorghiou, AT</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Systematic review of methodology used in ultrasound studies aimed at creating charts of fetal size</title><secondary-title>BJOG: An International Journal of Obstetrics & Gynaecology</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>BJOG: An International Journal of Obstetrics & Gynaecology</full-title></periodical><pages>1425-1439</pages><volume>119</volume><number>12</number><dates><year>2012</year></dates><isbn>1471-0528</isbn><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(11). The availability of many charts in use is problematic as it has been shown that the choice of a reference chart in a particular setting could have great impact on the assessment of fetal biometric assessments PEVuZE5vdGU+PENpdGU+PEF1dGhvcj5CcmljZW5vPC9BdXRob3I+PFllYXI+MjAxMzwvWWVhcj48
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ADDIN EN.CITE.DATA (3, 12). For example, a study by Salomon et. al. evaluated the impact of using different charts and reported between 2.6% and 23.6% of measurements would be classified as abnormal using three different charts of fetal biometry that are commonly used ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Salomon</Author><Year>2005</Year><RecNum>14</RecNum><DisplayText>(12)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>14</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="er0sssz9rtfttde9tt2vz0fytrdz5d09adwt" timestamp="1525354129">14</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Salomon, L. J.</author><author>Bernard, J. P.</author><author>Duyme, M.</author><author>Buvat, I.</author><author>Ville, Y.</author></authors></contributors><auth-address>Service de Gynecologie-Obstetrique, Centre Hospitalier Intercommunal de Poissy-St Germain, Poissy, France.</auth-address><titles><title>The impact of choice of reference charts and equations on the assessment of fetal biometry</title><secondary-title>Ultrasound Obstet Gynecol</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Ultrasound Obstet Gynecol</full-title></periodical><pages>559-65</pages><volume>25</volume><number>6</number><edition>2005/05/24</edition><keywords><keyword>Biometry/*methods</keyword><keyword>*Choice Behavior</keyword><keyword>Female</keyword><keyword>*Fetal Development</keyword><keyword>Fetus/*anatomy & histology</keyword><keyword>Gestational Age</keyword><keyword>Humans</keyword><keyword>Pregnancy</keyword><keyword>Pregnancy Trimester, Second</keyword><keyword>Pregnancy Trimester, Third</keyword><keyword>Reference Values</keyword><keyword>Sensitivity and Specificity</keyword><keyword>Ultrasonography, Prenatal/*standards</keyword></keywords><dates><year>2005</year><pub-dates><date>Jun</date></pub-dates></dates><isbn>0960-7692 (Print)
0960-7692 (Linking)</isbn><accession-num>15909324</accession-num><urls><related-urls><url>;(12). Due to these differences in the data used in the creation of each fetal growth chart, comparisons between them are difficult. These differences in fetal growth charts with the need to be able to make direct comparisons were the motivation for the World Health Organisation (WHO) in 1995 to advocate for the creation of a single universal chart that could be used globally to assess fetal and child growth which reflects recent health and feeding recommendations of different populations and settings ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>WHO Working Group on Infant Growth</Author><Year>1995</Year><RecNum>15</RecNum><DisplayText>(13)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>15</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="er0sssz9rtfttde9tt2vz0fytrdz5d09adwt" timestamp="1525355376">15</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>WHO Working Group on Infant Growth,</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>An evaluation of infant growth: the use and interpretation of anthropometry in infants.</title><secondary-title>Bull World Health Organ</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Bull World Health Organ</full-title></periodical><pages>165-74</pages><volume>73</volume><dates><year>1995</year></dates><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(13). This recommendation attracted several debates over the varying effects of various factors like environmental and genetic influences on fetal growth ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Lunde</Author><Year>2007</Year><RecNum>45</RecNum><DisplayText>(14)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>45</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="sfwzzr0wowp29we2r9ovf9posdeesa9990sd" timestamp="1527186670">45</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Lunde, Astrid</author><author>Melve, Kari Klungs?yr</author><author>Gjessing, H?kon K.</author><author>Skj?rven, Rolv</author><author>Irgens, Lorentz M.</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Genetic and Environmental Influences on Birth Weight, Birth Length, Head Circumference, and Gestational Age by Use of Population-based Parent-Offspring Data</title><secondary-title>American Journal of Epidemiology</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>American Journal of Epidemiology</full-title></periodical><pages>734-741</pages><volume>165</volume><number>7</number><dates><year>2007</year></dates><isbn>0002-9262</isbn><urls><related-urls><url>;(14). However, regardless of which growth chart is used clinically, there are design and methodological constructs that must be taken into consideration. To understand and summarise current issues in the developments of fetal references and standards, we did a quick review (by no means exhaustive) of studies published between 2012 and 2018 whose aim was to construct fetal references or standards. The review was aimed at understanding and highlighting the current debates and schools of thought regarding the development of fetal growth references and standards. We focussed on studies in the last 5 years as they represent a time period where three large prospective studies purposely designed to construct fetal growth charts for wide use were published i.e., the international fetal charts from the INTERGROWTH-21st Project PEVuZE5vdGU+PENpdGU+PEF1dGhvcj5QYXBhZ2VvcmdoaW91PC9BdXRob3I+PFllYXI+MjAxNDwv
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ADDIN EN.CITE.DATA (5), the WHO fetal growth charts intended for international application ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Kiserud</Author><Year>2017</Year><RecNum>485</RecNum><DisplayText>(15)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>485</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="f9wzxtppaxzztwez5zr52ezsrsz0vedf0te0" timestamp="1528286093">485</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Kiserud, Torvid</author><author>Piaggio, Gilda</author><author>Carroli, Guillermo</author><author>Widmer, Mariana</author><author>Carvalho, José</author><author>Neerup Jensen, Lisa</author><author>Giordano, Daniel</author><author>Cecatti, José Guilherme</author><author>Abdel Aleem, Hany</author><author>Talegawkar, Sameera A.</author><author>Benachi, Alexandra</author><author>Diemert, Anke</author><author>Tshefu Kitoto, Antoinette</author><author>Thinkhamrop, Jadsada</author><author>Lumbiganon, Pisake</author><author>Tabor, Ann</author><author>Kriplani, Alka</author><author>Gonzalez Perez, Rogelio</author><author>Hecher, Kurt</author><author>Hanson, Mark A.</author><author>Gülmezoglu, A. Metin</author><author>Platt, Lawrence D.</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>The World Health Organization Fetal Growth Charts: A Multinational Longitudinal Study of Ultrasound Biometric Measurements and Estimated Fetal Weight</title><secondary-title>PLOS Medicine</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>PLOS Medicine</full-title></periodical><pages>e1002220</pages><volume>14</volume><number>1</number><dates><year>2017</year></dates><publisher>Public Library of Science</publisher><urls><related-urls><url>;(15), and the National Institute of Child Health and Human Development fetal charts that were ethnic specific PEVuZE5vdGU+PENpdGU+PEF1dGhvcj5CdWNrPC9BdXRob3I+PFllYXI+MjAxNTwvWWVhcj48UmVj
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ADDIN EN.CITE.DATA (16).Scoping reviewSearch strategy:We searched MEDLINE via PubMed from January 2012 to April 2018 to identify studies that constructed fetal growth charts for fetal growth assessment. The search strategy used was adapted from a previous systematic review by Ioannou et al ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Ioannou</Author><Year>2012</Year><RecNum>20</RecNum><DisplayText>(17)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>20</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="er0sssz9rtfttde9tt2vz0fytrdz5d09adwt" timestamp="1525358119">20</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Ioannou, C.</author><author>Talbot, K.</author><author>Ohuma, E.</author><author>Sarris, I.</author><author>Villar, J.</author><author>Conde-Agudelo, A.</author><author>Papageorghiou, A. T.</author></authors></contributors><auth-address>Nuffield Department of Obstetrics and Gynaecology, University of Oxford, UK.</auth-address><titles><title>Systematic review of methodology used in ultrasound studies aimed at creating charts of fetal size</title><secondary-title>BJOG</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>BJOG</full-title></periodical><pages>1425-39</pages><volume>119</volume><number>12</number><edition>2012/08/14</edition><keywords><keyword>Abdomen/diagnostic imaging/embryology</keyword><keyword>Anthropometry/*methods</keyword><keyword>Data Interpretation, Statistical</keyword><keyword>Female</keyword><keyword>Femur/diagnostic imaging/embryology</keyword><keyword>*Fetal Development</keyword><keyword>*Growth Charts</keyword><keyword>Head/diagnostic imaging/embryology</keyword><keyword>Humans</keyword><keyword>Parietal Bone/diagnostic imaging/embryology</keyword><keyword>Pregnancy</keyword><keyword>Regression Analysis</keyword><keyword>Research Design/*standards</keyword><keyword>Research Report</keyword><keyword>Ultrasonography, Prenatal/*methods/standards</keyword></keywords><dates><year>2012</year><pub-dates><date>Nov</date></pub-dates></dates><isbn>1471-0528 (Electronic)
1470-0328 (Linking)</isbn><accession-num>22882780</accession-num><urls><related-urls><url>;(17) shown in Table 1. In addition, reference lists of all articles included were similarly searched for potential relevant articles. The search included book chapters and documents from organisations such as WHO, and the United States Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) but excluded abstracts from conference proceedings. The initial search yielded 180 articles. After a review of the titles and abstracts, 27 articles were selected for closer consideration. From the 27 articles, twenty studies produced fetal growth references or standards. A summary of the characteristics of the included studies are shown in Table 2 with details on study designs used and the intended purpose of the study. Table 1: Search strategySearch strategy(((fetal OR foetal OR fetus OR foetus) AND growth) OR ((fetal OR foetal OR fetus OR foetus) AND biometr*)) OR (reference adj (curve* OR chart* OR index OR indices OR equation* OR value* OR range* OR equation* OR centile* OR percentile*)) OR (biometr* adj (curve* OR chart* OR index OR indices OR equation* OR value* OR range* OR equation* OR centile* OR percentile*)) OR (size adj (chart* OR curve*)) OR (dating adj (curve* OR chart*))*Reference Values/Ultrasonography, Prenatal/(ultrasound* OR ultrasonogra* OR sonogra*)Table 2: Summary of the characteristics of the included studies ReferenceCountrySample size (Number recruited)DesignType of populationType of samplingRecruitment periodChorionicityFetal MeasurementsStatistical methodologyType of chartIntended useShivkumar et al, 2015 PEVuZE5vdGU+PENpdGU+PEF1dGhvcj5TaGl2a3VtYXI8L0F1dGhvcj48WWVhcj4yMDE1PC9ZZWFy
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ADDIN EN.CITE.DATA (18)Canada642RetrospectiveAll inclusiveHospital based>34 weeksTwinsWeightMultilevel linear regression modelsReferenceNot clearDaniel-Spiegel et al, 2016 ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Daniel-Spiegel</Author><Year>2016</Year><RecNum>38</RecNum><DisplayText>(19)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>38</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="er0sssz9rtfttde9tt2vz0fytrdz5d09adwt" timestamp="1525429147">38</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Daniel-Spiegel, E.</author><author>Mandel, M.</author><author>Nevo, D.</author><author>Ben-Chetrit, A.</author><author>Shen, O.</author><author>Shalev, E.</author><author>Yagel, S.</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Fetal Biometry in the Israeli Population: New Reference Charts</title><secondary-title>Isr Med Assoc J</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Isr Med Assoc J</full-title></periodical><pages>40-4</pages><volume>18</volume><number>1</number><edition>2016/03/12</edition><keywords><keyword>Biometry/*methods</keyword><keyword>Cohort Studies</keyword><keyword>Female</keyword><keyword>Fetal Development/*physiology</keyword><keyword>Fetus/*anatomy & histology</keyword><keyword>Gestational Age</keyword><keyword>Humans</keyword><keyword>Israel</keyword><keyword>Pregnancy</keyword><keyword>Reference Values</keyword><keyword>Retrospective Studies</keyword><keyword>*Ultrasonography, Prenatal</keyword></keywords><dates><year>2016</year><pub-dates><date>Jan</date></pub-dates></dates><isbn>1565-1088 (Print)</isbn><accession-num>26964279</accession-num><urls><related-urls><url>;(19)Israel79,328RetrospectiveAll inclusiveHospital based14 – 42 weeksSingletonBPD, HC, AC and FLQuintile regressionReferenceLocalDias et al, 2016 ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Dias</Author><Year>2016</Year><RecNum>43</RecNum><DisplayText>(20)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>43</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="er0sssz9rtfttde9tt2vz0fytrdz5d09adwt" timestamp="1525429201">43</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Dias, T.</author><author>Abeykoon, S.</author><author>Kumarasiri, S.</author><author>Gunawardena, C.</author><author>Pragasan, G.</author><author>Padeniya, T.</author><author>Pathmeswaran, A.</author></authors></contributors><auth-address>District General Hospital, Ampara and Faculty of Medicine, University of Kelaniya, Sri Lanka. thiran_dias@.</auth-address><titles><title>Symphysis-pubis fundal height charts to assess fetal size in women with a normal body mass index</title><secondary-title>Ceylon Med J</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Ceylon Med J</full-title></periodical><pages>106-112</pages><volume>61</volume><number>3</number><edition>2016/10/12</edition><keywords><keyword>Adult</keyword><keyword>Anthropometry/methods</keyword><keyword>Body Mass Index</keyword><keyword>*Body Size</keyword><keyword>Cross-Sectional Studies</keyword><keyword>Female</keyword><keyword>*Fetal Development</keyword><keyword>Gestational Age</keyword><keyword>Humans</keyword><keyword>Pregnancy</keyword><keyword>Pubic Symphysis/*anatomy & histology</keyword><keyword>Reference Values</keyword><keyword>Sri Lanka/epidemiology</keyword><keyword>Ultrasonography, Prenatal/*methods</keyword></keywords><dates><year>2016</year><pub-dates><date>Sept</date></pub-dates></dates><isbn>0009-0875 (Print)
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ADDIN EN.CITE.DATA (3)Colombia792Cross-sectionalHealthy popHospital based12 – 40 weeksSingletonHC, AC, FDLfractional polynomialregression modelsReferenceLocalLiao et al, 2012 ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Liao</Author><Year>2012</Year><RecNum>54</RecNum><DisplayText>(22)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>54</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="er0sssz9rtfttde9tt2vz0fytrdz5d09adwt" timestamp="1525430272">54</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Liao, A. W.</author><author>Brizot Mde, L.</author><author>Kang, H. J.</author><author>Assuncao, R. A.</author><author>Zugaib, M.</author></authors></contributors><auth-address>Hospital das Clinicas, Instituto Central, Faculdade de Medicina, Universidade de Sao Paulo, Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Brazil. liao@usp.br</auth-address><titles><title>Longitudinal reference ranges for fetal ultrasound biometry in twin pregnancies</title><secondary-title>Clinics (Sao Paulo)</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Clinics (Sao Paulo)</full-title></periodical><pages>451-5</pages><volume>67</volume><number>5</number><edition>2012/06/06</edition><keywords><keyword>Abdomen/diagnostic imaging</keyword><keyword>Adult</keyword><keyword>*Biometry</keyword><keyword>Female</keyword><keyword>Femur/diagnostic imaging</keyword><keyword>*Fetal Development</keyword><keyword>Fetal Weight/physiology</keyword><keyword>Gestational Age</keyword><keyword>Head/diagnostic imaging</keyword><keyword>Humans</keyword><keyword>Occipital Bone/diagnostic imaging</keyword><keyword>Pregnancy</keyword><keyword>Pregnancy, Twin/*physiology</keyword><keyword>Prospective Studies</keyword><keyword>Reference Values</keyword><keyword>*Ultrasonography, Prenatal</keyword></keywords><dates><year>2012</year></dates><isbn>1980-5322 (Electronic)
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ADDIN EN.CITE.DATA (25)Brazil333Cross-sectional, retrospectiveNot clearHospital based14 – 38 weeksTwinBPD, AC, FL and EFWpolynomial regression modelsReferenceLocalKwon et al, 2014 ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Kwon</Author><Year>2014</Year><RecNum>50</RecNum><DisplayText>(26)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>50</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="er0sssz9rtfttde9tt2vz0fytrdz5d09adwt" timestamp="1525429996">50</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Kwon, J. Y.</author><author>Park, I. Y.</author><author>Wie, J. H.</author><author>Choe, S.</author><author>Kim, C. J.</author><author>Shin, J. C.</author></authors></contributors><auth-address>Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, The Catholic University of Korea, Seoul, Korea.</auth-address><titles><title>Fetal biometry in the Korean population: reference charts and comparison with charts from other populations</title><secondary-title>Prenat Diagn</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Prenat Diagn</full-title></periodical><pages>927-34</pages><volume>34</volume><number>10</number><edition>2014/04/25</edition><keywords><keyword>Anthropometry</keyword><keyword>Asian Continental Ancestry Group/statistics & numerical data</keyword><keyword>Cross-Sectional Studies</keyword><keyword>Female</keyword><keyword>Fetal Development</keyword><keyword>Gestational Age</keyword><keyword>Humans</keyword><keyword>Pregnancy</keyword><keyword>Prospective Studies</keyword><keyword>Reference Values</keyword><keyword>Republic of Korea</keyword><keyword>*Ultrasonography, Prenatal</keyword></keywords><dates><year>2014</year><pub-dates><date>Oct</date></pub-dates></dates><isbn>1097-0223 (Electronic)
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ADDIN EN.CITE.DATA (28)USA119LongitudinalNot clearHospital based>17 weeksSingletonBPD, HC, FDL, AC, ThC, HDL, MAC, FAV, FTVtwo-levelmixed-effects modellingReferenceLocalJiang et al, 2013 ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Jiang</Author><Year>2013</Year><RecNum>48</RecNum><DisplayText>(29)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>48</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="er0sssz9rtfttde9tt2vz0fytrdz5d09adwt" timestamp="1525429873">48</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Jiang, X.</author><author>Zhang, Y. H.</author><author>Li, Y.</author><author>Ma, X.</author><author>Zhu, Y. S.</author><author>Shang, L.</author></authors></contributors><auth-address>Department of Paediatrics, Tangdu Hospital, Fourth Military Medical University, Xi'an, Shaanxi, China.</auth-address><titles><title>Reference charts and equations of fetal biometry for normal singleton pregnant women in Shaanxi, China</title><secondary-title>Clin Exp Obstet Gynecol</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Clin Exp Obstet Gynecol</full-title></periodical><pages>393-8</pages><volume>40</volume><number>3</number><edition>2013/11/29</edition><keywords><keyword>Adult</keyword><keyword>Animals</keyword><keyword>*Asian Continental Ancestry Group</keyword><keyword>Biometry</keyword><keyword>China</keyword><keyword>Cross-Sectional Studies</keyword><keyword>Female</keyword><keyword>Femur/anatomy & histology</keyword><keyword>Fetus/*anatomy & histology</keyword><keyword>Gestational Age</keyword><keyword>Humans</keyword><keyword>Pregnancy</keyword><keyword>Reference Values</keyword><keyword>*Ultrasonography, Prenatal</keyword><keyword>Waist Circumference</keyword></keywords><dates><year>2013</year></dates><isbn>0390-6663 (Print)
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ADDIN EN.CITE.DATA (30)Ethnic greek1200LongitudinalAll inclusiveHospital based>16 weeksSingletonBPD, HC, AC, FL, FTVPolynomial regressionReferenceLocalStirrup et al, 2015 PEVuZE5vdGU+PENpdGU+PEF1dGhvcj5TdGlycnVwPC9BdXRob3I+PFllYXI+MjAxNTwvWWVhcj48
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ADDIN EN.CITE.DATA (31)England2025RetrospectiveAll inclusiveHospital based>14 weeksTwinBPD, HC, AC, FLMultilevel mixed-effects statistical modelsReferenceLocalRizzo et al, 2016 PEVuZE5vdGU+PENpdGU+PEF1dGhvcj5SaXp6bzwvQXV0aG9yPjxZZWFyPjIwMTY8L1llYXI+PFJl
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ADDIN EN.CITE.DATA (32)Italy8070RetrospectiveAll inclusiveHospital basedFirst trimesterSingletonBPD, HC, AC, FLQuantile regressionReferenceLocal/gender-specificMoety et al, 2015 PEVuZE5vdGU+PENpdGU+PEF1dGhvcj5BYmRlbCBGYXR0YWggQWJkZWwgTW9ldHk8L0F1dGhvcj48
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ADDIN EN.CITE.DATA (33)Egypt334Cross-sectionalHealthy popHospital based20 – 41 weeksSingletonFTVMultivariable linear regression modelReferenceLocalPapageorghiou et al, 2014 PEVuZE5vdGU+PENpdGU+PEF1dGhvcj5QYXBhZ2VvcmdoaW91PC9BdXRob3I+PFllYXI+MjAxNDwv
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ADDIN EN.CITE.DATA (34)International1387LongitudinalHealthy popHospital basedFirst trimesterSingletonHC, BPD, AC, FL, HL, FFLpolynomial regression methods, using the generalizedestimating equations methodStandardsInternationalFetal biparietal diameter (BPD), head circumference (HC), abdominal circumference (AC) and femur length (FL), symphysis-pubis fundal height (SFH), femur diaphysis length (FDL), estimated fetal weight (EFL), Humeral length (HL), ulnar length (UL), mid-thigh circumference (ThC), humerus diaphysis length (HDL), mid-arm circumference (MAC), fractional arm volume (FAV), fractional thigh volume (FTV), occipitofrontal diameter (OFD), triceps and subscapular skinfold thicknesses (TSST), Fetal Foot Length (FFL); NC: Not clearSummary findings from the scoping reviewOf the twenty studies, three aimed to develop fetal standards and were all longitudinal studies (the INTERGROWTH-21st project, the NICHD fetal growth studies and the WHO fetal study). Two of the three studies which established standards (the INTERGROWTH 21st project and the WHO fetal study were done in multiple countries while the NICHD fetal growth study was done only in the USA. The other seventeen studies were done in single countries: four in Europe, four in Asia, three in North America, four in South America, one in the Middle East and one in North Africa. The purpose of the study by Dias et al ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Dias</Author><Year>2016</Year><RecNum>43</RecNum><DisplayText>(20)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>43</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="er0sssz9rtfttde9tt2vz0fytrdz5d09adwt" timestamp="1525429201">43</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Dias, T.</author><author>Abeykoon, S.</author><author>Kumarasiri, S.</author><author>Gunawardena, C.</author><author>Pragasan, G.</author><author>Padeniya, T.</author><author>Pathmeswaran, A.</author></authors></contributors><auth-address>District General Hospital, Ampara and Faculty of Medicine, University of Kelaniya, Sri Lanka. thiran_dias@.</auth-address><titles><title>Symphysis-pubis fundal height charts to assess fetal size in women with a normal body mass index</title><secondary-title>Ceylon Med J</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Ceylon Med J</full-title></periodical><pages>106-112</pages><volume>61</volume><number>3</number><edition>2016/10/12</edition><keywords><keyword>Adult</keyword><keyword>Anthropometry/methods</keyword><keyword>Body Mass Index</keyword><keyword>*Body Size</keyword><keyword>Cross-Sectional Studies</keyword><keyword>Female</keyword><keyword>*Fetal Development</keyword><keyword>Gestational Age</keyword><keyword>Humans</keyword><keyword>Pregnancy</keyword><keyword>Pubic Symphysis/*anatomy & histology</keyword><keyword>Reference Values</keyword><keyword>Sri Lanka/epidemiology</keyword><keyword>Ultrasonography, Prenatal/*methods</keyword></keywords><dates><year>2016</year><pub-dates><date>Sept</date></pub-dates></dates><isbn>0009-0875 (Print)
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ADDIN EN.CITE.DATA (16, 17, 22, 24) while the remaining twelve studies were all based on a cross-sectional design. Five studies established references for twins and 11 studies included healthy populations in their samples. The definition of healthy populations varied greatly amongst these studies making comparisons difficult. For example, Dias et al defined healthy pregnant women as those who did not have a relevant past medical history, were not on long term medications, had no evidence of socio-economic constraints likely to impede fetal growth, no use of tobacco, recreational drugs or alcohol use, no evidence of urinary tract infections or renal disease on urinalysis, had a systolic blood pressure <140 mmHg and diastolic blood pressure <90 mmHg, no diagnosis or treatment for anaemia during pregnancy and not in an occupation with risk of exposure to chemicals or toxic substances ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Dias</Author><Year>2016</Year><RecNum>43</RecNum><DisplayText>(20)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>43</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="er0sssz9rtfttde9tt2vz0fytrdz5d09adwt" timestamp="1525429201">43</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Dias, T.</author><author>Abeykoon, S.</author><author>Kumarasiri, S.</author><author>Gunawardena, C.</author><author>Pragasan, G.</author><author>Padeniya, T.</author><author>Pathmeswaran, A.</author></authors></contributors><auth-address>District General Hospital, Ampara and Faculty of Medicine, University of Kelaniya, Sri Lanka. thiran_dias@.</auth-address><titles><title>Symphysis-pubis fundal height charts to assess fetal size in women with a normal body mass index</title><secondary-title>Ceylon Med J</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Ceylon Med J</full-title></periodical><pages>106-112</pages><volume>61</volume><number>3</number><edition>2016/10/12</edition><keywords><keyword>Adult</keyword><keyword>Anthropometry/methods</keyword><keyword>Body Mass Index</keyword><keyword>*Body Size</keyword><keyword>Cross-Sectional Studies</keyword><keyword>Female</keyword><keyword>*Fetal Development</keyword><keyword>Gestational Age</keyword><keyword>Humans</keyword><keyword>Pregnancy</keyword><keyword>Pubic Symphysis/*anatomy & histology</keyword><keyword>Reference Values</keyword><keyword>Sri Lanka/epidemiology</keyword><keyword>Ultrasonography, Prenatal/*methods</keyword></keywords><dates><year>2016</year><pub-dates><date>Sept</date></pub-dates></dates><isbn>0009-0875 (Print)
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ADDIN EN.CITE.DATA (21). Brice?o et al included women without maternal disease that may have affected fetal growth, such as hypertension, preeclampsia, diabetes mellitus, and renal disease PEVuZE5vdGU+PENpdGU+PEF1dGhvcj5CcmljZW5vPC9BdXRob3I+PFllYXI+MjAxMzwvWWVhcj48
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ADDIN EN.CITE.DATA (3) which was similar to the inclusion criteria of Araujo Júnior et al (women with absence of maternal diseases and absence of fetal malformations on sonography) PEVuZE5vdGU+PENpdGU+PEF1dGhvcj5BcmF1am8gSnVuaW9yPC9BdXRob3I+PFllYXI+MjAxNDwv
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ADDIN EN.CITE.DATA (24), Jiang et al (women without maternal diseases, such as hypertension, pre-eclampsia, diabetes mellitus, renal disease; multiple pregnancies; and fetuses without congenital malformations, chromosomal abnormalities, or intrauterine growth retardation) ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Jiang</Author><Year>2013</Year><RecNum>48</RecNum><DisplayText>(29)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>48</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="er0sssz9rtfttde9tt2vz0fytrdz5d09adwt" timestamp="1525429873">48</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Jiang, X.</author><author>Zhang, Y. H.</author><author>Li, Y.</author><author>Ma, X.</author><author>Zhu, Y. S.</author><author>Shang, L.</author></authors></contributors><auth-address>Department of Paediatrics, Tangdu Hospital, Fourth Military Medical University, Xi'an, Shaanxi, China.</auth-address><titles><title>Reference charts and equations of fetal biometry for normal singleton pregnant women in Shaanxi, China</title><secondary-title>Clin Exp Obstet Gynecol</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Clin Exp Obstet Gynecol</full-title></periodical><pages>393-8</pages><volume>40</volume><number>3</number><edition>2013/11/29</edition><keywords><keyword>Adult</keyword><keyword>Animals</keyword><keyword>*Asian Continental Ancestry Group</keyword><keyword>Biometry</keyword><keyword>China</keyword><keyword>Cross-Sectional Studies</keyword><keyword>Female</keyword><keyword>Femur/anatomy & histology</keyword><keyword>Fetus/*anatomy & histology</keyword><keyword>Gestational Age</keyword><keyword>Humans</keyword><keyword>Pregnancy</keyword><keyword>Reference Values</keyword><keyword>*Ultrasonography, Prenatal</keyword><keyword>Waist Circumference</keyword></keywords><dates><year>2013</year></dates><isbn>0390-6663 (Print)
0390-6663 (Linking)</isbn><accession-num>24283173</accession-num><urls><related-urls><url>;(29) and Kwon et al (women without maternal disease possibly affecting fetal growth such as hypertension, diabetes mellitus, renal disease) ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Kwon</Author><Year>2014</Year><RecNum>50</RecNum><DisplayText>(26)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>50</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="er0sssz9rtfttde9tt2vz0fytrdz5d09adwt" timestamp="1525429996">50</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Kwon, J. Y.</author><author>Park, I. Y.</author><author>Wie, J. H.</author><author>Choe, S.</author><author>Kim, C. J.</author><author>Shin, J. C.</author></authors></contributors><auth-address>Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, The Catholic University of Korea, Seoul, Korea.</auth-address><titles><title>Fetal biometry in the Korean population: reference charts and comparison with charts from other populations</title><secondary-title>Prenat Diagn</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Prenat Diagn</full-title></periodical><pages>927-34</pages><volume>34</volume><number>10</number><edition>2014/04/25</edition><keywords><keyword>Anthropometry</keyword><keyword>Asian Continental Ancestry Group/statistics & numerical data</keyword><keyword>Cross-Sectional Studies</keyword><keyword>Female</keyword><keyword>Fetal Development</keyword><keyword>Gestational Age</keyword><keyword>Humans</keyword><keyword>Pregnancy</keyword><keyword>Prospective Studies</keyword><keyword>Reference Values</keyword><keyword>Republic of Korea</keyword><keyword>*Ultrasonography, Prenatal</keyword></keywords><dates><year>2014</year><pub-dates><date>Oct</date></pub-dates></dates><isbn>1097-0223 (Electronic)
0197-3851 (Linking)</isbn><accession-num>24760468</accession-num><urls><related-urls><url>;(26) while Liao et al included women with uncomplicated pregnancies ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Liao</Author><Year>2012</Year><RecNum>54</RecNum><DisplayText>(22)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>54</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="er0sssz9rtfttde9tt2vz0fytrdz5d09adwt" timestamp="1525430272">54</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Liao, A. W.</author><author>Brizot Mde, L.</author><author>Kang, H. J.</author><author>Assuncao, R. A.</author><author>Zugaib, M.</author></authors></contributors><auth-address>Hospital das Clinicas, Instituto Central, Faculdade de Medicina, Universidade de Sao Paulo, Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Brazil. liao@usp.br</auth-address><titles><title>Longitudinal reference ranges for fetal ultrasound biometry in twin pregnancies</title><secondary-title>Clinics (Sao Paulo)</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Clinics (Sao Paulo)</full-title></periodical><pages>451-5</pages><volume>67</volume><number>5</number><edition>2012/06/06</edition><keywords><keyword>Abdomen/diagnostic imaging</keyword><keyword>Adult</keyword><keyword>*Biometry</keyword><keyword>Female</keyword><keyword>Femur/diagnostic imaging</keyword><keyword>*Fetal Development</keyword><keyword>Fetal Weight/physiology</keyword><keyword>Gestational Age</keyword><keyword>Head/diagnostic imaging</keyword><keyword>Humans</keyword><keyword>Occipital Bone/diagnostic imaging</keyword><keyword>Pregnancy</keyword><keyword>Pregnancy, Twin/*physiology</keyword><keyword>Prospective Studies</keyword><keyword>Reference Values</keyword><keyword>*Ultrasonography, Prenatal</keyword></keywords><dates><year>2012</year></dates><isbn>1980-5322 (Electronic)
1807-5932 (Linking)</isbn><accession-num>22666788</accession-num><urls><related-urls><url>;(22). Moety et al also included only women who did not smoke and those without chronic diseases such as chronic hypertension or diabetes mellitus or give history of recurrent abortions PEVuZE5vdGU+PENpdGU+PEF1dGhvcj5BYmRlbCBGYXR0YWggQWJkZWwgTW9ldHk8L0F1dGhvcj48
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ZE5vdGU+AG==
ADDIN EN.CITE.DATA (5). We discuss some of the current issues in the development of fetal growth reference charts and standards in turn as informed by results of the scoping review of studies constructing fetal growth charts since 2012. These issues are by no means exhaustive but we believe represent some of key issues attracting debate in this field.How charts are constructed – prescriptive vs descriptive approachesOne of the key differences in fetal growth charts is whether they are designed to be prescriptive or descriptive. Prescriptive charts describe the process of producing biological norms or a desirable target to be achieved or aspired to at individual and population levels (so as to construct growth standards). Prescriptive standards show how growth should occur, independent of time and place ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Bertino</Author><Year>2007</Year><RecNum>43</RecNum><DisplayText>(35)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>43</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="sfwzzr0wowp29we2r9ovf9posdeesa9990sd" timestamp="1527174878">43</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Bertino, E.</author><author>Milani, S.</author><author>Fabris, C.</author><author>De Curtis, M.</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Neonatal anthropometric charts: what they are, what they are not</title><secondary-title>Archives of Disease in Childhood. Fetal and Neonatal Edition</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Arch Dis Child Fetal Neonatal Ed</full-title><abbr-1>Archives of disease in childhood. Fetal and neonatal edition</abbr-1></periodical><pages>F7-F10</pages><volume>92</volume><number>1</number><dates><year>2007</year><pub-dates><date>06/12/accepted</date></pub-dates></dates><publisher>BMJ Group</publisher><isbn>1359-2998
1468-2052</isbn><accession-num>PMC2675314</accession-num><urls><related-urls><url>;(35). Prescriptive fetal standards refer to tools developed after carefully sampling healthy populations which have a low probability of fetal growth restrictions or abnormalities thereby limiting the effects of nutritional and environmental influences on growth patterns PEVuZE5vdGU+PENpdGU+PEF1dGhvcj5HcmFudHo8L0F1dGhvcj48WWVhcj4yMDE4PC9ZZWFyPjxS
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ADDIN EN.CITE.DATA (4, 36). The emphasis of these standards is to characterise optimal fetal growth and how fetuses should grow in the absence of factors known to affect fetal growth. For human growth, these are usually based on selected populations considered to be of optimal health (eg., adequate nutritional status and at low risk of abnormal growth) for example the WHO Multi-centre Growth Reference Study (MGRS) ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Group</Author><Year>2006</Year><RecNum>550</RecNum><DisplayText>(37)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>550</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="tedfrexf19dxv0edtv0xevxxaf9pw0prs2er" timestamp="1531827589">550</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>W. H. O. Multicentre Growth Reference Study Group</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>WHO Child Growth Standards based on length/height, weight and age</title><secondary-title>Acta Paediatr Suppl</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Acta Paediatr Suppl</full-title></periodical><pages>76-85</pages><volume>450</volume><keywords><keyword>*Body Height</keyword><keyword>Body Mass Index</keyword><keyword>*Body Weight</keyword><keyword>*Child Development</keyword><keyword>Child, Preschool</keyword><keyword>Female</keyword><keyword>Humans</keyword><keyword>Infant</keyword><keyword>Infant, Newborn</keyword><keyword>Male</keyword><keyword>Models, Statistical</keyword><keyword>Reference Values</keyword><keyword>World Health Organization</keyword></keywords><dates><year>2006</year><pub-dates><date>Apr</date></pub-dates></dates><isbn>0803-5326 (Print)
0803-5326 (Linking)</isbn><accession-num>16817681</accession-num><urls><related-urls><url>;(37). Until recently, it was generally accepted that observed differences fetal growth were largely due to biological differences between different regions and ethnicities, resulting in a need for population-specific charts. This concept has been challenged by evidence demonstrating similarities in the genetic make-up of different non-isolated populations worldwide ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Hellenthal</Author><Year>2014</Year><RecNum>43</RecNum><DisplayText>(38, 39)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>43</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="f9wzxtppaxzztwez5zr52ezsrsz0vedf0te0" timestamp="1427116391">43</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Hellenthal, Garrett</author><author>Busby, George BJ</author><author>Band, Gavin</author><author>Wilson, James F</author><author>Capelli, Cristian</author><author>Falush, Daniel</author><author>Myers, Simon</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>A genetic atlas of human admixture history</title><secondary-title>Science</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Science</full-title></periodical><pages>747-751</pages><volume>343</volume><number>6172</number><dates><year>2014</year></dates><isbn>0036-8075</isbn><urls></urls></record></Cite><Cite><Author>Prüfer</Author><Year>2014</Year><RecNum>44</RecNum><record><rec-number>44</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="f9wzxtppaxzztwez5zr52ezsrsz0vedf0te0" timestamp="1427116433">44</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Prüfer, Kay</author><author>Racimo, Fernando</author><author>Patterson, Nick</author><author>Jay, Flora</author><author>Sankararaman, Sriram</author><author>Sawyer, Susanna</author><author>Heinze, Anja</author><author>Renaud, Gabriel</author><author>Sudmant, Peter H</author><author>de Filippo, Cesare</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>The complete genome sequence of a Neanderthal from the Altai Mountains</title><secondary-title>Nature</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Nature</full-title></periodical><pages>43-49</pages><volume>505</volume><number>7481</number><dates><year>2014</year></dates><isbn>0028-0836</isbn><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(38, 39), and more specifically by recent comparisons finding similarities in early and late linear fetal growth ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Villar</Author><Year>2014</Year><RecNum>45</RecNum><DisplayText>(40)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>45</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="f9wzxtppaxzztwez5zr52ezsrsz0vedf0te0" timestamp="1427116783">45</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Villar, José</author><author>Papageorghiou, Aris T.</author><author>Pang, Ruyan</author><author>Ohuma, Eric O.</author><author>Ismail, Leila Cheikh</author><author>Barros, Fernando C.</author><author>Lambert, Ann</author><author>Carvalho, Maria</author><author>Jaffer, Yasmin A.</author><author>Bertino, Enrico</author><author>Gravett, Michael G.</author><author>Altman, Doug G.</author><author>Purwar, Manorama</author><author>Frederick, Ihunnaya O.</author><author>Noble, Julia A.</author><author>Victora, Cesar G.</author><author>Bhutta, Zulfiqar A.</author><author>Kennedy, Stephen H.</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>The likeness of fetal growth and newborn size across non-isolated populations in the INTERGROWTH-21st Project: the Fetal Growth Longitudinal Study and Newborn Cross-Sectional Study</title><secondary-title>The Lancet Diabetes & Endocrinology</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>The Lancet Diabetes & Endocrinology</full-title></periodical><pages>781-792</pages><volume>2</volume><number>10</number><dates><year>2014</year></dates><isbn>2213-8587</isbn><urls><related-urls><url>;(40) in diverse populations. In contrast, descriptive charts are commonly used to produce a reference chart that describes the anthropometry of a given population at a particular time and place, such as a hospital, region, or country. Descriptive reference charts are usually based on an unselected population with minimal exclusion criteria, for example, known risk factors for optimal health. Although they are used more widely, descriptive charts are only relevant to the source population. Different populations will differ in many aspects, such as rates of smoking during pregnancy, malaria, gestational diabetes, and maternal obesity, which can all affect newborn outcomes. In principle, following the descriptive approach requires separate reference charts for each sub-population of interest. Many descriptive charts are constructed from fetal measurements as a function of gestational age (GA) of the specified population. An alternative type of descriptive chart is the customised chart. Customised growth charts are constructed following a multivariable analysis that accounts for maternal factors known to affect fetal growth such as age, weight, height, BMI, parity, ethnicity, sex of the fetus etc. or paternal factors such as height ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Gardosi</Author><Year>2012</Year><RecNum>1</RecNum><DisplayText>(41)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>1</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="sfwzzr0wowp29we2r9ovf9posdeesa9990sd" timestamp="1527147427">1</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Gardosi, Jason</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Customised assessment of fetal growth potential: implications for perinatal care</title><secondary-title>Archives of Disease in Childhood - Fetal and Neonatal Edition</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Archives of Disease in Childhood - Fetal and Neonatal Edition</full-title></periodical><pages>F314-F317</pages><volume>97</volume><number>5</number><dates><year>2012</year></dates><urls><related-urls><url>;(41). An example of such a chart is the gestation-related optimal weight curve (GROW) chart by Gardosi et al., ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Gardosi</Author><Year>1992</Year><RecNum>49</RecNum><DisplayText>(41, 42)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>49</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="sfwzzr0wowp29we2r9ovf9posdeesa9990sd" timestamp="1528355734">49</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Gardosi, J.</author><author>Chang, A.</author><author>Kalyan, B.</author><author>Sahota, D.</author><author>Symonds, E. M.</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Customised antenatal growth charts</title><secondary-title>The Lancet</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>The Lancet</full-title></periodical><pages>283-287</pages><volume>339</volume><number>8788</number><dates><year>1992</year><pub-dates><date>1992/02/01/</date></pub-dates></dates><isbn>0140-6736</isbn><urls><related-urls><url>(92)91342-6</electronic-resource-num></record></Cite><Cite><Author>Gardosi</Author><Year>2012</Year><RecNum>1</RecNum><record><rec-number>1</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="sfwzzr0wowp29we2r9ovf9posdeesa9990sd" timestamp="1527147427">1</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Gardosi, Jason</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Customised assessment of fetal growth potential: implications for perinatal care</title><secondary-title>Archives of Disease in Childhood - Fetal and Neonatal Edition</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Archives of Disease in Childhood - Fetal and Neonatal Edition</full-title></periodical><pages>F314-F317</pages><volume>97</volume><number>5</number><dates><year>2012</year></dates><urls><related-urls><url>;(41, 42). Unlike other fetal growth charts, the development of the customised charts does not need to exclude women based on their demographics as they are intended to be individualised and specific for each pregnant woman. The original computer-generated chart used data from 4179 births from a single hospital between 1989-1990 ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Gardosi</Author><Year>1992</Year><RecNum>49</RecNum><DisplayText>(42)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>49</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="sfwzzr0wowp29we2r9ovf9posdeesa9990sd" timestamp="1528355734">49</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Gardosi, J.</author><author>Chang, A.</author><author>Kalyan, B.</author><author>Sahota, D.</author><author>Symonds, E. M.</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Customised antenatal growth charts</title><secondary-title>The Lancet</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>The Lancet</full-title></periodical><pages>283-287</pages><volume>339</volume><number>8788</number><dates><year>1992</year><pub-dates><date>1992/02/01/</date></pub-dates></dates><isbn>0140-6736</isbn><urls><related-urls><url>(92)91342-6</electronic-resource-num></record></Cite></EndNote>(42) by first obtaining the 10th, 50th, and 90th centiles at 40 weeks gestation and using a mathematical model to determine expected centiles at earlier gestations. The GROW chart was first constructed based on a UK population ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Gardosi</Author><Year>1992</Year><RecNum>49</RecNum><DisplayText>(42)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>49</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="sfwzzr0wowp29we2r9ovf9posdeesa9990sd" timestamp="1528355734">49</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Gardosi, J.</author><author>Chang, A.</author><author>Kalyan, B.</author><author>Sahota, D.</author><author>Symonds, E. M.</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Customised antenatal growth charts</title><secondary-title>The Lancet</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>The Lancet</full-title></periodical><pages>283-287</pages><volume>339</volume><number>8788</number><dates><year>1992</year><pub-dates><date>1992/02/01/</date></pub-dates></dates><isbn>0140-6736</isbn><urls><related-urls><url>(92)91342-6</electronic-resource-num></record></Cite></EndNote>(42), and the charts have been used in multiple populations including; Australia ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>MONGELLI</Author><Year>2007</Year><RecNum>50</RecNum><DisplayText>(43)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>50</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="sfwzzr0wowp29we2r9ovf9posdeesa9990sd" timestamp="1528356060">50</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Mongelli, Max</author><author>Figueras, Francesc</author><author>Francis, Andre</author><author>Gardosi, Jason</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>A customised birthweight centile calculator developed for an Australian population</title><secondary-title>Australian and New Zealand Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Australian and New Zealand Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology</full-title></periodical><pages>128-131</pages><volume>47</volume><number>2</number><dates><year>2007</year></dates><urls><related-urls><url><style face="underline" font="default" size="100%">;(43), the United States of America ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Gardosi</Author><Year>2009</Year><RecNum>51</RecNum><DisplayText>(44)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>51</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="sfwzzr0wowp29we2r9ovf9posdeesa9990sd" timestamp="1528356295">51</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Gardosi, Jason</author><author>Francis, Andre</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>A customized standard to assess fetal growth in a US population</title><secondary-title>American Journal of Obstetrics & Gynecology</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>American Journal of Obstetrics & Gynecology</full-title></periodical><pages>25.e1-25.e7</pages><volume>201</volume><number>1</number><dates><year>2009</year></dates><publisher>Elsevier</publisher><isbn>0002-9378</isbn><urls><related-urls><url>;(44) and New Zealand ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>McCowan</Author><Year>2004</Year><RecNum>52</RecNum><DisplayText>(45)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>52</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="sfwzzr0wowp29we2r9ovf9posdeesa9990sd" timestamp="1528356395">52</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>McCowan, Lesley</author><author>Stewart, Alistair W</author><author>Francis ,Andre</author><author>Gardosi, Jason</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>A customised birthweight centile calculator developed for a New Zealand population</title><secondary-title>Australian and New Zealand Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Australian and New Zealand Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology</full-title></periodical><pages>428-431</pages><volume>44</volume><number>5</number><keywords><keyword>customised</keyword><keyword>New Zealand birthweight centiles</keyword></keywords><dates><year>2004</year><pub-dates><date>2004/10/01</date></pub-dates></dates><publisher>Wiley/Blackwell (10.1111)</publisher><isbn>0004-8666</isbn><urls><related-urls><url><style face="underline" font="default" size="100%">;(45). 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ADDIN EN.CITE.DATA (36). The INTERGROWTH-21st Project was a longitudinal study conducted across eight different geographical settings; Brazil (Pelotas), China (Beijing), India (Nagpur), Kenya (Nairobi), Oman (Muscat), UK (Oxford), USA (Seattle), and Italy (Turin) in healthy populations demonstrated to have minimal constraints on fetal growth. The participant selection involved defining free-living populations in defined geographic areas with evidence of adequate health outcomes in terms of maternal, perinatal and neonatal morbidity and mortality and then selecting healthy pregnant women with good nutritional statuses and low risk of pregnancy complications from the well-defined populations. The INTERGROWTH-21st project recruited over 4000 women prospectively for the construction of fetal standards. The study was conducted prospectively with recruitment carried out in the first trimester of pregnancy to ensure correct dating of the pregnancy. Follow-up antenatal ultrasound scans were performed every 5 weeks (± 1 week) by trained staff with identical ultrasound machines measuring both skeletal (head circumference, biparietal diameter, femur length and occipito-frontal diameter) and fat-based (abdominal circumference) growth measurement. 2) The WHO Fetal Growth Study is the fetal component of the WHO Multicentre Growth Reference Study, which aimed to establish growth charts for clinical use based on populations recruited from multiple countries - a similar aim to INTERGROWTH-21st Project ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Kiserud</Author><Year>2017</Year><RecNum>485</RecNum><DisplayText>(15)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>485</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="f9wzxtppaxzztwez5zr52ezsrsz0vedf0te0" timestamp="1528286093">485</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Kiserud, Torvid</author><author>Piaggio, Gilda</author><author>Carroli, Guillermo</author><author>Widmer, Mariana</author><author>Carvalho, José</author><author>Neerup Jensen, Lisa</author><author>Giordano, Daniel</author><author>Cecatti, José Guilherme</author><author>Abdel Aleem, Hany</author><author>Talegawkar, Sameera A.</author><author>Benachi, Alexandra</author><author>Diemert, Anke</author><author>Tshefu Kitoto, Antoinette</author><author>Thinkhamrop, Jadsada</author><author>Lumbiganon, Pisake</author><author>Tabor, Ann</author><author>Kriplani, Alka</author><author>Gonzalez Perez, Rogelio</author><author>Hecher, Kurt</author><author>Hanson, Mark A.</author><author>Gülmezoglu, A. Metin</author><author>Platt, Lawrence D.</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>The World Health Organization Fetal Growth Charts: A Multinational Longitudinal Study of Ultrasound Biometric Measurements and Estimated Fetal Weight</title><secondary-title>PLOS Medicine</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>PLOS Medicine</full-title></periodical><pages>e1002220</pages><volume>14</volume><number>1</number><dates><year>2017</year></dates><publisher>Public Library of Science</publisher><urls><related-urls><url>;(15). The WHO fetal study was a longitudinal prospective study of 1439 women recruited from ten countries i.e., Argentina, Brazil, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Denmark, Egypt, France, Germany, India, Norway, and Thailand ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Kiserud</Author><Year>2017</Year><RecNum>485</RecNum><DisplayText>(15)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>485</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="f9wzxtppaxzztwez5zr52ezsrsz0vedf0te0" timestamp="1528286093">485</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Kiserud, Torvid</author><author>Piaggio, Gilda</author><author>Carroli, Guillermo</author><author>Widmer, Mariana</author><author>Carvalho, José</author><author>Neerup Jensen, Lisa</author><author>Giordano, Daniel</author><author>Cecatti, José Guilherme</author><author>Abdel Aleem, Hany</author><author>Talegawkar, Sameera A.</author><author>Benachi, Alexandra</author><author>Diemert, Anke</author><author>Tshefu Kitoto, Antoinette</author><author>Thinkhamrop, Jadsada</author><author>Lumbiganon, Pisake</author><author>Tabor, Ann</author><author>Kriplani, Alka</author><author>Gonzalez Perez, Rogelio</author><author>Hecher, Kurt</author><author>Hanson, Mark A.</author><author>Gülmezoglu, A. Metin</author><author>Platt, Lawrence D.</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>The World Health Organization Fetal Growth Charts: A Multinational Longitudinal Study of Ultrasound Biometric Measurements and Estimated Fetal Weight</title><secondary-title>PLOS Medicine</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>PLOS Medicine</full-title></periodical><pages>e1002220</pages><volume>14</volume><number>1</number><dates><year>2017</year></dates><publisher>Public Library of Science</publisher><urls><related-urls><url>;(15). Similar to the INTERGROWTH-21st Project, the study was done prospectively with recruitment of women in the first trimester between 8 – 13 weeks, who had reliable information on their last menstrual period confirmed by an ultrasound scan of the crown–rump length. The women were then scheduled for follow-up ultrasound scans which were performed monthly. 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ADDIN EN.CITE.DATA (50, 52) as fetuses which are determined to have abnormal growth may actually be normal in attained size ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Salomon</Author><Year>2010</Year><RecNum>36</RecNum><DisplayText>(53)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>36</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="sfwzzr0wowp29we2r9ovf9posdeesa9990sd" timestamp="1527173534">36</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Salomon, L. J.</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Early fetal growth: concepts and pitfalls</title><secondary-title>Ultrasound in Obstetrics & Gynecology</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Ultrasound in Obstetrics & Gynecology</full-title></periodical><pages>385-389</pages><volume>35</volume><number>4</number><dates><year>2010</year><pub-dates><date>2010/04/01</date></pub-dates></dates><publisher>Wiley-Blackwell</publisher><isbn>0960-7692</isbn><urls><related-urls><url>;(53). Longitudinal studies can therefore be used to produce both attained size and growth charts are used in different clinical applications, and have different interpretations.Population-based sampling versus hospital-based samplingThe choice of an appropriate sample and target population is of great importance as comparisons and inferences applicable to the general population can be made. The methodology of some of the studies used to develop fetal growth references sampled pregnant women from selected hospitals as opposed to sampling women directly from the population under investigation. The target population from which the women are selected has implications on whether the aim is to develop a reference or standard charts, generalisability and utility of the charts. For example, a chart based on women who are underweight cannot be applied to the general population. Hospital-based sampling could be problematic especially when there are varying levels of health services available to the population and when healthcare is provided by more than one health system service as is the case with several countries PEVuZE5vdGU+PENpdGU+PEF1dGhvcj5QYXBhZ2VvcmdoaW91PC9BdXRob3I+PFllYXI+MjAxODwv
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ADDIN EN.CITE.DATA (36). This could also be a potential source of bias in several low-income countries were a substantial number of women do not visit hospitals for pregnancy-related monitoring, prenatal and postnatal care.Period of inclusion – pregnancy datingThe period of inclusion of the women into the study is also an important methodological consideration. For example, during the first trimester of pregnancy, there is less variability in fetal growth. Women recruited during this period using the first day of the last menstrual period could have this information confirmed using ultrasonographical evidence by measurement of the crown-rump length as it has been shown to be most reliable between between 9+0 to 13+6 weeks gestation, but not beyond this range ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Treloar</Author><Year>1967</Year><RecNum>10</RecNum><DisplayText>(54)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>10</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="wav9zsdzm90frmete05prpfvtw0f095wpxt0" timestamp="1345214943">10</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Treloar, AE, Behn BG, Cowan DW</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Analysis of gestational interval.</title><secondary-title>American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology</full-title></periodical><pages>34 - 45</pages><volume>99</volume><dates><year>1967</year></dates><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(54) and considered an essential part of routine antenatal care. Recruitment after the first trimester, leads to difficulties in ascertaining of accurate dating for estimating the expected date of delivery. A reliable estimate of gestational age is key as it underpins clinical care and allows the expected delivery date to be estimated accurately, and also necessary for developing reference charts. Newborn outcomes such as preterm birth, small-for-GA, large-for-GA, and appropriate-for-GA are all dependent on having an accurate estimate of GA. Study design – longitudinal, cross-sectional, and mixed designsThere are many design challenges for studies that aim to construct growth charts from fetal measurements. Fetal growth charts are designed to either monitor the fetal growth throughout the pregnancy to allow for medical intervention if required, or to determine the size of a fetus at a specified gestational age. Whether a study is longitudinal or cross-sectional in design is dependent on the question that it is trying to answer. Study design is of fundamental importance for any research study as it determines the appropriateness of the study to address the research question, and helps inform the appropriate analysis of the data obtained. Most studies are based on a cross-sectional design ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Ioannou</Author><Year>2012</Year><RecNum>82</RecNum><DisplayText>(11)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>82</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="f9wzxtppaxzztwez5zr52ezsrsz0vedf0te0" timestamp="1430474137">82</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Ioannou, C</author><author>Talbot, K</author><author>Ohuma, E</author><author>Sarris, I</author><author>Villar, J</author><author>Conde‐Agudelo, A</author><author>Papageorghiou, AT</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Systematic review of methodology used in ultrasound studies aimed at creating charts of fetal size</title><secondary-title>BJOG: An International Journal of Obstetrics & Gynaecology</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>BJOG: An International Journal of Obstetrics & Gynaecology</full-title></periodical><pages>1425-1439</pages><volume>119</volume><number>12</number><dates><year>2012</year></dates><isbn>1471-0528</isbn><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(11) that includes only one examination per fetus whereas a longitudinal design includes measurements at more than one time ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Royston</Author><Year>1995</Year><RecNum>94</RecNum><DisplayText>(49)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>94</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="f9wzxtppaxzztwez5zr52ezsrsz0vedf0te0" timestamp="1430824801">94</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Royston, P.</author><author>Altman, D. G.</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Design and analysis of longitudinal studies of fetal size</title><secondary-title>Ultrasound in Obstetrics and Gynecology</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Ultrasound in Obstetrics and Gynecology</full-title></periodical><pages>307-312</pages><volume>6</volume><number>5</number><dates><year>1995</year></dates><publisher>Blackwell Science Ltd.</publisher><isbn>1469-0705</isbn><urls><related-urls><url>;(49). It is common to construct size charts from longitudinal data by simply treating them as cross-sectional, as was done for example in the WHO Multi-centre Growth Reference Study (MGRS) ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Group</Author><Year>2006</Year><RecNum>550</RecNum><DisplayText>(37)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>550</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="tedfrexf19dxv0edtv0xevxxaf9pw0prs2er" timestamp="1531827589">550</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>W. H. O. Multicentre Growth Reference Study Group</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>WHO Child Growth Standards based on length/height, weight and age</title><secondary-title>Acta Paediatr Suppl</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Acta Paediatr Suppl</full-title></periodical><pages>76-85</pages><volume>450</volume><keywords><keyword>*Body Height</keyword><keyword>Body Mass Index</keyword><keyword>*Body Weight</keyword><keyword>*Child Development</keyword><keyword>Child, Preschool</keyword><keyword>Female</keyword><keyword>Humans</keyword><keyword>Infant</keyword><keyword>Infant, Newborn</keyword><keyword>Male</keyword><keyword>Models, Statistical</keyword><keyword>Reference Values</keyword><keyword>World Health Organization</keyword></keywords><dates><year>2006</year><pub-dates><date>Apr</date></pub-dates></dates><isbn>0803-5326 (Print)
0803-5326 (Linking)</isbn><accession-num>16817681</accession-num><urls><related-urls><url>;(37). The simplest case is a pure cross-sectional design, for example, Chitty et al., took one measurement per fetus at a random time ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Chitty</Author><Year>1994</Year><RecNum>488</RecNum><DisplayText>(55)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>488</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="f9wzxtppaxzztwez5zr52ezsrsz0vedf0te0" timestamp="1528287189">488</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Chitty, L. S.</author><author>Altman, D. G.</author><author>Henderson, A.</author><author>Campbell, S.</author></authors></contributors><auth-address>Department of Clinical Genetics, Institute of Child Health, London.</auth-address><titles><title>Charts of fetal size: 2. Head measurements</title><secondary-title>Br J Obstet Gynaecol</secondary-title><alt-title>British journal of obstetrics and gynaecology</alt-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Br J Obstet Gynaecol</full-title><abbr-1>British journal of obstetrics and gynaecology</abbr-1></periodical><alt-periodical><full-title>Br J Obstet Gynaecol</full-title><abbr-1>British journal of obstetrics and gynaecology</abbr-1></alt-periodical><pages>35-43</pages><volume>101</volume><number>1</number><edition>1994/01/01</edition><keywords><keyword>Anthropometry/methods</keyword><keyword>Cephalometry/*standards</keyword><keyword>Cross-Sectional Studies</keyword><keyword>*Embryonic and Fetal Development</keyword><keyword>Female</keyword><keyword>Fetus/*anatomy & histology</keyword><keyword>Gestational Age</keyword><keyword>Head/*anatomy & histology</keyword><keyword>Humans</keyword><keyword>Pregnancy</keyword><keyword>Prospective Studies</keyword><keyword>Reference Values</keyword><keyword>Ultrasonography, Prenatal</keyword></keywords><dates><year>1994</year><pub-dates><date>Jan</date></pub-dates></dates><isbn>0306-5456 (Print)
0306-5456</isbn><accession-num>8297866</accession-num><urls></urls><remote-database-provider>NLM</remote-database-provider><language>eng</language></record></Cite></EndNote>(55). A longitudinal design based on non-replicated data at each time point, ought to address correlated measurements from the same individual. In contrast, a mixed design incorporates both longitudinal and cross-sectional measurements i.e., some participants are studied longitudinally and others cross-sectionally therefore for any given participant, the number of measurements included may be one or greater. A mixed design can be useful for studying growth intensively in periods of rapid growth using a longitudinal design and less intensively in periods of slow growth using a cross-sectional design. This may be an efficient, cost-effective approach especially for multicentre studies. An example is the WHO-Multi-centre Growth Reference Study (MGRS), which combined a longitudinal study design from birth to 24 months with a cross-sectional study of children aged 18 to 71 months ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>de Onis</Author><Year>2004</Year><RecNum>161</RecNum><DisplayText>(56)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>161</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="f9wzxtppaxzztwez5zr52ezsrsz0vedf0te0" timestamp="1442584555">161</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>de Onis, Mercedes</author><author>Garza, Cutberto</author><author>Victora, Cesar G.</author><author>Onyango, Adelheid W.</author><author>Frongillo, Edward A.</author><author>Martines, Jose</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>The WHO Multicentre Growth Reference Study: Planning, study design, and methodology</title><secondary-title>Food and Nutrition Bulletin</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Food and Nutrition Bulletin</full-title></periodical><pages>15S-26S</pages><volume>25</volume><number>Supplement 1</number><keywords><keyword>ANTHROPOMETRY</keyword><keyword>CHILD NUTRITION</keyword><keyword>CHILDHOOD GROWTH</keyword><keyword>GROWTH CURVES</keyword><keyword>GROWTH REFERENCES</keyword><keyword>INFANT FEEDING PRACTICES</keyword><keyword>INFANT GROWTH</keyword></keywords><dates><year>2004</year></dates><urls><related-urls><url>;(56). A mixed design is also likely to arise when using routine data collected from individuals requiring close monitoring who are seen more than once. Statistical considerationsAppropriate statistical methodology is key to the construction of fetal growth references and standards. A desirable feature of fetal charts is that centiles change smoothly with GA, and that the selected statistical methodology for fitting centiles provide a good fit to the raw data PEVuZE5vdGU+PENpdGU+PEF1dGhvcj5BbHRtYW48L0F1dGhvcj48WWVhcj4xOTk0PC9ZZWFyPjxS
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ADDIN EN.CITE.DATA (47, 48, 57). Some of the key statistical considerations include: (a) an assessment of whether the normality assumption is reasonable, as is usually the case for fetal data conditional on GA; (b) accounting for the increasing variability with gestation that is typical in fetal growth data; and (c) a goodness-of-fit assessment with graphical evaluation of the superimposed centiles should be conducted to compare the predictive model to the raw data. Sample sizeThere is very limited literature on what to consider when determining the sample size of fetal growth studies PEVuZE5vdGU+PENpdGU+PEF1dGhvcj5CZWxsZXJhPC9BdXRob3I+PFllYXI+MjAwNzwvWWVhcj48
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ADDIN EN.CITE.DATA (58-61). A systematic review of the methodology used in published ultrasound studies for developing size or pregnancy dating charts found that only 6 of 83 published ultrasound growth or size charts included their sample size calculations in the description of their methodology PEVuZE5vdGU+PENpdGU+PEF1dGhvcj5Jb2Fubm91PC9BdXRob3I+PFllYXI+MjAxMjwvWWVhcj48
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ADDIN EN.CITE.DATA (62, 63). Sample size calculations can be based on either parametric or non-parametric methods. Non-parametric methods can be implemented using simulation and bootstrap techniques as has been demonstrated by Harris et. al. ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Harris</Author><Year>1995</Year><RecNum>293</RecNum><DisplayText>(64)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>293</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="er0sssz9rtfttde9tt2vz0fytrdz5d09adwt" timestamp="1531151101">293</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Book">6</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Harris, E. K.</author><author>Boyd, J.</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Statistical bases of reference values in laboratory medicine</title></titles><dates><year>1995</year></dates><pub-location>Boca Raton</pub-location><publisher>CRC Press</publisher><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(64), Linnet ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Linnet</Author><Year>2000</Year><RecNum>294</RecNum><DisplayText>(65)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>294</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="er0sssz9rtfttde9tt2vz0fytrdz5d09adwt" timestamp="1531151239">294</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Linnet, K.</author></authors></contributors><auth-address>Laboratory of Clinical Biochemistry, Psychiatric University Hospital, Skovagervej 2, Risskov, Denmark. linnet@post7.tele.dk</auth-address><titles><title>Nonparametric estimation of reference intervals by simple and bootstrap-based procedures</title><secondary-title>Clin Chem</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Clin Chem</full-title></periodical><pages>867-9</pages><volume>46</volume><number>6 Pt 1</number><edition>2000/06/06</edition><keywords><keyword>Humans</keyword><keyword>*Reference Values</keyword><keyword>Statistics, Nonparametric</keyword></keywords><dates><year>2000</year><pub-dates><date>Jun</date></pub-dates></dates><isbn>0009-9147 (Print)
0009-9147 (Linking)</isbn><accession-num>10839780</accession-num><urls><related-urls><url>;(65) and Jennen-Steinmetz ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Jennen-Steinmetz</Author><Year>2014</Year><RecNum>295</RecNum><DisplayText>(60)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>295</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="er0sssz9rtfttde9tt2vz0fytrdz5d09adwt" timestamp="1531151435">295</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Jennen-Steinmetz, C.</author></authors></contributors><auth-address>Department of Biostatistics, Central Institute of Mental Health, Medical Faculty Mannheim / Heidelberg University, Mannheim, Germany.</auth-address><titles><title>Sample size determination for studies designed to estimate covariate-dependent reference quantile curves</title><secondary-title>Stat Med</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Stat Med</full-title></periodical><pages>1336-48</pages><volume>33</volume><number>8</number><edition>2013/12/07</edition><keywords><keyword>Adult</keyword><keyword>Age Factors</keyword><keyword>Aged</keyword><keyword>Computer Simulation</keyword><keyword>Humans</keyword><keyword>Male</keyword><keyword>Middle Aged</keyword><keyword>Prostate-Specific Antigen/blood</keyword><keyword>Prostatic Neoplasms/diagnosis</keyword><keyword>*Regression Analysis</keyword><keyword>*Reproducibility of Results</keyword><keyword>*Research Design</keyword><keyword>*Sample Size</keyword><keyword>percentiles</keyword><keyword>precision</keyword><keyword>quantile curve</keyword><keyword>quantile regression</keyword><keyword>reference limits</keyword><keyword>sample size</keyword></keywords><dates><year>2014</year><pub-dates><date>Apr 15</date></pub-dates></dates><isbn>1097-0258 (Electronic)
0277-6715 (Linking)</isbn><accession-num>24307204</accession-num><urls><related-urls><url>;(60). Regression-based methods for sample size can also be evaluated by either non-parametric or parametric approaches, depending on the distribution of the covariate ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Healy</Author><Year>1988</Year><RecNum>64</RecNum><DisplayText>(66, 67)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>64</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="f9wzxtppaxzztwez5zr52ezsrsz0vedf0te0" timestamp="1429629722">64</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Healy, M.J.R.</author><author>Rasbash, J.</author><author>Yang, Min</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Distribution-free estimation of age-related centiles</title><secondary-title>Annals of human biology</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Ann Hum Biol</full-title><abbr-1>Annals of human biology</abbr-1></periodical><pages>17-22</pages><volume>15</volume><number>1</number><dates><year>1988</year></dates><urls><related-urls><url> app="EN" db-id="f9wzxtppaxzztwez5zr52ezsrsz0vedf0te0" timestamp="1429629711">63</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Wright, Eileen M</author><author>Royston, Patrick</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Calculating reference intervals for laboratory measurements</title><secondary-title>Statistical Methods in Medical Research</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Statistical Methods in Medical Research</full-title></periodical><pages>93-112</pages><volume>8</volume><number>2</number><dates><year>1999</year><pub-dates><date>April 1, 1999</date></pub-dates></dates><urls><related-urls><url>;(66, 67). For example, methods based on regression-based limits are commonly used in clinical chemistry studies involving normal reference ranges ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Linnet</Author><Year>1987</Year><RecNum>65</RecNum><DisplayText>(68)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>65</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="f9wzxtppaxzztwez5zr52ezsrsz0vedf0te0" timestamp="1429629923">65</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Linnet, K</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Two-stage transformation systems for normalization of reference distributions evaluated</title><secondary-title>Clin Chem</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Clin Chem</full-title></periodical><pages>381-386</pages><volume>33</volume><number>3</number><dates><year>1987</year><pub-dates><date>March 1, 1987</date></pub-dates></dates><urls><related-urls><url>;(68). These methods can be adopted and applied in fetal and neonatal growth studies ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Royston</Author><Year>1991</Year><RecNum>85</RecNum><DisplayText>(69)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>85</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="wav9zsdzm90frmete05prpfvtw0f095wpxt0" timestamp="1384166515">85</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Royston, P.</author><author>Matthews, J. N. S.</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Estimation of reference ranges from normal samples</title><secondary-title>Statistics in medicine</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Statistics in Medicine</full-title></periodical><pages>691-695</pages><volume>10</volume><number>5</number><dates><year>1991</year></dates><publisher>Wiley Subscription Services, Inc., A Wiley Company</publisher><isbn>1097-0258</isbn><urls><related-urls><url>;(69). Formulae for estimating sample size for regression-based reference ranges were first proposed by Royston ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Royston</Author><Year>1991</Year><RecNum>3</RecNum><DisplayText>(59)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>3</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="vawd0f004xvrsiewwp0vaf9n5rzaftewvaex" timestamp="1309341610">3</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Royston, P.</author></authors></contributors><auth-address>Department of Medical Physics, Royal Postgraduate Medical School, London, U.K.</auth-address><titles><title>Constructing time-specific reference ranges</title><secondary-title>Statistics in medicine</secondary-title><alt-title>Stat Med</alt-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Statistics in medicine</full-title><abbr-1>Stat Med</abbr-1></periodical><alt-periodical><full-title>Statistics in medicine</full-title><abbr-1>Stat Med</abbr-1></alt-periodical><pages>675-90</pages><volume>10</volume><number>5</number><edition>1991/05/01</edition><keywords><keyword>Adolescent</keyword><keyword>Adult</keyword><keyword>Aged</keyword><keyword>Aging/blood</keyword><keyword>Cholesterol/blood</keyword><keyword>Data Interpretation, Statistical</keyword><keyword>Female</keyword><keyword>Fetal Blood/chemistry</keyword><keyword>Humans</keyword><keyword>*Mathematical Computing</keyword><keyword>Middle Aged</keyword><keyword>Myocardial Infarction/*physiopathology</keyword><keyword>Normal Distribution</keyword><keyword>Pregnancy/*blood</keyword><keyword>Reference Values</keyword><keyword>Stroke Volume/physiology</keyword><keyword>Time Factors</keyword><keyword>Triglycerides/blood</keyword></keywords><dates><year>1991</year><pub-dates><date>May</date></pub-dates></dates><isbn>0277-6715 (Print)
0277-6715 (Linking)</isbn><accession-num>2068420</accession-num><work-type>Clinical Trial
Multicenter Study</work-type><urls><related-urls><url>;(59) and later extended by Bellera and Hanley ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Bellera</Author><Year>2007</Year><RecNum>171</RecNum><DisplayText>(58)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>171</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="f9wzxtppaxzztwez5zr52ezsrsz0vedf0te0" timestamp="1442584555">171</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Bellera, Carine A.</author><author>Hanley, James A.</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>A method is presented to plan the required sample size when estimating regression-based reference limits</title><secondary-title>Journal of Clinical Epidemiology</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Journal of Clinical Epidemiology</full-title></periodical><pages>610-615</pages><volume>60</volume><number>6</number><keywords><keyword>Reference limits</keyword><keyword>Regression</keyword><keyword>Precision</keyword><keyword>Sample size</keyword><keyword>Study design</keyword><keyword>Sampling strategy</keyword></keywords><dates><year>2007</year></dates><isbn>0895-4356</isbn><urls><related-urls><url>;(58). In 2011, Hanley and Moodie ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Hanley</Author><Year>2011</Year><RecNum>573</RecNum><DisplayText>(70)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>573</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="dpde52pzwz22f0et0xjpf9t7xadptad5ps0v" timestamp="1486400474">573</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Hanley, JA</author><author>Moodie, EEM</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Sample size, precision and power calculations: a unified approach</title><secondary-title>J Biomet Biostat</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>J Biomet Biostat</full-title></periodical><pages>2</pages><volume>5</volume><dates><year>2011</year></dates><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(70) proposed a unified approach for sample size, precision and power calculations that considers various study designs. Later in 2016, Hanley ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Hanley</Author><Year>2016</Year><RecNum>574</RecNum><DisplayText>(61)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>574</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="dpde52pzwz22f0et0xjpf9t7xadptad5ps0v" timestamp="1486400806">574</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Hanley, James A</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Simple and multiple linear regression: sample size considerations</title><secondary-title>Journal of Clinical Epidemiology</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Journal of Clinical Epidemiology</full-title></periodical><pages>112-119</pages><volume>79</volume><dates><year>2016</year></dates><isbn>0895-4356</isbn><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(61) discusses sample size considerations for the case of simple and multiple linear regressions. Regression analysis can be used to obtain reference limits that account for factors such as age, gender, and parity with corresponding confidence intervals (CIs) PEVuZE5vdGU+PENpdGU+PEF1dGhvcj5WaXJ0YW5lbjwvQXV0aG9yPjxZZWFyPjE5OTg8L1llYXI+
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ADDIN EN.CITE.DATA (71-74). Precision and power are the key factors in the determination of sample size for constructing reference charts in addition to study design (longitudinal, cross-sectional, or mixed), number of repeated measurements per individual, existence of replicate measurements, and practicality (cost, time and manpower) ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Royston</Author><Year>1994</Year><RecNum>11</RecNum><DisplayText>(75)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>11</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="f9wzxtppaxzztwez5zr52ezsrsz0vedf0te0" timestamp="1424080580">11</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Royston, Patrick</author><author>Altman, Douglas G.</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Using fractional polynomials to model curved regression relationships</title><secondary-title>Stata Technical Bulletin</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Stata Technical Bulletin</full-title></periodical><volume>21: 11-23</volume><dates><year>1994</year></dates><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(75). The precision of estimated centiles is inherently variable. Extreme centiles exhibit large imprecision because there are few observations at the extreme ends of the distribution, while the median has the greatest precision. For normally distributed unreplicated data, the standard error of the pth centile is obtained from the standard formula for the variance of a centile: SEp = SD√[(1 + 12zp2) / n], ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Healy</Author><Year>1974</Year><RecNum>154</RecNum><DisplayText>(76)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>154</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="f9wzxtppaxzztwez5zr52ezsrsz0vedf0te0" timestamp="1442584555">154</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Healy, M. J.</author></authors></contributors><auth-address>Medical Research Council Clinical Research Centre, Northwick Park, Harrow.</auth-address><titles><title>Notes on the statistics of growth standards</title><secondary-title>Annals of human biology</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Ann Hum Biol</full-title><abbr-1>Annals of human biology</abbr-1></periodical><pages>41-6</pages><volume>1</volume><number>1</number><keywords><keyword>Body Constitution</keyword><keyword>Growth</keyword><keyword>Humans</keyword><keyword>Models, Biological</keyword><keyword>Reference Values</keyword></keywords><dates><year>1974</year></dates><urls><related-urls><url>;(76)where SE is the standard error, SD is the standard deviation of the measurement (which will increase with GA), zp is the value of the standard normal distribution corresponding to the pth centile, and n is the sample size. For example, for the 2.5th or 97.5th centiles, zp = ±1.96, giving SE = 0.08 SD with a sample size of 500 and 0.03 SD for a sample of 4,000. More extreme centiles will require a larger sample size to estimate than less extreme ones for the same precision. It is also advisable and common practice to inflate the calculated sample size by the expected percentage of attrition for the specific setting.In general, longitudinal studies are more efficient and have greater power than cross-sectional studies. Royston (1995) defined this efficiency as the design factor, D, which is the number of fetuses in a cross-sectional study that would give the same precision as one fetus in a longitudinal study. He used a simulation study of ultrasound-based biparietal diameter and compared the variance of a centile in longitudinal and equivalent cross-sectional designs. He calculated the design factor (effect) to be ~2.3 ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Royston</Author><Year>1995</Year><RecNum>2</RecNum><DisplayText>(77)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>2</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="f9wzxtppaxzztwez5zr52ezsrsz0vedf0te0" timestamp="1424078568">2</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Royston, Patrick</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Calculation of unconditional and conditional reference intervals for foetal size and growth from longitudinal measurements</title><secondary-title>Statistics in Medicine</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Statistics in Medicine</full-title></periodical><pages>1417-1436</pages><volume>14</volume><number>13</number><dates><year>1995</year></dates><publisher>Wiley Subscription Services, Inc., A Wiley Company</publisher><isbn>1097-0258</isbn><urls><related-urls><url>;(77). A longitudinal study thus requires approximately half to a third the sample size of a cross-sectional study to estimate a given centile with the same precision depending on the number of measurements per fetus. In the case of sub-groups or multi-centre studies, a sufficient power may be required in order to explore ethnic-specific (i.e. site-specific) charts. Handling data from multiple sitesMost studies aiming to construct fetal growth references are done in a single centre. The need for a large sample size and greater generalisability leads naturally to a multicentre design, which brings additional challenges. As multicentre studies are rare in human growth studies, the combinability problem is not common. However, the MGRS, INTERGROWTH-21st Project, NICHD, and WHO fetal study were multicentre studies and so faced this problem. Statistical significance is not appropriate for judging combinability, as even unimportant differences can be statistically significant especially in very large samples. Assessing how appropriate it is to pool data from multiple sites is challenging, as a judgment of the similarities in the fetal growth size patterns across the populations must be made. The combinability of studies in a meta-analysis is usually judged qualitatively using the similarity of the studies, such as the similarity of the participants, interventions, and outcome variables. This is akin to the standardised and careful section process employed by the studies which strives to ensure similarity of women selected from different sites. Judgments on similarity of data from different sites depends on quantifying the differences and variability inherent in the data for which there is no standard statistical approach for evaluating what is an acceptable level of agreement. Some considerations on how to make judgments on similarity of data include: defining a priori a threshold of acceptable differences based on clinical knowledge for judging whether the differences between the centile curves from each site are acceptable before conducting the analysis, conducting a sensitivity analysis of the inclusion/exclusion of specific data to the overall fitted centiles, quantifying the amount of variability that can be attributed to site differences and defining a priori what differences are considered acceptable based on clinical impact or meaningfulness.For example, the INTERGROWTH-21st Project used the same criterion as the WHO-MGRS where the impact of the consistency and magnitude of differences in each site compared to all sites was judged according to Cohen ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Cohen</Author><Year>1988</Year><RecNum>475</RecNum><DisplayText>(78)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>475</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="f9wzxtppaxzztwez5zr52ezsrsz0vedf0te0" timestamp="1519315799">475</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Book">6</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Cohen, Jacob</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Statistical power analysis for the behavioral sciences</title></titles><dates><year>1988</year></dates><pub-location>Hillsdale, N.J.</pub-location><publisher>L. Erlbaum Associates</publisher><isbn>9780805802832 0805802835</isbn><urls></urls><remote-database-name>/z-wcorg/</remote-database-name><remote-database-provider>;(78) with differences of 0.5 SD considered to be medium (an ideological criterion rather than a statistical criterion). This criterion is also widely used in the assessment and evaluation of changes in health-related quality of life measures and patient reported outcomes ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Norman</Author><Year>2003</Year><RecNum>478</RecNum><DisplayText>(79)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>478</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="f9wzxtppaxzztwez5zr52ezsrsz0vedf0te0" timestamp="1519321915">478</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Norman, Geoffrey R.</author><author>Sloan, Jeff A.</author><author>Wyrwich, Kathleen W.</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Interpretation of Changes in Health-related Quality of Life: The Remarkable Universality of Half a Standard Deviation</title><secondary-title>Medical Care</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Medical Care</full-title></periodical><pages>582-592</pages><volume>41</volume><number>5</number><keywords><keyword>Quality of life</keyword><keyword>threshold</keyword><keyword>interpretation</keyword><keyword>MID</keyword><keyword>effect size</keyword></keywords><dates><year>2003</year></dates><isbn>0025-7079</isbn><accession-num>00005650-200305000-00004</accession-num><urls><related-urls><url>;(79). 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ADDIN EN.CITE.DATA (57, 80). In addition, a sensitivity analyses involving an assessment of the impact of excluding each site’s data one at a time on the overall fitted centiles derived from all the pooled data is useful in making judgments on whether any single sites data is incompatible with the rest of the data from other sites or countries. It is recommended that multicentre studies should quantify and evaluate the differences between their sites using pre-specified criteria, as was done in the INTERGROWTH-21st Project ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Villar</Author><Year>2014</Year><RecNum>45</RecNum><DisplayText>(40)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>45</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="f9wzxtppaxzztwez5zr52ezsrsz0vedf0te0" timestamp="1427116783">45</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Villar, José</author><author>Papageorghiou, Aris T.</author><author>Pang, Ruyan</author><author>Ohuma, Eric O.</author><author>Ismail, Leila Cheikh</author><author>Barros, Fernando C.</author><author>Lambert, Ann</author><author>Carvalho, Maria</author><author>Jaffer, Yasmin A.</author><author>Bertino, Enrico</author><author>Gravett, Michael G.</author><author>Altman, Doug G.</author><author>Purwar, Manorama</author><author>Frederick, Ihunnaya O.</author><author>Noble, Julia A.</author><author>Victora, Cesar G.</author><author>Bhutta, Zulfiqar A.</author><author>Kennedy, Stephen H.</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>The likeness of fetal growth and newborn size across non-isolated populations in the INTERGROWTH-21st Project: the Fetal Growth Longitudinal Study and Newborn Cross-Sectional Study</title><secondary-title>The Lancet Diabetes & Endocrinology</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>The Lancet Diabetes & Endocrinology</full-title></periodical><pages>781-792</pages><volume>2</volume><number>10</number><dates><year>2014</year></dates><isbn>2213-8587</isbn><urls><related-urls><url>;(40). Concluding remarksIn this paper we have discussed some of the current developments and debates in the construction of fetal references and standards. We have highlighted some issues regarding how fetal growth reference charts are constructed (prescriptive and descriptive approaches), study design and methodological considerations for constructing reference centile charts. Important design features such as inclusion and exclusion criteria, sample size determination, gestational age (GA) estimation, and handling of data from multiple sites for multi-centre studies are seldom well addressed, considered or reported. As many of these charts are in clinical use today and directly affect the identification of at-risk newborns that require treatment and nutritional strategies, the establishment of fetal biometric charts for use require careful methodological considerations. The observations by David Barker in the late 1980’s, on the association between early growth parameters such as birthweight and the risk of disease in later life PEVuZE5vdGU+PENpdGU+PEF1dGhvcj5CYXJrZXI8L0F1dGhvcj48WWVhcj4xOTg2PC9ZZWFyPjxS
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ADDIN EN.CITE.DATA (81, 82) leading to the famous “Barker’s hypothesis” reiterates how crucial and important the first 1000 days of life is. They confirmed the already-overwhelming evidence that fetal growth disorders are risk factors for adverse perinatal outcomes and can predispose infants to adult chronic diseases PEVuZE5vdGU+PENpdGU+PEF1dGhvcj5Tb3ZpbzwvQXV0aG9yPjxZZWFyPjIwMTU8L1llYXI+PFJl
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ADDIN EN.CITE.DATA (36).As demonstrated in Table 2, there have been numerous charts developed for both local (e.g., Liao et al. 2012 ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Liao</Author><Year>2012</Year><RecNum>54</RecNum><DisplayText>(22)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>54</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="er0sssz9rtfttde9tt2vz0fytrdz5d09adwt" timestamp="1525430272">54</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Liao, A. W.</author><author>Brizot Mde, L.</author><author>Kang, H. J.</author><author>Assuncao, R. A.</author><author>Zugaib, M.</author></authors></contributors><auth-address>Hospital das Clinicas, Instituto Central, Faculdade de Medicina, Universidade de Sao Paulo, Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Brazil. liao@usp.br</auth-address><titles><title>Longitudinal reference ranges for fetal ultrasound biometry in twin pregnancies</title><secondary-title>Clinics (Sao Paulo)</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Clinics (Sao Paulo)</full-title></periodical><pages>451-5</pages><volume>67</volume><number>5</number><edition>2012/06/06</edition><keywords><keyword>Abdomen/diagnostic imaging</keyword><keyword>Adult</keyword><keyword>*Biometry</keyword><keyword>Female</keyword><keyword>Femur/diagnostic imaging</keyword><keyword>*Fetal Development</keyword><keyword>Fetal Weight/physiology</keyword><keyword>Gestational Age</keyword><keyword>Head/diagnostic imaging</keyword><keyword>Humans</keyword><keyword>Occipital Bone/diagnostic imaging</keyword><keyword>Pregnancy</keyword><keyword>Pregnancy, Twin/*physiology</keyword><keyword>Prospective Studies</keyword><keyword>Reference Values</keyword><keyword>*Ultrasonography, Prenatal</keyword></keywords><dates><year>2012</year></dates><isbn>1980-5322 (Electronic)
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ADDIN EN.CITE.DATA (5) and Kiserud et al. ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Kiserud</Author><Year>2017</Year><RecNum>485</RecNum><DisplayText>(15)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>485</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="f9wzxtppaxzztwez5zr52ezsrsz0vedf0te0" timestamp="1528286093">485</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Kiserud, Torvid</author><author>Piaggio, Gilda</author><author>Carroli, Guillermo</author><author>Widmer, Mariana</author><author>Carvalho, José</author><author>Neerup Jensen, Lisa</author><author>Giordano, Daniel</author><author>Cecatti, José Guilherme</author><author>Abdel Aleem, Hany</author><author>Talegawkar, Sameera A.</author><author>Benachi, Alexandra</author><author>Diemert, Anke</author><author>Tshefu Kitoto, Antoinette</author><author>Thinkhamrop, Jadsada</author><author>Lumbiganon, Pisake</author><author>Tabor, Ann</author><author>Kriplani, Alka</author><author>Gonzalez Perez, Rogelio</author><author>Hecher, Kurt</author><author>Hanson, Mark A.</author><author>Gülmezoglu, A. Metin</author><author>Platt, Lawrence D.</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>The World Health Organization Fetal Growth Charts: A Multinational Longitudinal Study of Ultrasound Biometric Measurements and Estimated Fetal Weight</title><secondary-title>PLOS Medicine</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>PLOS Medicine</full-title></periodical><pages>e1002220</pages><volume>14</volume><number>1</number><dates><year>2017</year></dates><publisher>Public Library of Science</publisher><urls><related-urls><url>;(15)), as well as customised use ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Gardosi</Author><Year>2018</Year><RecNum>39</RecNum><DisplayText>(88)</DisplayText><record><rec-number>39</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app="EN" db-id="sfwzzr0wowp29we2r9ovf9posdeesa9990sd" timestamp="1527173866">39</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name="Journal Article">17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Gardosi, Jason</author><author>Francis, Andre</author><author>Turner, Sue</author><author>Williams, Mandy</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Customized growth charts: rationale, validation and clinical benefits</title><secondary-title>American Journal of Obstetrics & Gynecology</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>American Journal of Obstetrics & Gynecology</full-title></periodical><pages>S609-S618</pages><volume>218</volume><number>2</number><dates><year>2018</year></dates><publisher>Elsevier</publisher><isbn>0002-9378</isbn><urls><related-urls><url>;(88). The current discussion around fetal growth charts is whether ethnicity plays a role in fetal growth and therefore whether it should be taken into consideration in the creation of the charts. A comparison of the INTERGROWTH-21st Project, NICHD, and the WHO-sponsored fetal charts found that there were minimal differences between the three charts in terms of head circumference across gestational ages PEVuZE5vdGU+PENpdGU+PEF1dGhvcj5QYXBhZ2VvcmdoaW91PC9BdXRob3I+PFllYXI+MjAxODwv
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ADDIN EN.CITE.DATA (36). The INTERGROWTH-21st Project constructed charts from eight diverse populations following similar methodology, recruitment, standardisation and demonstrated that there was great similarity in fetal growth among healthy women who were well nourished and lived in good environments. The NICHD study hypothesised that there are differences in fetal growth by ethnicity and therefore aimed to construct ethnic specific charts. Gardosi et al have always argued for the need of customised charts that account for a woman’s characteristics that are known to affect growth such as height, weight, BMI and have constructed charts that include these variables. In summary, we have highlighted some of the current issues related to the development of fetal references and standards. The systematic review of fetal charts published in the last five years shows that these issues still recur with different opinions on how these charts should (or shouldn’t) be constructed. There is no consensus on these pertinent issues and hence if not resolved will lead to continued surge of fetal reference and standard charts which will only exacerbate the current problem of not being able to make direct comparisons of fetal size and growth across populations.ReferencesPapers of particular interest, published recently, have been highlighted as:? Of importance?? Of major importance ADDIN EN.REFLIST 1.Cole TJ. The development of growth references and growth charts. Annals of human biology. 2012;39(5):382-94.2.Jensen AR. Galton's legacy to research on intelligence. Journal of biosocial science. 2002;34(2):145-72.3.Briceno F, Restrepo H, Paredes R, Cifuentes R. Charts for fetal age assessment based on fetal sonographic biometry in a population from Cali, Colombia. J Ultrasound Med. 2013;32(12):2135-43.4.Grantz KL, Hediger ML, Liu D, Buck Louis GM. Fetal growth standards: the NICHD fetal growth study approach in context with INTERGROWTH-21st and the World Health Organization Multicentre Growth Reference Study. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2018;218(2S):S641-S55 e28.5. ●●Papageorghiou AT, Ohuma EO, Altman DG, Todros T, Cheikh Ismail L, Lambert A, et al. International standards for fetal growth based on serial ultrasound measurements: the Fetal Growth Longitudinal Study of the INTERGROWTH-21st Project. Lancet. 2014;384(9946):869-79. This was a large longitudinal study of over 4000 women recruited from eight geographically diverse populations. Ultrasound measurements were collected in triplicate with each women seen between 4-6 times during pregnancy and measurements were done using standardised tools and equipment. The study is based on a prescriptive approach where women recruited were deemed to be healthy, well-educated, well-nourished and living in environments that are free of factors known to affect fetal growth. The study constructed international fetal standards based on all the ultrasound data from the eight recruiting sites.6.Robinson HP, Fleming JEE. A critical evaluation of sonar "crown-rump length" measurements. BJOG: An International Journal of Obstetrics & Gynaecology. 1975;82(9):702-10.7.Papageorghiou AT, Kennedy SH, Salomon LJ, Ohuma EO, Cheikh Ismail L, Barros FC, et al. International standards for early fetal size and pregnancy dating based on ultrasound measurement of crown–rump length in the first trimester of pregnancy. Ultrasound in Obstetrics & Gynecology. 2014;44(6):641-8.8.Altman DG, Chitty LS. New charts for ultrasound dating of pregnancy. Ultrasound in Obstetrics and Gynecology. 1997;10(3):174-91.9.Owen P, Donnet ML, Ogston SA, Christie AD, Howie PW, Patel NB. Standards for ultrasound fetal growth velocity. BJOG: An International Journal of Obstetrics & Gynaecology. 1996;103(1):60-9.10.Bertino E, Di Battista E, Bossi A, Pagliano M, Fabris C, Aicardi G, et al. Fetal growth velocity: kinetic, clinical, and biological aspects. Archives of Disease in Childhood - Fetal and Neonatal Edition. 1996;74(1):F10-F5.11.Ioannou C, Talbot K, Ohuma E, Sarris I, Villar J, Conde‐Agudelo A, et al. Systematic review of methodology used in ultrasound studies aimed at creating charts of fetal size. BJOG: An International Journal of Obstetrics & Gynaecology. 2012;119(12):1425-39.12.Salomon LJ, Bernard JP, Duyme M, Buvat I, Ville Y. The impact of choice of reference charts and equations on the assessment of fetal biometry. Ultrasound Obstet Gynecol. 2005;25(6):559-65.13.WHO Working Group on Infant Growth. An evaluation of infant growth: the use and interpretation of anthropometry in infants. Bull World Health Organ. 1995;73:165-74.14.Lunde A, Melve KK, Gjessing HK, Skj?rven R, Irgens LM. Genetic and Environmental Influences on Birth Weight, Birth Length, Head Circumference, and Gestational Age by Use of Population-based Parent-Offspring Data. American Journal of Epidemiology. 2007;165(7):734-41.15. ●●Kiserud T, Piaggio G, Carroli G, Widmer M, Carvalho J, Neerup Jensen L, et al. The World Health Organization Fetal Growth Charts: A Multinational Longitudinal Study of Ultrasound Biometric Measurements and Estimated Fetal Weight. PLOS Medicine. 2017;14(1):e1002220. This was a multinational prospective observational longitudinal study of fetal growth in a healthy population of pregnant women with no constraints on fetal growth from ten countries (Argentina, Brazil, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Denmark, Egypt, France, Germany, India, Norway, and Thailand). A total of 8,203 sets of ultrasound measurements which were analyzed for outliers were used to provide fetal growth charts for estimated fetal weight and ultrasound biometric measurements for global use.16. ●●Buck LGM, Grewal J, Albert PS, Sciscione A, Wing DA, Grobman WA, et al. Racial/ethnic standards for fetal growth: the NICHD Fetal Growth Studies. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2015;213(4):449 e1- e41. This was a prospective study where 2,334 healthy women were recruited in the United States and randomized among four schedules during which in-person interviews and anthropometric assessments were conducted. The fetuses of 1,737 of the 2334 women who were consistently low-risk throughout the pregnancy were included in the development of the foetal growth standards. The authors declared that significant differences in fetal growth were found among four racial/ethnic groups (non-Hispanic whites, non-Hispanic Blacks, Hispanics and Asians) and that these racial/ethnic-specific standards could improve precision in the evaluation and monitoring of fetal growth.17.Ioannou C, Talbot K, Ohuma E, Sarris I, Villar J, Conde-Agudelo A, et al. Systematic review of methodology used in ultrasound studies aimed at creating charts of fetal size. BJOG. 2012;119(12):1425-39.18.Shivkumar S, Himes KP, Hutcheon JA, Platt RW. An ultrasound-based fetal weight reference for twins. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2015;213(2):224 e1-9.19.Daniel-Spiegel E, Mandel M, Nevo D, Ben-Chetrit A, Shen O, Shalev E, et al. Fetal Biometry in the Israeli Population: New Reference Charts. Isr Med Assoc J. 2016;18(1):40-4.20.Dias T, Abeykoon S, Kumarasiri S, Gunawardena C, Pragasan G, Padeniya T, et al. Symphysis-pubis fundal height charts to assess fetal size in women with a normal body mass index. Ceylon Med J. 2016;61(3):106-12.21.Xu Y, Lek N, Cheung YB, Biswas A, Su LL, Kwek KY, et al. Unconditional and conditional standards for fetal abdominal circumference and estimated fetal weight in an ethnic Chinese population: a birth cohort study. BMC Pregnancy Childbirth. 2015;15:141.22.Liao AW, Brizot Mde L, Kang HJ, Assuncao RA, Zugaib M. Longitudinal reference ranges for fetal ultrasound biometry in twin pregnancies. Clinics (Sao Paulo). 2012;67(5):451-5.23.Gabbay-Benziv R, Crimmins S, Contag SA. Reference Values for Sonographically Estimated Fetal Weight in Twin Gestations Stratified by Chorionicity: A Single Center Study. J Ultrasound Med. 2017;36(4):793-8.24.Araujo Junior E, Martins Santana EF, Martins WP, Junior JE, Ruano R, Pires CR, et al. Reference charts of fetal biometric parameters in 31,476 Brazilian singleton pregnancies. J Ultrasound Med. 2014;33(7):1185-91.25.Araujo Junior E, Ruano R, Javadian P, Martins WP, Elito J, Jr., Pires CR, et al. Reference charts for fetal biometric parameters in twin pregnancies according to chorionicity. Prenat Diagn. 2014;34(4):382-8.26.Kwon JY, Park IY, Wie JH, Choe S, Kim CJ, Shin JC. Fetal biometry in the Korean population: reference charts and comparison with charts from other populations. Prenat Diagn. 2014;34(10):927-34.27.Pay ASD, Froen JF, Staff AC, Jacobsson B, Gjessing HK. Symphysis-fundus measurement - the predictive value of a new reference curve. Tidsskr Nor Laegeforen. 2017;137(10):717-20.28.Deter RL, Lee W, Sangi-Haghpeykar H, Tarca AL, Li J, Yeo L, et al. Personalized third-trimester fetal growth evaluation: comparisons of individualized growth assessment, percentile line and conditional probability methods. J Matern Fetal Neonatal Med. 2016;29(2):177-85.29.Jiang X, Zhang YH, Li Y, Ma X, Zhu YS, Shang L. Reference charts and equations of fetal biometry for normal singleton pregnant women in Shaanxi, China. Clin Exp Obstet Gynecol. 2013;40(3):393-8.30.Sotiriadis A, Eleftheriades M, Chatzinikolaou F, Hassiakos D, Chrousos GP, Pervanidou P. National curves of foetal growth in singleton foetuses of Greek origin. Eur J Clin Invest. 2016;46(5):425-33.31.Stirrup OT, Khalil A, D'Antonio F, Thilaganathan B, Southwest Thames Obstetric Research C. Fetal growth reference ranges in twin pregnancy: analysis of the Southwest Thames Obstetric Research Collaborative (STORK) multiple pregnancy cohort. Ultrasound Obstet Gynecol. 2015;45(3):301-7.32.Rizzo G, Prefumo F, Ferrazzi E, Zanardini C, Di Martino D, Boito S, et al. The effect of fetal sex on customized fetal growth charts. J Matern Fetal Neonatal Med. 2016;29(23):3768-75.33.Abdel Fattah Abdel Moety G, Abdel Monem El Kattan E. Three-dimensional ultrasound using the VOCAL technique for estimation of reference values of fetal thigh volume in normally grown Egyptian fetuses from 20 to 41 weeks. J Matern Fetal Neonatal Med. 2016;29(13):2083-7.34.Merialdi M, Widmer M, Gulmezoglu AM, Abdel-Aleem H, Bega G, Benachi A, et al. WHO multicentre study for the development of growth standards from fetal life to childhood: the fetal component. BMC Pregnancy Childbirth. 2014;14:157.35.Bertino E, Milani S, Fabris C, De Curtis M. Neonatal anthropometric charts: what they are, what they are not. Archives of disease in childhood Fetal and neonatal edition. 2007;92(1):F7-F10.36.Papageorghiou AT, Kennedy SH, Salomon LJ, Altman DG, Ohuma EO, Stones W, et al. The INTERGROWTH-21(st) fetal growth standards: toward the global integration of pregnancy and pediatric care. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2018;218(2S):S630-S40.37. ●● WHO Multicentre Growth Research Study Group. WHO Child Growth Standards based on length/height, weight and age. Acta Paediatr Suppl. 2006;450:76-85. This paper described the study design and statistical methods used to construct the WHO Child Growth Standards for the production of fetal growth charts from an international sample (ten countries) of infants from healthy mothers who had no constraint of fetal growth. The authors used the “Box-Cox power exponential (BCPE) method, with curve smoothing by cubic splines” to construct the curves. The overall conclusion was the possibility to use the resulting generated standards to assess children globally irrespective of geographical location and ethnicity as long as environmental conditions were adequate.38.Hellenthal G, Busby GB, Band G, Wilson JF, Capelli C, Falush D, et al. A genetic atlas of human admixture history. Science. 2014;343(6172):747-51.39.Prüfer K, Racimo F, Patterson N, Jay F, Sankararaman S, Sawyer S, et al. The complete genome sequence of a Neanderthal from the Altai Mountains. Nature. 2014;505(7481):43-9.40. ●●Villar J, Papageorghiou AT, Pang R, Ohuma EO, Ismail LC, Barros FC, et al. The likeness of fetal growth and newborn size across non-isolated populations in the INTERGROWTH-21st Project: the Fetal Growth Longitudinal Study and Newborn Cross-Sectional Study. The Lancet Diabetes & Endocrinology. 2014;2(10):781-92. This study used two INTERGROWTH-21(st) components [The Fetal Growth Longitudinal Study (FGLS) where the primary markers of fetal growth were ultrasound measurements of fetal crown-rump length and the population-based Newborn Cross-Sectional Study (NCSS), which measured birthlength in all newborn babies]. Using variance component analysis, it was determined that between 1·9% and 3·5% of the total variability in fetal measurements could be attributed to between-site differences showing that fetal growth and newborn length are similar across diverse geographical settings in healthy populations.41.Gardosi J. Customised assessment of fetal growth potential: implications for perinatal care. Archives of Disease in Childhood - Fetal and Neonatal Edition. 2012;97(5):F314-F7.42. ●●Gardosi J, Chang A, Kalyan B, Sahota D, Symonds EM. Customised antenatal growth charts. The Lancet. 1992;339(8788):283-7. This study used a retrospective review of 4179 pregnancies with gestational ages confirmed by ultrasounds to produce an antenatal chart that could be customised for individual pregnancies after correction of physiologic variables like sex, maternal weight at first antenatal-clinic visit, height, ethnic group, and parity. The authors stated that adjustment for these variables make assessment of fetal growth more precise.43.Mongelli M, Figueras F, Francis A, Gardosi J. A customised birthweight centile calculator developed for an Australian population. Australian and New Zealand Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology. 2007;47(2):128-31.44.Gardosi J, Francis A. A customized standard to assess fetal growth in a US population. American Journal of Obstetrics & Gynecology. 2009;201(1):25.e1-.e7.45.McCowan L, Stewart AW, Francis A, Gardosi J. A customised birthweight centile calculator developed for a New Zealand population. Australian and New Zealand Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology. 2004;44(5):428-31.46.Salomon LJ. Early fetal growth: concepts and pitfalls. Ultrasound in obstetrics & gynecology : the official journal of the International Society of Ultrasound in Obstetrics and Gynecology. 2010;35(4):385-9.47. ●Altman DG, Chitty LS. Design and analysis of studies to derive charts of fetal size. Ultrasound in Obstetrics and Gynecology. 1993;3(6):378-84. This opinion piece attempted to provide a list of key features required for the design and analysis of studies used to produce references for fetal size. This list included differentiating between size and growth; the use of longitudinal studies with adequate sample sizes, inclusion of a well-selected and described sample and use of appropriate statistical methods.48. ●Altman DG, Chitty LS. Charts of fetal size: 1. Methodology. BJOG: An International Journal of Obstetrics & Gynaecology. 1994;101(1):29-34. This was a prospective study of 663 fetuses that attempted to determine features of study design and analysis necessary for adequate development of references for fetal size. The study described that sample selection, sample size, prospective collection of data and use of statistical methods that take increasing variation among fetuses during pregnancy into consideration are important.49. ●Royston P, Altman DG. Design and analysis of longitudinal studies of fetal size. Ultrasound in Obstetrics and Gynecology. 1995;6(5):307-12. This paper describes the statistical analysis of longitudinal studies used for the establishment of fetal growth standards or references. The authors propose the use of multilevel models which adequately represent the data used for construction of fetal growth charts.50.Deter RL, Harrist RB, Hadlock FP, Carpenter RJ. The use of ultrasound in the assessment of normal fetal growth: A review. Journal of Clinical Ultrasound. 1981;9(9):481-93.51.Altman DG, Hytten FE. Intrauterine growth retardation: Let's be clear about it. BJOG: An International Journal of Obstetrics & Gynaecology. 1989;96(10):1127-8.52.Williams RL, Creasy RK, Cunningham GC, Hawes WE, Norris FD, Tashiro M. Fetal growth and perinatal viability in California. Obstetrics and gynecology. 1982;59(5):624-32.53.Salomon LJ. Early fetal growth: concepts and pitfalls. Ultrasound in Obstetrics & Gynecology. 2010;35(4):385-9.54.Treloar A, Behn BG, Cowan DW. Analysis of gestational interval. American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology. 1967;99:34 - 45.55.Chitty LS, Altman DG, Henderson A, Campbell S. Charts of fetal size: 2. Head measurements. British journal of obstetrics and gynaecology. 1994;101(1):35-43.56.de Onis M, Garza C, Victora CG, Onyango AW, Frongillo EA, Martines J. The WHO Multicentre Growth Reference Study: Planning, study design, and methodology. Food and Nutrition Bulletin. 2004;25(Supplement 1):15S-26S.57.Altman DG, Ohuma EO, International F, Newborn Growth Consortium for the 21st C. Statistical considerations for the development of prescriptive fetal and newborn growth standards in the INTERGROWTH-21st Project. BJOG. 2013;120 Suppl 2:71-6, v.58.Bellera CA, Hanley JA. A method is presented to plan the required sample size when estimating regression-based reference limits. Journal of Clinical Epidemiology. 2007;60(6):610-5.59.Royston P. Constructing time-specific reference ranges. Stat Med. 1991;10(5):675-90.60.Jennen-Steinmetz C. Sample size determination for studies designed to estimate covariate-dependent reference quantile curves. Stat Med. 2014;33(8):1336-48.61.Hanley JA. Simple and multiple linear regression: sample size considerations. Journal of Clinical Epidemiology. 2016;79:112-9.62.Ioannou C, Talbot K, Ohuma E, Sarris I, Villar J, Conde-Agudelo A, et al. Systematic review of methodology used in ultrasound studies aimed at creating charts of fetal size. BJOG: An International Journal of Obstetrics & Gynaecology. 2012:no-no.63.Napolitano R, Dhami J, Ohuma EO, Ioannou C, Conde-Agudelo A, Kennedy SH, et al. Pregnancy dating by fetal crown-rump length: a systematic review of charts. BJOG. 2014;121(5):556-65.64.Harris EK, Boyd J. Statistical bases of reference values in laboratory medicine. Boca Raton: CRC Press; 1995.65.Linnet K. Nonparametric estimation of reference intervals by simple and bootstrap-based procedures. Clin Chem. 2000;46(6 Pt 1):867-9.66.Healy MJR, Rasbash J, Yang M. Distribution-free estimation of age-related centiles. Annals of human biology. 1988;15(1):17-22.67.Wright EM, Royston P. Calculating reference intervals for laboratory measurements. Statistical Methods in Medical Research. 1999;8(2):93-112.68.Linnet K. Two-stage transformation systems for normalization of reference distributions evaluated. Clin Chem. 1987;33(3):381-6.69.Royston P, Matthews JNS. Estimation of reference ranges from normal samples. Statistics in medicine. 1991;10(5):691-5.70.Hanley J, Moodie E. Sample size, precision and power calculations: a unified approach. J Biomet Biostat. 2011;5:2.71.Virtanen A, Kairisto V, Uusipaikka E. Regression-based reference limits: determination of sufficient sample size. Clin Chem. 1998;44(11):2353-8.72.Virtanen A, Kairisto V, Irjala K, Rajamaki A, Uusipaikka E. Regression-based reference limits and their reliability: example on hemoglobin during the first year of life. Clin Chem. 1998;44(2):327-35.73.Elveback LR, Taylor WF. STATISTICAL METHODS OF ESTIMATING PERCENTILES. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences. 1969;161(2):538-48.74.Altman DG. Construction of age-related reference centiles using absolute residuals. Statistics in medicine. 1993;12(10):917-24.75.Royston P, Altman DG. Using fractional polynomials to model curved regression relationships. Stata Technical Bulletin. 1994;21: 11-23.76.Healy MJ. Notes on the statistics of growth standards. Annals of human biology. 1974;1(1):41-6.77.Royston P. Calculation of unconditional and conditional reference intervals for foetal size and growth from longitudinal measurements. Statistics in Medicine. 1995;14(13):1417-36.78.Cohen J. Statistical power analysis for the behavioral sciences. Hillsdale, N.J.: L. Erlbaum Associates; 1988.79.Norman GR, Sloan JA, Wyrwich KW. Interpretation of Changes in Health-related Quality of Life: The Remarkable Universality of Half a Standard Deviation. Medical Care. 2003;41(5):582-92.80. ● WHO Multicentre Growth Reference Study. Assessment of differences in linear growth among populations in the WHO Multicentre Growth Reference Study. Acta P?diatrica. 2006;Suppl 450:56 - 65. This study aimed to evaluate whether it was possible to pool data from the different populations in the WHO Multicentre Growth Reference Study (MGRS) for the construction of a single international growth standard. The authors showed that there was little variability in linear growth among the children from the different sites justifying the pooling of data to construct a single standard.81.Barker DJ, Osmond C. Infant mortality, childhood nutrition, and ischaemic heart disease in England and Wales. Lancet. 1986;1(8489):1077-81.82.Barker DJ, Winter PD, Osmond C, Margetts B, Simmonds SJ. Weight in infancy and death from ischaemic heart disease. Lancet. 1989;2(8663):577-80.83.Sovio U, White IR, Dacey A, Pasupathy D, Smith GCS. Screening for fetal growth restriction with universal third trimester ultrasonography in nulliparous women in the Pregnancy Outcome Prediction (POP) study: a prospective cohort study. Lancet. 2015;386(10008):2089-97.84.Gluckman PD, Hanson MA, Bateson P, Beedle AS, Law CM, Bhutta ZA, et al. Towards a new developmental synthesis: adaptive developmental plasticity and human disease. Lancet. 2009;373(9675):1654-7.85.Gluckman PD, Hanson MA, Beedle AS. Early life events and their consequences for later disease: a life history and evolutionary perspective. Am J Hum Biol. 2007;19(1):1-19.86.Barker DJ. The origins of the developmental origins theory. J Intern Med. 2007;261(5):412-7.87.Gluckman PD, Hanson MA, Buklijas T. A conceptual framework for the developmental origins of health and disease. J Dev Orig Health Dis. 2010;1(1):6-18.88.Gardosi J, Francis A, Turner S, Williams M. Customized growth charts: rationale, validation and clinical benefits. American Journal of Obstetrics & Gynecology. 2018;218(2):S609-S18. ADDIN ................
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