Diastolic Heart Failure: Challenges of Diagnosis and ...

[Pages:8]PRACTICAL THERAPEUTICS

Diastolic Heart Failure: Challenges of Diagnosis and Treatment

CECILIA GUTIERREZ, M.D, and DANIEL G. BLANCHARD, M.D. University of California, San Diego, School of Medicine, La Jolla, California

Diastolic heart failure, a major cause of morbidity and mortality, is defined as symptoms of heart failure in a patient with preserved left ventricular function. It is characterized by a stiff left ventricle with decreased compliance and impaired relaxation, which leads to increased end diastolic pressure. Signs and symptoms are similar to those of heart failure with systolic dysfunction. The diagnosis of diastolic heart failure is best made with Doppler echocardiography. Based on current knowledge, pharmacologic treatment of diastolic heart failure should focus on normalizing blood pressure, promoting regression of left ventricular hypertrophy, avoiding tachycardia, treating symptoms of congestion, and maintaining normal atrial contraction when possible. Diuretic therapy is the mainstay of treatment for preventing pulmonary congestion, while beta blockers appear to be useful in preventing tachycardia and thereby prolonging left ventricular diastolic filling time. Angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors and angiotensin-receptor blockers may be beneficial in patients with diastolic dysfunction, especially those with hypertension. Evidence from adequately powered randomized controlled trials, however, is not available yet. The outcomes of ongoing clinical trials may provide much-needed information to move from intuitive treatment to therapy based on evidence that matters: decreased morbidity and mortality and improved quality of life. (Am Fam Physician 2004;69:2609-16. Copyright? 2004 American Academy of Family Physicians.)

Members of various family practice departments develop articles for "Practical Therapeutics." This article is one in a series coordinated by the Family and Preventive Medicine Department at the University of California, San Diego, School of Medicine. Guest editor of the series is Tyson Ikeda, M.D.

See page 2507 for definitions of strength-ofrecommendation labels.

This article exemplifies the AAFP 2004 Annual Clinical Focus on caring for America's aging popula-

Heart failure affects approximately 4.8 million persons in the United States, with about 500,000 new cases diagnosed each year.1,2 It is the leading cause of hospitalization in patients older than 65 years.3 In spite of significant advances in the treatment of heart failure, mortality rates remain high: 30 to 40 percent of patients with advanced disease and 5 to 10 percent of patients with mild symptoms die within five to 10 years.4

Heart failure can arise from any condition that compromises the contractility of the heart (systolic heart failure) or that interferes with the heart's ability to relax (diastolic heart failure). Hospital- and community-based reports indicate that about one fourth to one half of patients with heart failure have normal left ventricular systolic function.5,6 Observational studies5-7 indicate that diastolic heart failure is more common in women and elderly persons. Although patients with diastolic heart failure have a lower annual mortality rate than patients with systolic heart failure, they have a higher rate than the general population. They

also have hospitalization rates similar to those of patients with systolic heart failure. These observations emphasize diastolic heart failure as an important contributor to morbidity, mortality, and health care costs, and highlight the need for further research and clinical trials examining this condition.

Pathophysiology

Diastole is the process by which the heart returns to its relaxed state; it is also the time for cardiac perfusion. During diastole, drastic changes in cardiac pressure-volume relationships occur. The relaxation process has four identifiable phases: isovolumetric relaxation from the time of aortic valve closure to mitral valve opening; early rapid filling after mitral valve opening; diastasis, a period of low flow during mid-diastole; and late filling of the ventricles from atrial contraction (Figure 1).

In patients with isolated diastolic heart failure, the heart often is able to meet the body's metabolic needs, but at higher diastolic pressures. The left ventricle is stiff, with decreased compliance and impaired relaxation.Transmissionof thehigherend-diastolic

Downloaded from the American Family Physician Web site at afp. Copyright? 2004 American Academy of Family Physicians. For the private, noncommercial use of one individual user of the Web site. All other rights reserved. Contact copyrights@ for copyright questions and/or

It is difficult to distinguish diastolic from systolic heart failure based on physical findings or symptoms. Doppler echocardiography has assumed the primary role in the noninvasive assessment of cardiac diastolic function and is used to confirm

the diagnosis.

Pressure (mm Hg)

120 Aortic 100 valve

opens

80

60

40 Mitral

20

valve closes

0 130

90

50

left ventricular pressure to the pulmonary circulation may lead to pulmonary congestion, dyspnea, and other symptoms of heart failure.8,9

Diastole is a complex process that is affected by a number of factors, including ischemia, heart rate, velocity of relaxation, cardiac compliance (i.e., elastic recoil and stiffness), hypertrophy,

Isovolumetric relaxation

Early rapid filling Diastasis Late filling (atrial systole)

Aortic valve closes

Mitral valve opens

Ventricular pressure

Aortic pressure

Atrial pressure

Ventricular volume

ECG

1st

2nd 3rd

Sound

Volume (mL)

Systole

Diastole

FIGURE 1. Cardiac cycle, showing changes in left atrial pressure, left ventricular pressure, aortic pressure, and ventricular volume; the electrocardiogram (ECG); and the phonocardiogram.

and segmental wall coordination of the heart muscle.

HYPERTENSION

Chronic hypertension is the most common cause of diastolic dysfunction and failure. It leads to left ventricular hypertrophy and increased connective tissue content, both of which decrease cardiac compliance.10 The hypertrophied ventricle has a steeper diastolic pressure-volume relationship; therefore, a small increase in left ventricular end-diastolic volume (which can occur with exercise, for example) causes a marked increase in left ventricular enddiastolic pressure.

ISCHEMIA

Relaxation of the ventricles involves the active transport of calcium ions into the sarcoplasmic reticulum, which allows the dissociation of myosin-actin crossbridges. Hypoxia inhibits the dissociation process by altering the balance of the adenosine triphosphate? to?adenosine diphosphate ratio, which may contribute to diastolic dysfunction.11

HEART RATE

The heart rate determines the time that is available for diastolic filling, coronary perfusion, and ventricular relaxation. Tachycardia adversely affects diastolic function by several mechanisms: it decreases left ventricular filling and coronaryperfusiontimes,increasesmyocardialoxygen consumption, and causes incomplete relaxation because the stiff heart cannot increase its velocity of relaxation as heart rate increases. Patients with diastolic dysfunction do not tolerate tachycardia or exercise well.

ATRIAL FIBRILLATION

Patients with heart failure are at increased risk for atrial fibrillation.12 As the ventricle stiffens and develops higher end-diastolic pressures, the atria are distended and stressed; this situation often results in atrial fibrillation. The loss of atrial contraction worsens the symptoms of heart failure, because patients with diastolic

ILLUSTRATION BY D. KLEMM

2610-AMERICAN FAMILY PHYSICIAN

afp

VOLUME 69, NUMBER 11 / JUNE 1, 2004

Diastolic Heart Failure

dysfunction often are dependent on atrial filling of the left ventricle ("atrial kick"). Atrial fibrillation also can worsen symptoms if the ventricular rate is uncontrolled.

VENTRICULAR LOAD

At the end of normal systole, a small residual volume of blood remains in the left ventricle. If this residual volume increases, it interferes with the normal elastic recoil of the heart, the relaxation of the heart, and the development of a negative pressure gradient between the ventricle and atria. As a result, rapid early diastolic filling is impaired.

AGING

Diastolic dysfunction is more common in elderly persons, partly because of increased collagen cross-linking, increased smooth muscle content, and loss of elastic fibers.13,14 These changes tend to decrease ventricular compliance, making patients with diastolic dysfunction more susceptible to the adverse effects of hypertension, tachycardia, and atrial fibrillation.

Diagnosis

The signs and symptoms of heart failure are nonspecific (dyspnea, exercise intolerance, fatigue, weakness) and often can be attributed to other conditions, such as pulmonary disease, anemia, hypothyroidism, depression, and obesity. Furthermore, it is difficult to distinguish diastolic from systolic heart failure based on physical findings or symptoms (Table 115-17).15,18-20 Systolic heart failure is defined as a left ventricular ejection fraction of less than 45 percent, but diagnostic criteria for diastolic dysfunction are still controversial.

Cardiac catheterization remains the gold standard for demonstrating impaired relaxation and filling, because it provides direct measurement of ventricular diastolic pressure.However, the balance of benefit, harm, and cost argue against its routine use in diagnosing diastolic dysfunction.

Doppler echocardiography has assumed the primary role in the noninvasive assessment of

cardiac diastolic function and is used to confirm the diagnosis of diastolic heart failure. For example,echocardiographicmeasurementoftau, the time constant of left ventricular pressure decay during isovolumetric relaxation, can be performed to assess left ventricular stiffness.

More importantly, Doppler echocardiography is used to evaluate the characteristics of diastolic trans?mitral-valve blood flow. The peak velocities of blood flow during early diastolic filling (E wave) and atrial contraction (A wave) are measured, and the ratio is calcu-

TABLE 1

Prevalence of Specific Signs and Symptoms in Patients with Systolic or Diastolic Heart Failure

The rightsholder did not grant rights to reproduce this item in electronic media. For the missing item, see the original print version of this publication.

JUNE 1, 2004 / VOLUME 69, NUMBER 11

afp

AMERICAN FAMILY PHYSICIAN-2611

FIGURE 2. Normal trans?mitral-valve spectral Doppler flow pattern. The E-to-A-wave ratio is approximately 1.4 to 1.0.

FIGURE 3. Trans?mitral-valve Doppler flow tracing in a patient with mild diastolic dysfunction (abnormal relaxation). The E-to-A-wave ratio is less than 1.0.

The Authors

CECILIA GUTIERREZ, M.D., is assistant clinical professor in the Department of Family and Preventive Medicine and associate residency director at the University of California, San Diego (UCSD), School of Medicine, La Jolla. After receiving her medical degree from the University of California, Irvine, College of Medicine, Dr. Gutierrez completed a family medicine residency at UCSD.

DANIEL G. BLANCHARD, M.D., is director of the Cardiac Noninvasive Laboratory and chief of cardiology at UCSD Thornton Hospital, La Jolla. He also is professor of clinical medicine at UCSD School of Medicine. Dr. Blanchard graduated from the UCSD School of Medicine and completed training in internal medicine and cardiology at UCSD Medical Center.

Address correspondence to Cecilia Gutierrez, M.D., UCSD School of Medicine, Department of Family and Preventive Medicine, 9500 Gilman Dr., Mail Code 0807, La Jolla, CA 92093 (e-mail: cagutierrez@ucsd.edu). Reprints are not available from the authors.

lated. Under normal conditions, the early-filling E-wave velocity is greater than the A-wave velocity, and the E-to-A-wave ratio is about 1.5 (Figure 2). In early diastolic dysfunction, this relationship reverses, because the stiffer heart relaxes more slowly, and the E-toA-wave ratio drops below 1.0 (Figure 3). As diastolic function worsens and left ventricular diastolic pressure rises, left ventricular diastolic filling occurs primarily during early diastole, because the left ventricular pressure at end-diastole is so high that atrial contraction contributes less to left ventricular filling than normal. At this point, the E-to-A-wave ratio rises, often to greater than 2.0 (Figure

2612-AMERICAN FAMILY PHYSICIAN

afp

VOLUME 69, NUMBER 11 / JUNE 1, 2004

Diastolic Heart Failure

4). This so-called "restrictive pattern" confers a poor prognosis.21 Recent studies also have shown that Doppler evaluation of myocardial velocities during ventricular relaxation predict elevated filling pressure.

The E- and A-wave velocities are affected by blood volume and mitral valve anatomy and function. Furthermore, these wave velocities are less useful in the setting of atrial fibrillation. Despite these limitations, Doppler echocardiography provides essential information about the anatomy and function of the heart, chamber size, hypertrophy, valvular function, regional wall abnormalities, and chamber pressures. It also allows the physician to identify and rule out other potential causes of the patient's symptoms, such as valvular lesions, pericardial disease, and pulmonary hypertension.

The serum level of B-type natriuretic peptide is an accurate tool for establishing the diagnosis of heart failure in patients with dyspnea, but the test cannot distinguish diastolic from systolic heart failure.22,23 A B-type natriuretic peptide level greater than 100 pg per mL was found to be 95 percent sensitive but only 14 percent specific for detecting systolic heart failure in a mixed group of patients with systolic or dia-

stolic heart failure.24 In an attempt to establish diagnostic criteria,

the European Study Group on Diastolic Heart Failure25 proposed three obligatory conditions for the diagnosis of diastolic heart failure: the presence of signs and symptoms of heart failure; the presence of normal or mildly abnormal left ventricular systolic function (ejection fraction of greater than 45 percent); and evidence of abnormal left ventricular relaxation, filling, diastolic distensibility, or diastolic stiffness. The criteria have been criticized, however, because symptomsofheartfailurearenonspecific,significant variability exists in eliciting and reporting symptoms of heart failure,and it is impractical to obtain evidence of abnormal relaxation in daily clinical practice.

One investigative team26 proposed classifications of definite,probable,and possible diastolic heart failure,depending on the presence of three stratified conditions: definite evidence of heart failure; objective evidence of normal left ventricular systolic function measured within 72 hours of the heart failure event; and objective evidence of left ventricular diastolic dysfunction by cardiac catheterization. If all three conditionsarepresent,thediagnosisof diastolic

FIGURE 4. Trans?mitral-valve Doppler flow pattern in a patient with severe (restrictive) diastolic dysfunction. The E-to-A-wave ratio is abnormally high, and the A-wave velocity is extremely low.

JUNE 1, 2004 / VOLUME 69, NUMBER 11

afp

AMERICAN FAMILY PHYSICIAN-2613

Pharmacologic treatment of diastolic heart failure is directed at normalizing blood pressure, promoting regression of left ventricular hypertrophy, preventing tachycardia, treating symptoms of congestion, and maintaining atrial contraction.

heart failure is definite. If the first two conditions are present, the diagnosis is probable. If only the first condition is present or only partial evidence of the second condition is present, the diagnosis of diastolic heart failure is considered possible. A recent prospective study of 63 patients with symptoms of heart failure based on the Framingham criteria27 and a normal ejection fraction found that more than 90 percent of the patients had abnormal diastolic function on evaluation with both Doppler echocardiography and cardiac catheterization. The results of this study call into question the need for objective measurement of diastolic dysfunction, but confirmation is required before this approach is adopted more widely.

Treatment The treatment of diastolic heart failure is less

well defined than the treatment of systolic heart failure. Current recommendations are based on disease-orientedevidence,includingpathophysiology, extrapolation of knowledge about other aspects of cardiovascular disease, data from small studies, and expert opinion. None of the treatment recommendations have been validated by randomized controlled trials (RCTs). Evidence-based guidelines from the American College of Cardiology/American HeartAssociation (ACC/AHA)28 and the Institute for Clinical Systems Improvement (ICSI)29 provide guidance until RCTs can be completed.

NONPHARMACOLOGIC INTERVENTIONS

Lifestyle modifications are recommended to reduce the risk of all forms of cardiovascular disease. Measures include weight loss, smoking cessation, dietary changes, and exercise. Identification and treatment of comorbid conditions,

such as high blood pressure, diabetes, and hypercholesterolemia, are important in reducing the risk of subsequent heart failure.28,29

PHARMACOLOGIC THERAPY

Pharmacologic treatment of diastolic heart failure is directed at normalizing blood pressure, promoting regression of left ventricular hypertrophy, preventing tachycardia, treating symptoms of congestion, and maintaining atrial contraction.28-30 The basis for drug therapy remains empiric, and the recommendations discussed in this section come from the ACC/AHA guidelines and the ICSI evidence-based practice guideline.28-30

Treatment with diuretics and vasodilators often is necessary to reduce pulmonary congestion. However, caution is required to avoid excessive diuresis, which can decrease preload and stroke volume. Patients with diastolic dysfunction are highly sensitive to volume changes and preload.

The potential benefits of beta blockers stem from their ability to decrease heart rate, increase diastolic filling time, decrease oxygen consumption, lower blood pressure, and cause regression of left ventricular hypertrophy. The Study of the Effects of Nebivolol Intervention on Outcomes and Rehospitalisation in Seniors with Heart Failure31 is evaluating the effect of the beta blocker nebivolol in the treatment of elderly patients with diastolic heart failure.

The multiple benefits of angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitors in the treatment of cardiovascular disease make them highly promising therapeutic agents. ACE inhibitors cause regression of left ventricular hypertrophy, decrease blood pressure, and prevent or modify cardiac remodeling; these actions provide strong theoretic support for the use of these agents in patients with diastolic dysfunction. So far, there have been few studies of ACE inhibitors in patients with diastolic dysfunction.32 The Perindopril for Elderly People with Chronic Heart Failure study33 is the largest ongoing trial of the benefits of perindopril in patients with diastolic failure.

2614-AMERICAN FAMILY PHYSICIAN

afp

VOLUME 69, NUMBER 11 / JUNE 1, 2004

Diastolic Heart Failure

Strength of Recommendations

Key clinical recommendations for patients with diastolic dysfunction

Strength of recommendation

Treat blood pressure to achieve a goal of less than 130/85 mm Hg.

A

For patients with concomitant atrial fibrillation, control ventricular rate C

or restore sinus rhythm.

Coronary revascularization is recommended in patients with coronary C

artery disease in whom symptomatic or demonstrable myocardial

ischemia is judged to have an adverse effect on diastolic function.

Use diuretics to control pulmonary congestion and peripheral edema. C

Use digitalis to minimize symptoms of heart failure.

C

Use beta blockers for rate control, especially in patients with atrial

C

fibrillation or symptoms of heart failure. Start with a low dosage;

higher dosages can be used in patients with diastolic dysfunction

than in patients with systolic dysfunction.

Use angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors to control symptoms

C

of heart failure.

References 28, 29 28 28

28, 29 28 28, 29

28, 29

One arm of the Candesartan in Heart Failure-Assessment of Reduction of Mortality and Morbidity trial34 studied the effect of candesartan in patients with preserved systolic function. After an average of 36.6 months follow-up, the study found no difference in cardiovascular mortality but a small decrease in hospitalization for worsening heart failure among patients taking candesartan as compared with placebo. In 1999, a small trial showed that losartan improved exercise tolerance in patients with diastolic dysfunction and a hypertensive response to exercise.35 The Irbesartan in Heart Failure with Preserved Systolic Function study is currently evaluating the utility of angiotensin-receptor blockers in patients with diastolic heart failure.

In theory, the use of calcium channel blockers may be beneficial, because these agents decrease blood pressure, decrease oxygen demand, and dilate coronary arteries. However, data are lacking on patient-oriented outcomes such as morbidity and mortality. Calcium channel blockers should be used with caution in patients with coexisting systolic and diastolic dysfunction. The long-acting dihydropyridine class of calcium channel blockers is safe for use in patients with

systolic heart failure, but nondihydropyridine agents should be avoided.

The authors indicate that they do not have any conflicts of interest. Sources of funding: none reported.

Figures 2 though 4 were provided by Daniel G. Blanchard, M.D., professor of clinical medicine at University of California, San Diego.

REFERENCES

1. Ho KK, Pinsky JL, Kannel WB, Levy D. The epidemiology of heart failure: the Framingham Study. J Am Coll Cardiol 1993;22(4 suppl A):6A-13A.

2. Berry C, Murdoch DR, McMurray JJ. The economics of chronic heart failure. Eur J Heart Fail 2001; 3:28391.

3. O'Connell JB, Bristow MR. Economic impact of heart failure in the United States: time for a different approach. J Heart Lung Transplant 1994;13:S107-12.

4. Massie BM, Shah NB. Evolving trends in the epidemiologic factors of heart failure: rationale for preventive strategies and comprehensive disease management. Am Heart J 1997;133:703-12.

5. Vasan RS, Larson MG, Benjamin EJ, Evans JC, Reiss CK, Levy D. Congestive heart failure in subjects with normal versus reduced left ventricular ejection fraction: prevalence and mortality in a populationbased cohort. J Am Coll Cardiol 1999;33:1948-55.

6. Vasan RS, Benjamin EJ, Levy D. Prevalence, clinical features and prognosis of diastolic heart failure: an epidemiologic perspective. J Am Coll Cardiol 1995; 26:1565-74.

JUNE 1, 2004 / VOLUME 69, NUMBER 11

afp

AMERICAN FAMILY PHYSICIAN-2615

Diastolic Heart Failure

7. Pernenkil R, Vinson JM, Shah AS, Beckham V, Wittenberg C, Rich MW. Course and prognosis in patients > or = 70 years of age with congestive heart failure and normal versus abnormal left ventricular ejection fraction. Am J Cardiol 1997;79: 216-9.

8. Grossman W. Diastolic dysfunction in congestive heart failure. N Engl J Med 1991;325:1557-64.

9. Bonow RO, Udelson JE. Left ventricular diastolic dysfunction as a cause of congestive heart failure. Mechanisms and management. Ann Intern Med 1992;117:502-10.

10. Lorell BH, Carabello BA. Left ventricular hypertrophy: pathogenesis, detection, and prognosis. Circulation 2000;102:470-9.

11. Nayler WG, Poole-Wilson PA, Williams A. Hypoxia and calcium. J Mol Cell Cardiol 1979;11:683-706.

12. Benjamin EJ, Levy D, Vaziri SM, D'Agostino RB, Belanger AJ, Wolf PA. Independent risk factors for atrial fibrillation in a population-based cohort. The Framingham Heart Study. JAMA 1994;271:840-4.

13. Wei JY. Age and the cardiovascular system. N Engl J Med 1992;327:1735-9.

14. Gaasch WH. Diagnosis and treatment of heart failure based on left ventricular systolic or diastolic dysfunction. JAMA 1994;271:1276-80.

15. Zile MR, Brutsaert DL. New concepts in diastolic dysfunction and diastolic heart failure: part I: diagnosis, prognosis, and measurements of diastolic function. Circulation 2002;105:1387-93.

16. McDermott MM, Feinglass J, Sy J, Gheorghiade M. Hospitalized congestive heart failure patients with preserved versus abnormal left ventricular systolic function: clinical characteristics and drug therapy. Am J Med 1995;99:629-35.

17. Echeverria HH, Bilsker MS, Myerberg RJ, Kessler KM. Congestive heart failure: echocardiographic insights. Am J Med 1983;75:750-5.

18. Zile MR. Diastolic heart failure: diagnosis, mechanisms, and treatment. Cardiology rounds as presented in the rounds of the Cardiovascular Division of Brigham and Women's Hospital; Boston:1999; 3:1-7. Accessed online December 5, 2003, at: http:// cir1.htm.

19. Zile MR, Simsic JM. Diastolic heart failure: diagnosis and treatment. Clin Cornerstone 2000;3(2):13-24.

20. Zile MR, Gaasch WH, Carroll JD, Feldman MD, Aurigemma GP, Schaer GL, et al. Heart failure with a normal ejection fraction: is measurement of diastolic function necessary to make the diagnosis of diastolic heart failure? Circulation 2001;104:779-82.

21. Moller JE, Sondergaard E, Poulsen SH, Egstrup K. Pseudonormal and restrictive filling patterns predict left ventricular dilation and cardiac death after a first myocardial infarction: a serial color M-mode Doppler echocardiographic study. J Am Coll Cardiol 2000;36:1841-6.

22. Maisel AS, Krishnaswamy P, Nowak RM, McCord J, Hollander JE, Duc P, et al. Rapid measurement of Btype natriuretic peptide in the emergency diagnosis of heart failure. N Engl J Med 2002;347:161-7.

23. Krishnaswamy P, Lubien E, Clopton P, Koon J, Kazanegra R, Wanner E, et al. Utility of B-natriuretic peptide levels in identifying patients with left ven-

tricular systolic or diastolic dysfunction. Am J Med 2001;111:274-9. 24. Maisel AS, McCord J, Nowak RM, Hollander JE, Wu AH, Duc P, et al. Bedside B-type natriuretic peptide in the emergency diagnosis of heart failure with reduced or preserved ejection fraction. Results from the Breathing Not Properly Multinational Study. J Am Coll Cardiol 2003;41:2010-7. 25. How to diagnose diastolic heart failure. European Study Group on Diastolic Heart Failure. Eur Heart J 1998;7:990-1003. 26. Vasan RS, Levy D. Defining diastolic heart failure: a call for standardized diagnostic criteria. Circulation 2000;101:2118-21. 27. McKee PA, Castelli WP, McNamara PM, Kannel WB. The natural history of congestive heart failure: the Framingham study. N Engl J Med 1971;285:1441-6. 28. Hunt SA, Baker DW, Chin MH, Cinquegrani MP, Feldmanmd AM, Francis GS, et al. ACC/AHA guidelines for the evaluation and management of chronic heart failure in the adult: executive summary. Circulation 2001;104:2996-3007. 29. Institute for clinical systems improvements. Health care guidelines. Jan 2002:1-71. 30. Zile MR, Brutsaert DL. New concepts in diastolic dysfunction and diastolic heart failure: Part II: causal mechanisms and treatment. Circulation 2002;105: 1503-8. 31. Shibata MC, Flather MD, Bohm M, Borbola J, CohenSolal A, Dumitrascu D, et al. Study of the Effects of Nebivolol Intervention on Outcomes and Rehospitalisation in Seniors with Heart Failure (SENIORS). Rationale and design. Int J Cardiol 2002;86:77-85. 32. Philbin EF, Rocco TA Jr, Lindenmuth NW, Ulrich K, Jenkins PL. Systolic versus diastolic heart failure in community practice: clinical features, outcomes, and the use of angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors. Am J Med 2000;109:605-13. 33. Cleland JG, Tendera M, Adamus J, Freemantel N, Gray CS, Lye M, et al. Perindopril for elderly people with chronic heart failure: the PEP-CHF study. Eur J Heart Fail 1999;1:211-7. 34. Yusuf S, Pfeffer MA, Swedberg K, Granger CB, Held P, McMurray JJ, et al. Effects of candesartan in patients with chronic heart failure and preserved left-ventricular ejection fraction: the CHARM-Preserved Trial. Lancet 2003;362:777-81. 35. Warner JG Jr, Metzger DC, Kitzman DW, Wesley DJ, Little WC. Losartan improves exercise tolerance in patients with diastolic dysfunction and a hypertensive response to exercise. J Am Coll Cardiol 1999;33:1567-72.

2616-AMERICAN FAMILY PHYSICIAN

afp

VOLUME 69, NUMBER 11 / JUNE 1, 2004

 ................
................

In order to avoid copyright disputes, this page is only a partial summary.

Google Online Preview   Download