UNDERSTANDING THE SUPERSCRIPTIONS OF THE PSALMS



UNDERSTANDING THE SUPERSCRIPTIONS AND AUTHORSHIP OF THE PSALMS

The Reliability of the Superscriptions

Superscriptions in Early Extra-Biblical Literature. Before Abram left Ur, the Sumerians and Egyptians used hundreds of poems in the temple worship of their gods. These songs often had headings that referenced the author, the musical instrument employed for accompaniment, the tune to which the poem or song was to be sung, and the king of the musical composition. So superscriptions and subscriptions of the type found in the Hebrew Psalter were prevalent among the poetry of other countries even in the time of Abraham.

Superscriptions in Biblical Literature outside the Psalms. Superscriptions or headings were use early (before 1000 B.C.) among the Hebrew people for their poetry (Ex. 15:1; Deut. 31:30; 33:1; Jud. 5:1; I Sam. 2:1; II Sam. 1:17.)

Little Reference to the Captivity and After. There are only a few psalms that could have been written during or after the captivity, such as Psalm 137, 74 and 79. Any political references to a king such as, satrap, sagan, or pahath which were used in Babylon, do not appear in the Psalms. These terms do appear in a captivity book such as Daniel.

Variations in the Septuagint and Other Versions. Some scholars consider the superscriptions to be post exilic and unreliable additions to the Psalter on the basis of discrepancies between the titles in the Septuagint (a Greek translation of the Old Testament, hereafter referred to as the LXX) and the Masoretic Text. However, these discrepancies may instead support the genuineness and antiquity of the titles. The difficulty which the LXX translators experienced with the translation of the Psalm titles is a good argument that the meanings were lost in some cases before the third century B.C.[1]

Authorship of The Psalms.

The intention of this article is to deal with the final, fixed form of the text as we have it in the Masoretic Text. We will not deal extensively with the issue of authorship of the Psalms, but a perspective on authorship can be helpful to the reader.

David. Seventy-three Psalms have “of (by) David” with the Hebrew preposition lamed (l) in front of his name (dwdl). The lamed preposition was also used for Asaph (Pss. 50, 73-83), two for Solomon (Pss. 72, 123), one for Moses (Ps. 90), one for Heman the Ezrahite (Ps. 88), and one for Ethan the Ezrahite (Ps. 89). This same preposition is used in the superscriptions to show the Psalm was given “to the Chief Musician,” or “for the Sons of Korah.” The basic use of the preposition is “denoting direction towards, or reference to.”[2]

Similar use of the lamed are found in Isaiah 38:9 and Habakkuk 3:1 to indicate authorship.[3] The Scripture shows that David was a writer of sacred poetry (2 Sam. 23:1; I Chron. 16:8-36). Reviewing the Samaria Ostraca or the Lachish Letter, potsherds and dockets from the time of the divided monarchy seems to indicate the possibility of a lamed preposition used as authorship. There the preposition is used for a sender “by” to the addressee. When we look at Phoenician coins using the lamed, we see it is used in the sense of "belonging to the Sidonians." Hebrew also uses the lamed to show possession when put on the front of a name like Maharshalalhasheal (Isaiah 8:1). While we cannot prove Davidic authorship beyond a shadow of a doubt, it is reasonably certain that the Psalms bearing the Davidic superscription, with the lamed preposition, represent authentic Davidic authorship.[4] J.F.A. Sawyer summarizes: “In the Chronicler’s day... it can scarcely be doubted that the meaning of ldwd was ‘by David’...Any attempt to distinguish l dawid from the others, or to say that none of them refers to authorship at all, is unsupported by the early evidence and flies in the face of all that we know of early rabbinic methods.”[5]

Solomon. As stated above, two Psalms are attributed to Solomon, 72 and 127. No historical notices are stated in the superscription. I Kings 4:32 states that Solomon composed 3,000 proverbs and 1,005 songs, therefore Solomon was quite capable of writing songs.

Critical scholars rarely assign authorship to Solomon because of the belief that wisdom tradition in Israel did not reach its developed form until the post-exilic period. Some scholars deleted the superscription found in the MT of Psalm 127 because it was not included in the LXX.[6] However, the superscription is found in some manuscripts of Origen, in the Syro-Hexaplar,[7] and in the Coptic (Sahidic and Boharic), as well as the Old Latin, the last two of which are probably base on the Greek versions.[8] The superscription is also found in the Psalm Scroll 11QPs from Qumran.[9] Thus, to say that the superscription is not found in the LXX is not precise, since the LXX tradition is varied at this point.

In both Psalm 72 and 127, there are word parallels to Solomon’s time. Compare “Tarshish” (72:10a) with II Chron. 9:21 Tarshish. Compare Sheba (72:10b) with I Kings 10:1f. Likewise, compare the description of the size of the kingdom in 72:8 with Solomon’s prayer in I Kings 8:40. In Psalm 127, the appellative “beloved” in verse 2 is the designation which Nathan, the prophet, gave to Solomon at his birth. Verse one discusses the building of Yahweh’s house, the temple, which was the task of Solomon.[10]

The evidence put forward to deny Solomonic authorship of Psalm 127 and 72 are unconvincing. There is no evidence to question the tradition that Solomon was himself the author of these Psalms. Although, authorship of these two Psalms cannot be absolutely proven beyond a shadow of a doubt.

Moses. Psalm 90 is uniquely the only Psalm that is ascribed to Moses. Consequently, it is possible that this poem may be one of the oldest Psalms in the Psalter. Moses was certainly capable of writing poetry or psalms as shown in Exodus 15 and Deut. 32, 33.

There are similarities between Psalm 90 and Deuteronomy 32 and 33. Consider the following: (1) the phrase “Moses the man of God” (90:1; Deut. 33:1), (2) the noun “dwelling place” (90: 2, Deut. 33:27), (3) the verb “bring forth” (90:2, Deut. 32:18); and (4) the rare plural form of the noun “days” and “years” (90:15; Deut. 32:7). Although the literary similarities certainly allow for the supposition that Moses composed Psalm 90, they should not be interpreted as conclusive.[11]

Scholars contend that the conditions depicted in the psalm are incompatible with Mosaic authorship. Since Israel, as a nation, came into existence some thirty eight years later at Mount Sinai, how can the Lord be a dwelling place throughout each generation (Ps. 90:1)?[12] Although the covenant between Israel and Yahweh was instituted at Sinai, the loyalty and care which the Lord has demonstrated toward His chosen people preceded the covenant at Sinai (Gen. 12:1-3; 17:1-8). The lengthy period of time implied in verse 1 is not merely limited to the Lord’s relationship with Israel since Sinai. His faithful care for their forefathers is in view as well (cf. Deut. 32:7-9).

Verses 13 and 15 of Psalm 90 imply the crisis the nation was experiencing has taken place over a considerable length of time. Therefore, the critic concludes that such a scenario could scarcely apply to that generation of Israelites who had wandered in the wilderness for the brief time of thirty-eight years.[13]

However, it is possible for an individual who had witnessed the unrelenting suffering and destruction of his kinsmen over a period of 38 years to couch his lament in such figurative language. The nation suffered extreme affliction and intense judgment during the wanderings in the wilderness (Num. 14:32,33; 16:49; 25:9). Suffering and judgment is often expressed in hyperbolic language. Thus the wanderings can be construed as a lengthy period of national distress.

The preceding objections to Mosaic authorship of Psalm 90 offer no substantial reasons for discrediting Moses as the author of this ancient psalm. Therefore, Mosaic authorship will be assumed for Psalm 90.

Heman, The Ezrahite. Psalm 88 is the only Psalm attributed to Heman, the Ezrahite. The problem is there are two men named Heman in the Bible: (1) Heman, the Ezrahite, of the tribe of Judah (I Kings 4:31 and I Chron. 2:6); and (2) Heman, the Levite, a temple musician (I Chron. 6:33; 15:17,19; 16:41,42; 25:1,4-6; 2 Chron. 5:12; 29:14 35:15). The LXX translated “Ezrahite” as “Israelite” understanding the Hebrew word as meaning “a native Israelite.[14]

Although the reference to Heman, the temple musician, is inticing, the fact that he is of the tribe of Levi militates against his also being Heman, the Ezrahite, a descendant of Zerah of the tribe of Judah. Therefore, the man referred to in the superscription of Psalm 88 is the same man as mentioned in I Kings 4:31 and I Chronicles 2:6. In these passages, Heman is the brother of Ethan, the Ezrahite, Chalcol, and Darda. He is also a wise man along with Solomon, so he probably wrote many songs and proverbs as did Solomon (I Kings 4: 31ff). Based on this evidence, Heman could have composed Psalm 88.

Ethan, The Ezrahite. Ethan composed Psalm 89. He is the brother of Hemen (I Kings 4:31; I Chron. 2:6). He is a wise man, as well as, Heman and Solomon. So, he is fully qualified to be the composer of Psalm 89.

Asaph. Twelve Psalms bear the name Asaph as the author. The Old Testament uses the name Asaph during three different time periods:

Name Scripture Function Time Period

Asaph I Chron. 15:17 Son of Berechiah

A singer before the Ark

2 Chron. 29:30 A seer, prophet, composer

I Chron 16: 5 The Chief Musician Reign of David

1000 B.C.

Asaph 2 Kings 18:18 Father of Joah Reign of Hezekiah

700 B.C.

Asaph Neh. 2:8 Keeper of the King’s Returning Babylonian

forest captives. 550 B.C.

To compound the problem, Psalm 74 and 79, which are attributed to Asaph, speak of events that no contemporary of David could have seen. The burning destruction of the temple took place during the exilic period 400 years after Asaph the contemporary of David (586 B.C.).

Perhaps, there are two authors named Asaph, one who is David’s contemporary, and the other an eyewitness of 586 B.C. Both of these men composed Psalms which have become a part of the Psalter.

Asaph is probably not a designation for a guild of Levitical temple musicians. A group or musician guild is referred to by the use of the term “sons,” such as, “sons of Korah.”

The superscriptions bearing the name Asaph refer to 3 individuals with the same name. Asaph, the Chief Musician (a term discussed below) and a contemporary of David, composed most of the Psalms bearing his name, unless there is internal evidence to suggest otherwise, such Psalm 74 and 79.

Types of Psalms

Song (ryv) is a common term for both religious and secular songs. It is most often employed with relation to vocal music praising God (I Samuel 18:6; II Samuel 19:35; I Chronicles 16:9,23; 15:16,19,27; II Chronicles 5:12,13; 23:13; 29:28; 35:15; Psalms 33:3; 87:7; 105:2; 137:3 and 144:9.) The word is used to distinguish singers from players of instruments in Psalm 87:7. In Isaiah 23:16 and Amos 6:5; 8:10 shir is used to designate a secular song.

In the Psalter, shir is mostly coupled with mizmor, five times immediately before, (Pss 48; 66; 83; 88; 108) and eight times after this latter term (Pss.30; 65; 67; 68; 75; 76; 87; 92). By itself, it appears in Psalm 46 and in a slightly changed form as shirah, in Psalm 18. The Midrash interprets mizmor as a psalm accompanied by instruments, and shir mizmor as a psalm sung by a choral group alone.[15] Whether the Midrash contains the correct meaning of these two terms for the Psalms is uncertain. If mizmor is a technical cultic term, perhaps shir mizmor refers to spiritual songs and shir, alone, refers to a more general song.

Shir is the general Hebrew word for “a song,” emphasizing primarily the vocal aspects of a song, though it can be used of vocal singing with musical accompaniment.

Maskil (lyKc]m) The word is used thirteen times in the Psalms (Pss. 32; 42; 44; 45; 52-55; 74; 78; 88; 89; 142). Its means “to be prudent, to look at, give attention, teach, give insight.”[16] The Aramaic means “to understand” or “to instruct”. Assyrian connotes “to be clever”. Psalm 32: 8 employs the meaning “instruct”, and Psalm 47:7 uses the word in relation to singing praises with understanding and skill.[17] II Chronicles 30:22 and Nehemiah 8:8,13 shows that this word is employed of one who can give understanding of God’s Word or who has an understanding of God.[18] The LXX translates the term with the same meaning “understanding” or “to an instruction.” In conclusion, Maskil, has the meaning of a contemplative poem which is to cause one to understand and be instructed. Since, most of the Psalms using this term are lament psalms, perhaps the term is used to remind the readers that there is a lesson to be learned in the suffering of the Psalmist.

Miktam (µ ................
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