PASSION IN HEGEL’S CIVIL SOCIETY AND CHRISTIAN THEOLOGY
PASSION IN HEGEL’S CIVIL SOCIETY AND CHRISTIAN THEOLOGY
Roberto Solarte Rodríguez
Theology Faculty
Javeriana University, Bogotá-Colombia
I will present Hegel’s comprehension of civil society, and how it is a paradoxical institution: it allows bourgeois to actualize themselves as individuals and as social members. Nevertheless, at the same time, market produces poverty, and sacrifices the lives of many of its members. I will discuss the bond between Hegel’s social theory and Christian Social Theology, especially the Social Doctrine of the Catholic Church. In this point I will analyze two different interpretations of the commandments: That of the Catechism of the Catholic Church and Girard’s book I see Satan fall like a lightning.
Philosophical approach: a Hegelian point of view
Hegel’s civil society is a paradoxical institution: it allows bourgeois to construct themselves as individuals and as social members. Nevertheless, at the same time, the market produces the most richest and the most poorest people, that is, it sacrifices the lives of many of its members and makes possible the success of others: “Civil society affords a spectacle of extravagance and misery as well as of the physical and ethical corruption common to both”[1].
Subjective freedom is the base of civil society. A bourgeois is a person who is able to understand his private ends and works to satisfy it. In consequence, civil society is a system of permanent conflicts and tensions. As a member of the bourgeoisie, each person pursues their separate and particular interests, their own welfare, in their own way, choose their own way of life, and enter into voluntary relationships with others who are likewise free choosers of their own ends and activities. This sphere is characterized by individuality, rational reflection, and self-seeking[2]. This rationality seeks to satisfy desires by work and economic calculation. However, each bourgeois is moved by imitation[3] for the desires of others.
What kind of rationality is it? It is a passionate rationality based on the right of arbitraries desires. However, desires are not a natural heritage, because they were formed and cultivated in processes of education and socialization, that is, in a community’s educational practices. Important elements of universality are inculcated in educational processes which (external) induce the (internal) controls of self-discipline. Rationality in social and political institutions requires that members think along the right tracks due to process of socialization. It must be understand as designed to equip all citizens for their role as reflective agent, able to command the right of the subjective will.
Human beings have natural need and civil society is the frame for their satisfaction. Human beings do not have dependence about their necessities, because they are able to multiply what they need, making up new needs, dividing and differentiating them. The process of this abstraction or separation about natural needs comes from the culture, and the complex process of socialization forms all of we have. This process multiplies and divides the products that satisfy our necessities.
Civil society[4] comprises the institutions and practices involved in the production, distribution, and consumption of products that meet a variety of need and want. Hegel calls this the “system of needs”[5]. The system of needs transforms natural impulses, needs, and desires by providing socially specific goods that meet those needs and wants, by modifying and multiplying those needs and desires[6] and by inculcating the social practices through which individuals can achieve their ends[7].
However, for different reasons, persons find themselves locked into systems of interpersonal dependency. The private ends of individuals cannot be satisfied without structures that ensure that persons are simultaneously satisfying the welfare of others. “The selfish end in its actualization (…) establishes a system of all-round interdependence, so that the subsistence and welfare of the individual and his rightful existence are interwoven with, and grounded on, the subsistence, welfare, and rights of all, and have actuality and security only in this context[8].”
Social need is part of modern freedom, but it is limited because it is “formal”[9] or external. Each need is only eligible by an arbitrary opinion, because human needs are insatiable and have a tendency to the false infinite: to more products, more dissatisfaction. This happens because no human being can recognize herself/himself in objects or products. Human freedom, human will, and all the desires are part of it, it can not be recognized through things; other humans being’s recognition is the only possibility to be recognized as a free human being.
Civil society interdependence is external because it is only mediated by economic value. People can buy all the things they want if they have the money; but, if they do not have money, they can desire them and still can not have them. On the other hand, people adapt their skills and resources to the market. In this process people learn to “determine their knowing, willing and acting in a universal way”, adapting their own resources to other people desires. In this sense, market’s freedom is the ability to develop oneself, learning to want what other people want. As the market expands, more products are for sale and more variants of each product appear. In the civil society, needs are created or invented by those who seek the profit from their emergence[10]. In this sense, the market has refined the human ways of satisfying desires. When the bourgeois make a decision, she/he needs to compare and judge between products. The consumers seek equality and distinction; equality in the sense of parity of opportunities; distinction to mark the superiority from the others. Consumers are educating each other by displaying and observing each other consumption. This consumption process sets social standards that people try to meet and surpass, because imitation and seeking of particularity are the sources of “multiplication and expansion of needs”[11].
The basic resource that common people entering the market is work. Work transforms their natural resources in usable goods. Conversely, work educates people to develop their particular skills. However, productivity and standardization reduce work, and, in consequence, people’s skills. In this way, market produce alienation, exploitation, and finally unemployment[12].
Specialization requires coordination, and coordination requires conformity to “the universal”, to common practices[13]. The universal are those practices, since those practices are the relations among individuals[14]. The collective development of social practices, based on the joint pursuit of individual aims, is the collective development of implicit principle of right[15]. These “universal” principles derive their content from the ends and activities of particular agents who determine for themselves what to do[16].
Civil society and economy must support the basic freedom of choosing one’s vocation[17]. Everyone has equal civil rights, because there is no legitimate reason to distinguish among individuals to the disadvantage of some and the advantage of others[18].
On other hand, Hegel proposes a particular solution to the contradictions he discovered in civil society: a new kind of solidarity, expressed in many communitarian ways, like the social institutions: the administration of justice, the public authority and the corporations. In this way, the members of civil society learn to assume their own social responsibility. All of these institutions are social, not political nor governmental. It responds by unexpected effects of civil society, that is, civil society responds by its own undesirable results.
The administration of justice codifies, promulgates, and administers statutory law, providing the legal structure necessary for the regulations of system of needs. Codification makes explicit the normative principles implicit in social practices[19]. Promulgating codified law contributes to informing people about the structure of their social context of action[20]. This is why law must be codified and promulgated in the national language[21] and why judicial proceeding must be public[22]. The enforcement of law regularizes the context of individual action, protects and preserves the social practices people have developed to exercise their freedom and achieve their individual aims[23]. Establishing recognized courts replaces revenge with judicial system, formed by impartial judges, public proceedings and jury trials[24].
The administration of justice protects the property and the contracts. In this way, it constitutes the basic normative framework of the system of needs. In this frameworks, individual become legal persons and objects become properties. Economic relations are insufficient, and need to be surpassed and organized by this legal framework: In the market individual are bound by needs and contracts. Respecting their contracts, individuals recognize one another as legal persons. Finally, in the pursuit of their desires, individual are regulated by law.
The public authority (die Polizie) is the system of public administration concerned with the regulation and control of civil society[25]. It is responsible for removing or remedying “accidental hindrances” to achieving individual ends; it minimizes and tends to the natural and social accidents that impair or disrupt successful free individual action[26]. Its responsibilities include crime prevention and penal justice[27], price control on basic commodities[28], civil engineering, utilities, and public health[29], public education[30], moderation of economic fluctuations (including unemployment)[31], the eradication of the cause of poverty and poverty relief[32], and the authorization and regulation of corporations[33]. If market goes only under its rules, with its poor and incomplete rationality, people suffer violence and all kinds of exclusions. It these factors are not regulated, individual cannot plan or conduct their lives reliably; their freedom is compromised. In order to respond to these social needs, Hegel conceived the public authority as a corrective mechanism. Public authority provides a range of public good that individuals needs as members of civil society. Here is not something like an “invisible hand”. Public authority is formed by all social institutions that care for the particular interest as a common interest. Therefore, doing this, produces public goods. That is, the private institutions that resolve market’s contradictions and insufficiencies. Doing this, they build the public sphere.
Poverty is market’s greatest trouble. The employer increases their profits by encouraging ever-higher consumption standards and reducing their labor cost. As they become rich, they push more workers into poverty. However, these poor people are also consumers. Then, impoverishing more workers, the profiteers also reduce their own wealth. Hegel saw a temporary solution to this problem in exportation and colonies. It is temporary, because it is the central contradiction of a market economy: Poverty is produced by a well-functioning economy[34].
One of the most distinctive features of Hegel’s conception of public authority is his view that it promotes a kind of recognition. When administrating justice, people are recognized on a legal perspective, which protects their legal and individual rights. Nevertheless, with public authority there is a social body that provides social recognition of society’s members as members of civil society[35], by expanding the material prerequisites of full social participation: work, skills, and a livelihood[36].
Economy consists of sectors or branches of industry or commerce[37]. This results from the division of labor and the distribution of specialized manufacture across various regions of the country. In modern production, individual jobs and business depends on complexes economic factors[38]. Hegel recognized this fact and tried to ensure these factors so that they would not hold uncomprehended power over people’s activities and lives. Such unknown influences limit freedom and autonomy. Corporations are a kind of professional and trade associations or societies one for each significant branch of the economy, to which all people working in that sector. However, corporations include churches and municipal governments. Membership in a corporation integrates one’s gainful employment explicitly into a sector of the economy and provides information about how one sector of the economy fits and depends on the other sector. Corporations promote the professional interest of their members, whom they recruit, educate, train, and certify. Corporations also moderate the impacts of business fluctuations on their members[39].
Corporations counteract the divisive tendencies of individual self-seeking in commerce by explicitly recognizing individual contributions to the corporate and social good and by bringing together people who would otherwise form two antagonistic groups, an underclass of rabble and a class of elite captains of industry who would wield inordinate social influence due to their disproportionate wealth[40]. Corporations are voluntary associations, because people enter through a free act of choice. In this sphere, individuals are recognized by theirs skills, abilities, and achievements, as occupying a certain place, and having a determinate social identity. Corporations offer an associational life of friendship, collegiality, and solidarity; their members share a common spirit or culture; they are structured to care for their members.
Corporations, as the others social institutions, are private. Their assistance comes from an association; theirs administrators are fellow members of the corporation, who are able to understand the details of the circumstances of their fellows and appreciate what it means subjectively[41]. Corporations expand the ability of their members to identify with others, whose way of life is sharing.
A society that fails to create one kind of complex respond to the limits of the market like social institutions or something similar, would be hostile and indifferent to the needs of its members and, as a result, objectively alienating. Hegel’s proposals are complexes response to the limits of the market: they assume the reality of the market, and include a formal, an impersonal and a more personal assistance. Hegel invites us through his reflections in a more innovative form of social responsibility of enterprises.
Social Church Doctrine on business: community of persons
The Catechism of the Catholic Church includes Social Doctrine in its analysis of the seventh commandments. But:
The Church's social teaching comprises a body of doctrine, which is articulated as the Church interprets events in the course of history, with the assistance of the Holy Spirit, in the light of the whole of what has been revealed by Jesus Christ. This teaching can be more easily accepted by people of good will, the more the faithful let themselves be guided by it[42].
On Church view, a corporation becomes an institution, but not only a simply business to make a profit: it “is to be found in its very existence as a community of persons who in various ways are endeavoring to satisfy their basic needs, and who form a particular groups at the service of the whole of society”[43]. The corporation cannot be understood as only a private enterprise, because it is one of the central institutions in the modern life.
Considering the corporation as a community of persons was not easy way. In the beginning of capitalism, the Catholic Church understood the enterprise as a contractual relation between shareholders. Later, Pius XII recognized the value of codetermination movement, and tried to harmonize the right of private property, its social use and the humanization of workplace. In Mater et Magistra, John XXIII talked about the enterprise like a community and its obligation to enable all its members to participate more fully in its activities:
We consider it altogether vital that the numerous intermediary bodies and corporate enterprises—which are, so to say, the main vehicle of this social growth—be autonomous, and loyally collaborate in pursuit of their own specific interests and those of the common good. For these groups must themselves necessarily present the form and substance of a true community, and this will only be the case if they treat their individual members as human persons and encourage them to take an active part in the ordering of their lives[44].
Second Vatican Council developed this concept in Gaudium et Spes, in this terms:
In economic enterprises it is persons who are joined together, that is, free and independent human beings created to the image of God. Therefore, with attention to the functions of each – owners or employers, management or labor- and without doing harm to the necessary unity of management, the active sharing of all in the administration and profits of theses enterprises in way to be properly determined is to be promoted[45].
Pope John Paul II based this idea in a theological understanding. In Laborem Exercens, he explained that human beings have been made in God’s image; in consequence, all people have been given the command to subdue the earth, working all the resources the earth provides in order for people to develop. Work is the only way for human development, and it is more effective through organizations. In a proper understanding of dominion, “a business must conceive itself responsible for the use of an inheritance or gift”[46]. This is a double inheritance:
The inheritance of what is given to the whole of humanity in the resources of nature, and the inheritance of what others have already developed on the basis of those resources, primarily by developing technology, that is to say, by producing a whole collection of increasingly perfect instruments for work. In working, man also enters into the labor of others[47].
As these gifts are given for all the people in the pursuit of their human development, they have an universal destination. This destination means: these goods should benefit all present persons and future generations. This is the framework from which one understands corporate property: capital does not have an absolute right, because labor has a priority over capital[48]. Nevertheless, this principle demands the managers to understand and administer corporations taking into consideration its social function in order to increase the common good and in particular the good of society’s weakest members.
As a community of people, each business organizations pursuit common goals, shared goods through which each one develops. Nevertheless, it is only an authentic community when it serves the common good of the society. Actually, business organization gives people a chance to develop themselves in an economic sphere; role in business demands individual qualities: ability to research, to know, capacity for solidarity with its partners, and to work for social needs.
However, the alienation continues nowadays in business: Corporations seek “maximum return and profit with no concern whether the worker, through his own labor, grows or diminishes as a person”[49]. This alienation consists in instrumentalizing everything as a refusal to transcendent themselves:
The concept of alienation needs to be led back to the Christian vision of reality, by recognizing in alienation a reversal of means and ends. When man does not recognize in himself and in others the value and grandeur of the human person, he effectively deprives himself of the possibility of benefiting from his humanity and of entering into that relationship of solidarity and communion with others for which God created him[50].
In conclusion, the old conflict between labor and capital remain: the gap between the rich and poor people is now widening[51]. Nevertheless, to analyze this conflict, John Paul II reads it an ontological and fundamental perspective of faith: “We must emphasize and give prominence to the primacy of man in the production process, the primacy of man over things. Everything contained in the concept of capital in the strict sense is only a collection of things”[52]. The principle of the primacy of person over the things “was broken up in human thought, sometimes after a long period of incubation in practical living”[53], by the “economistic” perspective.
Catholics approach to business ethics
Social catholic tradition interprets the biblical reflections from the normative tradition’s perspective. Virtue is one of the most important elements of this. Aristotle[54] thinks, we are composed of a rational and irrational part, and proper moral character consists in having the irrational elements controlled by rational elements. The irrational elements are the emotions. The moral virtues are settled habits of character that express themselves in the correct emotional response. What is the correct emotional response? It is what reason says it should be[55]. Human being must rather be well trained and habituated, under the guidance of the community’s law, customs, education, and the discipline of the family. The moral virtues are to be developed by training in the appropriate behavior. The goodness of the virtue performance resides mainly in expressing the character of the man; indeed, it supposes much practice to turn the person into a virtuous one. In order to have a particular virtue we need to cultivate a disposition, which always involves us in the correct degree of emotional response. Every virtue lies in the middle between two associated vices, one in the direction of too much emotion, the other in the direction of too little emotion. Nevertheless, virtue is not the average between two wrongs. The right amount varies very much according to the individual circumstances of the case. The correct amount varies, because it is the intermediate relative to us, which is neither too much nor too little – and this is neither one, nor the same for all -. The virtue is normally closer to one of the vices than to the other.
To some Catholic thinkers virtue is the ability to live fully human potential; the promotion of virtue is the development of the human person of the habit of correctly choosing and ordering means and ends[56]. Since human realization consists in being and acting, practical rationality requires that a persona search to develop a certain virtuous character, which in turn, depends upon and results in acting well. A person must do the right things because these are the components of acting well and developing more fully as a person. Furthermore, since human beings are social, practical rationality requires decisions that support the common good of the various communities of which they are members. With respect to this the Catechism says:
In economic matters, respect for human dignity requires the practice of the virtue of temperance, so as to moderate attachment to this world's goods; the practice of the virtue of justice, to preserve our neighbor's rights and render him what is his due; and the practice of solidarity, in accordance with the golden rule and in keeping with the generosity of the Lord, who though he was rich, yet for your sake . . . became poor so that by his poverty, you might become rich[57].
Business ethics show that “the goal of efficiency, wealth maximization, and therefore profit maximization are normatively valuable only on the assumption that people are actually practicing”[58] these virtues, because as managers “pursuit of profits will make other normatively better off. Conversely, when people do not practice these virtues, managers may maximize profits without making others normatively better off, and so without performing the task for which the firms exists and which entitle it to a profit”[59]. This moral supposes “a person is a social animal who realizes his end as well as others toward their own”[60], and “has an ethical foundation that both the shareholder and the stakeholder models lack: it is founded not on what each group wants for itself, but on what is normatively good for that group and for others”[61].
On other hand, one of business ethics more important point is stakeholder theory. Many approaches to stakeholder’ s theory are strategic and not completely an ethical one. In the most classical version of stakeholder theory, the human being is an individual and has relations with other individuals for the sake of his own interests. The self-interest is the fulfillment of passions like self-love and pleasure. Consequently, this theory supposes logic of interests. Stakeholder’ s management is like a play between rivalry demands, and its best possibility is harmonized opposed passions.
One most complex approach is the logic of responsibilities that tie the managerial problem with an ethic reflection. This logic could respond better to the human condition. A person not only chooses by interest; He or she is capable to relate to others seeking justice, solidarity or friendship. On catholic tradition, sociability is necessary to develop personal qualities and promote social good. Acting only by interest reduces the possibilities to human flourishing[62].
If the stakeholder theory could reduce people to “interest”, corporation will be a confluence of many different interests. In another perspective, stakeholders are those who have a stake in, or are affected by, a firm’s activities. In moral Catholic tradition, enterprise is a community of persons and forms a particular group at the service of the whole of society. One person is not only his interest. In consequence, all the members of an enterprise must treat others according to their dignity. Moreover, the ties that found the community are very complex: from the sake of interests and other kind of needs and desires to psychological items. However, there are also other ties: moral values. Among moral ties, people live the experience of belonging and commitment to their communities. At the same time, action motivated by the moral values contributes to the human development of humans beings. The firm as a community of persons is interdependent with other communities and groups: suppliers, customers, the employee’s families, etc[63].
In stakeholder’s reflections is difficult to integrate productivity goals with the others social demands. Stakeholders’ theory and the emphasis on corporate citizenship have de-centered utilitarian and econometric traditions; as a result, nowadays business ethics propose planning stakeholder’s participations through consulting and dialogue. Nevertheless, Catholic moral tradition is able to integrate the end of the business in more harmonic vision than stakeholder view; for some catholic scholars, the “first purpose of the firm is (…) the production of optimal products under the condition that the secondary goals of its members groups or stakeholders also be realized”[64].
The Catholic tradition considers the common good as the basic point for any human society. “The common good encompasses everything that is conducive to the human flourishing of each person in a community. (…) The common good is universal, distributive, and communicable. (…) The common good (…) is (…) something that transcends particular interests. It is a good in which all can participate and thus common”[65]. There are three essential elements of the common good: Respect for person and their fundamental right, so that all persons can realize their vocation; social welfare and group development; social peace.
Recent initiatives talks about sustainability integrating economic, social and environmental goals of all kind of business[66]. Maybe, in this point, Catholics could learn to hear the sign of this time. Organizational effects and impact can not reduce itself to its internal members although community notion suggests this[67]. However, we can forget enterprise social responsibilities, that is, a real service to the whole of society, and, particularly, to needy persons.
This new approach to corporate social responsibility needs a new conception of human being. In classical capitalism human view is individualistic, and identifies itself with individual choices in the pursue of his or her own desires. Catholic tradition is based on person notion. In this spiritual version, “moral obligations are not to be conceived as the objects of choices but as responses to our social nature”[68].
Respect for the human person proceeds by way of respect for the principle that "everyone should look upon his neighbor (without any exception) as 'another self,' above all bearing in mind his life and the means necessary for living it with dignity." No legislation could by itself do away with the fears, prejudices, and attitudes of pride and selfishness that obstruct the establishment of truly fraternal societies. Such behavior will cease only through the charity that finds in every man a "neighbor," a brother[69].
Only by the recognition of the other one as a human being, we can move to a social responsive system of mutual relations. This ethics is impossible to understand in the egoistic perspective of the individual like the one that pursues only its own desires. In addition, in many ways, it is more radical than Catholic’s traditional ethics of virtue, founded in Aristotle and Thomas conceptions. A responsible business ethics theory supposes an ethic of a responsibility self, and not only an ethic of virtue.
A Girardian approach
Christian Theology needs a more complex comprehension of human life, one that gives a new sense to its “body of doctrine” enabling it to be significant for the people of today. Concretely, Christian Theology needs to move toward complex theories about human life in order to be able to participate in current disputes about the market and civil society. This understanding must include new concepts of the ties between desire and rationality, in order to propose a socially responsible self. However, this involves both a return to Biblical Theology as Girard teaches us, and, at the same time, obliges us to recover different reflections about civil society, like Hegel’s and that of contemporary social ethics.
As a “body of doctrine”, the Catechism is the right way. Nevertheless, Catholics need to be able to communicate its doctrine in a more systematic and comprehensible way. The Social Doctrine of the Catholic Church only gives a body of principles. We need to produce criteria and models that make more viable what the Church teaches. Business ethics developments greatly, and Catholics need to learn from it. Many of these developments are supported on Aristotle’s and Hegel’s points of view. Especially, social responsibility supposes different answers to Hegelian proposed. Hegel’s social institutions were drawn as a response to the serious contradictions present in civil society, especially the increasing of inequity. Political institutions do not take part on these solutions. They only perform a coordinating functions. One may think: Hegel has insights about the social responsibility of the enterprises. Not only in the frame of “antecedent and consequent responsibilities”, because this reflection limits the responsibility to choice of a rational object instead of a deliberative will[70]. Hegel thinks: that as rational beings, we are responsible of knowing the nature of our action, its regular connections with the complexity of objective circumstances in which it is involved[71]. In Hegel’s view, market is insufficient, because its good function produces poverty and exclusion. The State does not provide the solutions, neither the practice of individual virtue. Maybe we should think about another need other social response than Hegel’s. Nevertheless, it is necessary to assume the problem of a social responsible self, and think again the process of mutual recognition.
On other hand, Catholic Church has all the resources to understand these responsibilities in the frame of sin and commandments:
The tenth commandment (…) forbids coveting the goods of another, as the root of theft, robbery, and fraud, which the seventh commandment forbids. "Lust of the eyes" leads to the violence and injustice forbidden by the fifth commandment. Avarice (…) originates in the idolatry prohibited by the first three prescriptions of the Law. The tenth commandment concerns the intentions of the heart; (…) it summarizes all the precepts of the Law[72].
However, the Catechism of the Catholic Church proposes a normative interpretation of commandments: “The sensitive appetite leads us to desire pleasant things we do not have. (…) These desires are good in themselves; but often they exceed the limits of reason and drive us to covet unjustly what is not ours and belongs to another or is owed to him.[73]” There are interpreted in the framework of virtue tradition.
On other hand, Girard offers a rich analysis of commandments using his hypothesis about mimesis and desire[74]. Maybe, it is possible not to impute the responsibility only to our “social nature” and the quality of our decisions. In this point, Catholic scholars could listen to Hegel’s and Lévinas’ legacy, and try to interpret these thinkers along whit Girard. Maybe, we need to come out to our antique emulations that produce victims. In this way, Hegel picture inexistent social institutions, which become very important exercise for social ethics imagination. We can learn different ways to response to other people demands, not only by strategic decisions, neither by principle nor by rules. We could need a process of recognition of the other, as other human being. Only in this way, one can understand that responsibility is another way of existing, and not only a submission to a normative moral neither strategic thinking.
On Girardian perspective, Catholic Social Doctrine misses an important reflection deals with the critical exclusions that market produces in the perspective of sin. As part of Church’s Doctrine we hear: “when man looks into his own heart he finds that he is drawn towards what is wrong”[75]; Satan moves human beings to death through envy[76]. However, this essential aspect of catholic morality is absent when the Doctrine analyzes the market. Therefore, this Doctrine needs to be completed with a fundamental anthropology, one that could be developed by Christian thinkers and researchers on systematic and pastoral ways.
Girard’s recent reflections about Satan have offered us a new perspective to think about social injustice and exclusion. We need to understand a biblical conception of Satan as "a murderer from the beginning"[77]. Girard shows how, “the Gospel unveils Satan as the principle of destructive mimesis in the world”[78]. Social processes do not obey only to mental reasons, but how it moves by desires like envy and mechanisms of rivalry mimesis. In consequence, the production of victims, and sacrifice, is always an unconscious process that generates institutions and cultures[79]. On this point, corporations appear like institutions, but not only as communities; more precisely: like complex systems of human relations. These systems produce victims, like any other violent social system; maybe, this new victims are not visible in the enterprise view, but they exist[80].
Institutions are complex social systems. Therefore, to ask for business ethics means asking about the victims’ destiny, like a scrutiny of the shadow that constitutes the existence of each institution. Generally, this shadow remains ignored on the corporate perspective, which is centered on rules and functions. Usually, business people understand ethics like legal obligations and regulations. This perspective ignores that this victims exist. The tendency of businessmen is to talk about themselves as an innocent and good citizens, while the destiny of the victims are ignored; we can deduct here another satanic deceit[81].
Catholic traditions may promote a new comprehension of ethics based on the search for a new kind of economic institution, one centered on human beings, that does not produce damages nor victims. Nevertheless, it is necessary to produce a new kind of business ethics. One less normative and more centered on the becoming of a new human being. With the potential of people in a process of conversion, a Christian business ethics must imply a commitment in the transformation of the business world, and its approach to the Kingdom of God. However, to be completed, this transformation of mind, heart and action must change our desires in desires of God, as Jesus Christ did it[82]. Like Catechism says: God’s grace turns human being’s hearts away from avarice and envy. It instructs them into the desire for the desires of the Holy Spirit who satisfies human hearts[83].
As sacrificial institutions, enterprises cannot understand their own violence. Therefore, they do not assume their real responsibilities[84]. Nevertheless, a conversed human being and a changing institution must deconstruct their generative center. In this sense, I notice that the text that we worked about business ethics and Catholic Social Doctrine are paradoxical: it maintains a strained relationships between normative or rational theory and a special consideration to poor people. To draw away from this mythical universe, is necessary to cease transforming people through abstract reasons or principle[85]. Only by recognizing the humanity in others, that is, the truth of it innocence[86], we can move to change our economic institutions.
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[1] HEGEL, G. W. F. Elements of the Philosophy of Right. WOOD A ed., NISBET H. B. Tr. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 1991. § 185.
[2] The first principle of Civil Society, the governing principle of the abstraction, is that of the self-interested satisfaction of natural needs and arbitrary desires. KNOWLES, Dudley. Routledge Philosophy Guidebook to Hegel and the Philosophy of Right. London: Routledge, 2002. p. 262.
[3] HEGEL, G. W. F. Elements of the Philosophy of Right. WOOD A ed., NISBET H. B. Tr. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 1991. HEGEL, G. W. F. Ibid. § 193.
[4] WESTHPHAL, Kenneth. The basic context and structure of Hegel’s Philosophy of Right. En: BEISER, Frederick C. The Cambridge Companion to Hegel. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994. p. 257-259.
[5] HEGEL, G. W. F. Ibid. § 188
[6] Ibid. § 185, 187 R, 193, 194 § R
[7] Ibid. §§ 182, 183, 187
[8] Ibid. § 183.
[9] Ibid. § 195.
[10] Ibid. § 191.
[11] Ibid. § 193.
[12] Ibid. § 198.
[13] Ibid. §§ 82, 198, 199
[14] Ibid. §182
[15] Ibid. §187R; §§ 260, 270
[16] Ibid. §187R
[17] Ibid. §§ 206, 207.
[18] Ibid. §36, 38, 209 R, 270N3.
[19] Ibid. §209-12; cf. §§ 187 R, 249.
[20] Ibid. §§132R, 209, 211R, 215; cf, 228R.
[21] Ibid. §216.
[22] Ibid. §§224, 228R.
[23] Ibid. §§208, 210, 218, 219.
[24] Ibid. §§219, 220, 224, 228.
[25] HARDIMON, Michael O. Hegel’s Social Philosophy. The Project of Reconciliation. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1994. p.195.
[26] HEGEL, G. W. F. Op. cit. §§230-33, 235
[27] Ibid. §233
[28] Ibid. §236
[29] Ibid. §236R
[30] Ibid. §239
[31] Ibid. §236
[32] Ibid. §§ 240, 241, 242, 244
[33] Ibid. §252
[34] DIESING, Paul. Hegel’s dialectical Political economy. Oxford: Westview Press, 1999. p. 58.
[35] HEGEL, G. W. F. §§238, 240.
[36] HARDIMON, Michael O. Op. Cit. p. 197.
[37] HEGEL, G. W. F. Op. cit. §201, 251.
[38] Ibid. § 183; cf. §§182, 187, 289R, 332.
[39] Ibid. §252 R, 253 R.
[40] Ibid. § 244, 253R.
[41] HARDIMON, Michael O. Op. Cit. p. 197-201.
[42] Catechism of the Catholic Church. 2422
[43] John Paul II, Centesimus Annus, 35.
[44] John XXIII, Mater et Magistra 65.
[45] Second Vatican Council, Gaudium et Spes, 68.
[46] CALVEZ, Jean-Yves, NAUGHTON, Michael J. Catholic Social Teaching and the Purpose of the Business Organization. On: CORTRIGHT, S.A., NAUGHTON, Michael J., editors. Rethinking the Purpose of Business. Interdisciplinary Essays from the Catholic Social Tradition. University of Notre Dame Press: Notre Dame, Indiana, 2002. p. 10.
[47] John Paul II. Laborem Exercens, 13.
[48] Ibid. 12.
[49] John Paul II. Centesimus Annus, 41.
[50] Ibid.
[51] John Paul II. Sollicitudo rei Socialis, 14.
[52] John Paul II. Laborem Exercens, 12.
[53] Ibid, 13.
[54] HUTCHINSON, D.S. Ethics. On: BARNES, Jonathan. The Cambridge Companion to Aristotle. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999. p. 203-217.
[55] ARISTOTLE, The Complete Works of Aristotle, J. Barnes editor. Princeton, 1984. Eudemian Ethics (EE) 1219b26-20a13, 1220b7-20; Nicomachean Ethics (NE) 1102a26-03a10, 1105b19-06a12.
[56] ALFORD, Helen, NAUGHTON, Michael. Beyond the Shareholder model of the firm. On: CORTRIGHT, S.A., NAUGHTON, and Michael J., editors. Op. cit. p. 41
[57] Catechism of the Catholic Church. 2407.
[58] GORDLEY, James. Virtue and the Ethics of Profit Seeking. On: CORTRIGHT, S.A., NAUGHTON, Michael J., editors. Op. cit. p. 66-67.
[59] Ibid. p. 78.
[60] Ibid. p. 67.
[61] Ibid. p. 78.
[62] MELÉ, Domènec. Not only Stakeholder Interests. The Firm oriented toward the Common Good. ON: CORTRIGHT, S.A., NAUGHTON, Michael J., editors. Op. cit. p. 191-193.
[63] Ibid. p. 196.
[64] KOSLOWSKI, Peter. The Shareholder Value Principle and the Purpose of the Firm. On: CORTRIGHT, S.A., NAUGHTON, Michael J., editors. Op. cit. p. 108.
[65] MELÉ, Domènec. Op. cit. p. 194.
[66] Global report initiative, AA 1000 Assurance Standard, Dow Jones Sustainability Index, etc.
[67] FORT, Timothy. Business as a Mediating Institution. On. CORTRIGHT, S.A., NAUGHTON, Michael J., editors. Op. cit. p. 248-249.
[68] Ibid. p. 244.
[69] Catechism of the Catholic Church. 1931.
[70] John Paul II. Veritatis Splendor. 78.
[71] HEGEL, G. W. F. Op. cit. § 118 R.
[72] Catechism of the Catholic Church. 2534.
[73] Ibid. 2535.
[74] GIRARD, René. Je vois Satan tomber comme l’ éclair. Paris: Editions Grasset & Fasquel, 1999. p. 23-39.
[75] Second Vatican Council, Gaudium et spes, 13.1
[76] Catechism of the Catholic Church. 391.
[77] Jn 8, 44.
[78] GIRARD, René. The Girard Reader. Williams, James Editor. New York: The Crossroad Publishing Company, 1996. p. 265.
[79] Ibid. p. 274: “When I use the term “mechanism”, as in “scapegoat mechanism”, I mean basically and simply a generative principle which works unconsciously in culture and society”. Cf. Je vois Satan tomber comme l’ éclair. p. 133-151.
[80] Conflit, concurrence, guerre, violence produisent forcément des victimes. La question des victimes hante les théories libérales de la justice. Ce sont en général des victimes “propres”: je veux dire par là que ceux qui les font ne se salissent pas trop les mains. Victimes de mécanismes abstraits et anonymes, plutôt que de profiteurs dénommés prêts à tous les coups: perdantes dans un jeu dont elles ont accepté les règles comme faire. Et cependant, ces bonnes victimes sont “sacres”. DUPUY, Jean Pierre. Le sacrifice et l’envie: Paris: Calmann-Lévy, 1992. p. 310-311.
[81] GIRARD, René. Je vois Satan tomber comme l’ éclair. p. 199. L’auto duperie caractérise le processus satanique tout entier et c’est pourquoi loin des titres du diable, je l’ai déjà dit, est “prince des ténèbres”. En révélant l’auto duperie des violents, le Nouveau Testament dissipe le mensonge de leur violence. Il énumère tout ce dont nous avons besoin pour rejeter la vision mythique de nous-mêmes, la croyance en notre propre innocence.
[82] Ibid. p. 32.
[83] Catechism of the Catholic Church.
[84] Ibid. p. 198. Les Evangiles révèlent tout ce dont les hommes ont besoin pour comprendre leurs responsabilités dans toutes les violences de l’histoire et dans toutes les fausses religions.
[85] Ibid. p. 119. Les comptes rendus de violence collective sont intelligibles en proportion inverse du degré de transfiguration dont ils font l’objet. Les plus transfigurés sont les mythes et le moins transfiguré de tous, c’est la Pasión de Christ, le Seúl compte rendu à révéler jusqu’au bout la cause de l’unanimité, la contagion mimétique, le mimétisme de la violence.
[86] Ibid. p. 295. L’homme n’est jamais la victime de Dieu, Dieu est toujours la victime de l’homme.
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