Aerodynamics of Road Vehicles - SAE International

Aerodynamics of Road Vehicles

Fourth Edition

List of Chapters:

1

Introduction to Automobile

2.3.3 Effects of Viscosity

Aerodynamics

2.3.3.1 Laminar and Turbulent

Wolf-Heinrich Hucho

Boundary Layer

1.1 Scope

Development

1.1.1 Basic Principles

2.3.3.2 Separation

1.1.2 Peculiarities of Vehicle Aerodynamics

2.3.3.3 Friction Drag

1.1.3 Related Fields

2.3.3.4 Pressure Drag

1.2 History of Vehicle Aerodynamics

2.3.3.5 Overall Forces and

1.2.1 Survey

Moments

1.2.2 "Borrowed" Shapes

2.3.3.6 Thermal Boundary Layers

1.2.3 The Era of the Streamline

2.3.4 Special Problems

1.2.4 Parameter Studies

2.3.4.1 Aerodynamic Noise

1.2.5 One-Volume Bodies

2.3.4.2 Body to Body Interference

1.2.6 The "Bathtub" Body

2.3.4.3 Transport of Solids

1.2.7 Commercial Vehicles

2.4 Internal Flow Problems

1.2.8 Motorcycles

2.4.1 Basic Equations for Incompressible

1.3 Present and Future Trends

Flow

1.3.1 State of the Art

2.4.2 Applications

1.3.2 Detail Optimization

2.4.2.1 Laminar and Turbulent

1.3.3 Shape Optimization

Pipe Flow

1.3.4 Development Expenditure

2.4.2.2 Curved Pipes

1.4 Aerodynamics and Design

2.4.2.3 Inlets

1.5 Notation

2.4.2.4 Local Contractions

2.4.2.5 Cross-Section

Enlargement

2

Some Fundamentals of Fluid Mechanics 2.5 Relations Between External and Internal Flow

Dietrich Hummel

2.6 Notation

2.1 Properties of Incompressible Fluids

2.1.1 Density

3

Performance of Cars and Light Trucks

2.1.2 Viscosity

Hans-Joachim Emmelmann and

2.1.3 Thermal Conductivity

Wolf-Heinrich Hucho

2.2 Flow Phenomena Related to Vehicles

3.1 Objectives

2.2.1 External Flow

3.2 Resistances to Vehicle Motion

2.2.2 Internal Flow

3.2.1 Equation of Motion

2.3 External Flow Problems

3.2.2 Analysis of Resistances to Motion

2.3.1 Basic Equations for Inviscid

3.2.2.1 Aerodynamic Drag

Incompressible Flow

3.2.2.2 Tire Rolling Resistance

2.3.2 Applications

3.2.2.3 Ratio of Aerodynamic

Drag to Tire Rolling

Resistance

Aerodynamics of Road Vehicles

3.2.2.4 Climbing Resistance

4.4.13 Car with Trailer

3.2.2.5 Vehicle Mass

4.4.14 Convoy Driving

3.3 Performance

4.5 Strategies for Body Shape Development

3.3.1 Traction Diagram

4.5.1 Objectives

3.3.2 Maximum Speed

4.5.2 Detail Optimization

3.3.3 Acceleration Time and Elasticity

4.5.3 Shape Optimization

3.4 Fuel Consumption, Fuel Economy

4.5.4 Facelift

3.4.1 Definitions

4.5.5 Adaptation of Attachments

3.4.2 Analysis of Fuel Consumption

4.5.6 Forecasting Systems and Expert

3.4.3 Gear-Ratio Matching

Systems

3.4.4 Driving Schedules

4.6 Drag of Passenger Cars in Production

3.4.4.1 EPA Urban and Highway

4.6.1 Evaluation of Test Results

Cycle

4.6.2 Vehicle Features

3.4.4.2 Present European Driving

4.6.3 Vehicle Position, Side Wind

Cycle

4.6.4 Drag Coefficients of Production Cars

3.4.4.3 New European Driving

4.7 Research

Cycle, and Others

4.7.1 Objectives

3.5 Strategy for Lowest Fuel Consumption

4.7.2 Basic Bodies

3.6 Fuel Consumption of Light Trucks

4.7.3 Unconventional Measures

3.7 Outlook

4.7.4 Concept Vehicles

3.8 Notation

4.7.5 Record Vehicles

4.8 Notation

4

Aerodynamic Drag of Passenger Cars

Wolf-Heinrich Hucho

5

Directional Stability

4.1 The Passenger Car as a Bluff Body

Alfons Gilhaus and Ralf Hoffmann

4.2 Flow Field Around a Car

5.1 Introduction

4.3 Analysis of Drag

5.2 History of Directional Stability

4.3.1 Possible Approaches

5.3 Aerodynamic Forces and Moments

4.3.2 Physical Mechanisms

5.3.1 Development

4.3.3 Local Origins

5.3.2 Aerodynamic Stability

4.3.4 Effect on the Environment

5.3.3 Non-Stationary Forces and Moments

4.3.5 Drag and Lift

5.4 Aerodynamics and Driving Behavior

4.4 Drag Fractions and Their Local Origins

5.4.1 Lift Force in Straight-Ahead Driving

4.4.1 Method of Observation

5.4.2 Cornering

4.4.2 Front End

5.4.3 Power On/Off Reaction

4.4.3 Windshield and A-Pillar

5.4.4 Influence of the Aerodynamic Forces

4.4.4 Roof

on Braking Performance

4.4.5 Rear End

5.4.5 Driving Behavior in Crosswinds

4.4.5.1 Geometry and Flow

5.4.5.1 Natural Wind and

Separation

Crosswind

4.4.5.2 Boat-Tailing

5.4.5.2 Side Wind Reactions

4.4.5.3 Fastback

5.4.6 Pass-By Maneuvers

4.4.5.4 Notchback

5.4.7 Driving with Trailer

4.4.6 Plan View and Side Panels

5.5 Influence of Vehicle Shape on Aerodynamic

4.4.7 Underbody

Forces and Moments

4.4.8 Wheels and Wheel Housings

5.5.1 Aerodynamic Properties of the Basic

4.4.9 Front Spoiler

Shapes

4.4.10 Rear Spoiler

5.5.1.1 Lift and Pitching Moment

4.4.11 Attachments

5.5.1.2 Side Force and Yawing

4.4.12 Drag from Flow Through a Car

Moment

Aerodynamics of Road Vehicles

5.5.1.3 Rolling Moment

7

Wind Noise

5.5.1.4 Comparison of the Key

John R. Callister and Albert R. George

Basic Shapes

7.1 Introduction

5.5.2 Aerodynamic Effects of the Features 7.2 Mechanisms of Noise Generation and

of Actual Vehicles

Transmission

5.5.2.1 Cooling Airflow

7.2.1 Source-Path-Receiver

5.5.2.2 Gaps and Openings

7.2.2 Idealized Models of Acoustic

5.5.2.3 Exterior Rearview Mirrors

Sources

5.5.2.4 Wheels, Tires, and

7.2.3 Physical Wind Noise Source Types

Underbody

7.2.3.1 Leak Noise

5.5.3 Roof Loads

7.2.3.2 Cavity Noise

5.6 Test and Evaluation Methods

7.2.3.3 Wind Rush Noise

5.6.1 Wind Tunnel Tests

7.2.4 Airflow Velocity Effect on Wind Noise

5.6.2 Road Tests

Levels

5.6.3 Computation of Vehicle Dynamics

7.3 Design Features

5.6.4 Driving Simulator

7.3.1 A-Pillar

5.7 Notation

7.3.2 Outside Rearview Mirrors

7.3.3 Windshield Wipers

6

Function, Safety and Comfort

7.3.4 Radio Antenna

Raimund Piatek and Johannes Schmitt

7.3.5 Roof Racks

6.1 Differentiated View

7.3.6 Doors

6.2 The Flow Field Around a Vehicle

7.3.7 Side Window Systems

6.3 Inlets and Outlets

7.3.8 Fixed Windows

6.3.1 Cooling Ducts

7.3.9 Hatch Roofs

6.3.2 Air Inlets and Outlets to the Cabin

7.4 Wind Noise Measurement and Testing

6.4 Forces on Bodywork Components

Techniques

6.4.1 Components with Attached Flow

7.4.1 Wind Tunnel versus On-Road

6.4.2 Components with Separated Flow

Measurements

6.4.3 Components with Periodic Flow

7.4.2 Wind Tunnel Considerations

6.5 Function of Individual Components

7.4.2.1 Wind Tunnel Background

6.5.1 External Mirrors

Noise

6.5.2 Windshield Wipers

7.4.2.2 Simulation of Crosswinds

6.5.3 Sunroofs

and Gusts in the Wind

6.5.4 Convertibles

Tunnel

6.6 Water and Dirt Accumulation on Vehicles

7.4.3 On-Road Measurement Procedures

6.6.1 Safety and Aesthetics

7.4.4 Importance of Narrow Band Spectra

6.6.2 Water Flow

for Wind Noise Measurements

6.6.3 Dirt Deposits

7.4.5 Overview of Measurement of Interior

6.7 Reducing Splash and Spray

Wind Noise

6.7.1 Obstruction to Visibility

7.4.5.1 Use of Artificial Head

6.7.2 Measuring Impaired Visibility

Device for Subjective

6.7.3 Measures to Reduce Spray

Evaluation

Formation

7.4.5.2 Source Identification and

6.8 Notation

Localization

7.4.6 Overview of Exterior Wind Noise

Measurements

7.4.6.1 Microphone Nose Cones

7.4.6.2 Sound Intensity and

Microphone Array

Methods

Aerodynamics of Road Vehicles

7.5 Buffeting of Open Windows, Open Sunroofs,

8.5.5 Effect of Boundary Layer Variation on

and Convertibles

Wind Tunnel Results

7.5.1 Side Windows

8.5.6 Development Methods and

7.5.2 Sunroofs

Simulation Techniques

7.5.3 Convertibles

8.6 Trends in Future High-Performance Vehicle

7.6 Manufacturing Concerns

Development

7.6.1 Process

8.7 Notation

7.6.2 Inspection

7.6.2.1 Leak Detection Using a

9

Commercial Vehicles

Smoke Generator

Hans G?tz and G?nter Mayr

7.6.2.2 Ultrasonic Leak Detector 9.1 Target Group

7.6.2.3 Simple, Quick Inspection 9.2 Tractive Resistance and Fuel Consumption

Techniques

9.3 Drag Reduction and Fuel Consumption

7.6.3 Feedback to the Design Organization 9.4 Aerodynamic Drag Coefficients of Various

7.7 Notation

Commercial Vehicles

9.4.1 Operation in Still Air

8

High-Performance Vehicles

9.4.2 Drag as a Function of Yawing Angle

Helmut Flegl and Norbert Singer

9.4.3 Wind Influence--Definition of Yawing

8.1 Definitions

Angle

8.2 Some Historical Milestones

9.4.4 Characterization of Air Resistance in

8.3 The Meaning of Aerodynamics for High-

Actual Operating Conditions

Performance Cars

9.5 Reducing Aerodynamic Drag

8.3.1 Drag and Lift

9.5.1 Scope for Aerodynamic Changes on

8.3.2 Handling

Commercial Vehicles

8.3.2.1 Driving Tests

9.5.2 Optimization in the Wind Tunnel--

8.3.2.2 Angle of Attack and

Problems with Reduced-Scale

Yawed Airflow

Models

8.3.2.3 Slipstreaming

9.5.3 Drag Minimization on Trucks

8.3.2.4 Theoretical Investigations

9.5.3.1 Characteristic Flow and

8.3.3 Cooling and Ventilation

Pressure Conditions

8.4 Design Alternatives

9.5.3.2 Partial Resistance--

8.4.1 Drag and Lift

Interference Problem

8.4.1.1 Influence of the Basic

9.5.3.3 Cab Shape

Vehicle Configuration

9.5.3.4 Drag-Reducing Add-On

8.4.1.2 Wings

Devices for Trucks

8.4.1.3 Ground Effect

9.5.3.5 Full Trailer

8.4.1.4 Special Body

9.5.3.6 Future Trends in Tractor-

Configurations,

Trailer Design

Monoposti

9.5.3.7 Reduction of

8.4.2 Handling

Aerodynamic Drag on

8.4.3 Cooling and Ventilation

"Truckaway" Units

8.5 Special Problems

8.5.1 Lap Time and Fuel Economy

8.5.2 Near-Sonic Speeds

8.5.3 Uncovered Wheels

8.5.4 Rotating versus Stationary Wheels of

Monoposti

8.5.4.1 Road Version

8.5.4.2 High-Speed Version

Aerodynamics of Road Vehicles

9.5.4 Minimizing Drag of Buses and

10.5 Wind Tunnel Results

Delivery Vans

10.5.1 Measurements on Solo Motorcycles

9.5.4.1 Boundary Conditions

10.5.2 Rider Influences

9.5.4.2 Characteristic Flow

10.5.2.1 Rider and Pillion Passenger

Conditions on Simple

10.5.2.2 Clothing and Helmets

Geometric Bodies

10.5.3 Sidecars

9.5.4.3 Optimization of the Front 10.6 Outlook

End

10.7 Notation

9.5.4.4 Optimization of the Rear

End

11 Engine Cooling

9.5.4.5 Add-On Devices on the

Wulf Sebbe?e, Peter Steinberg,

Rear End

Norbert Deu?en, and Dieter Schlenz

9.5.4.6 Future Bus Design Trends 11.1 Task of a Cooling System

9.6 Taking Advantage of Aerodynamic

11.1.1 Functional Requirements

Interference Effects

11.1.2 Requirements to be Satisfied by

9.6.1 Driving in Convoy

Passive Characteristics

9.6.2 Driving Through Tunnels

11.1.3 Development Potential of Cooling

9.7 Vehicle Soiling

System

9.7.1 Foreign Soiling

11.2 Cooling Systems

9.7.2 Self-Soiling

11.2.1 Water Cooling

9.7.2.1 Reduction of Soiling of

11.2.2 Air Cooling

Bus Sides

11.2.3 Cooling with Component-

9.7.2.2 Reduction of Bus Rear-

Temperature Control

End Soiling

11.2.4 Dual-Circuit Cooling System and

9.7.3 Reduction of Truck Soiling

Warm-Up Concept

9.7.4 Impingement of Spray on Following

11.2.5 High-Temperature Cooling

Vehicles

11.2.6 Oil Cooling

9.7.4.1 New Approach to Solution

11.2.7 Phase-Change Cooling

of Spray Mist Reduction 11.3 Methods of Computation

9.7.4.2 The Measuring System

11.3.1 Principles of Heat Exchange

9.8 Notation

11.3.1.1 Heat Transfer and

Radiation

10 Motorcycles

11.3.1.1.1 Heat Transfer

Bernward E. Bayer

from Combustion

10.1 One Year Before the Automobile

Gas to Components

10.2 Summary of the Development of Motorcycle

Adjacent to

Aerodynamics

Combustion

10.2.1 History

Chamber

10.2.2 Today's State-of-the-Art Technology

11.3.1.1.2 Heat Transfer

10.3 Riding Dynamics and its Relationship with

from Cylinder to

Aerodynamics

Coolant

10.3.1 Performance Specifications

11.3.1.1.3 Heat Transfer

10.3.2 Directional Stability

at the Engine-Block

10.3.3 Crosswind Behavior

Wall

10.3.4 Pitch Effects

11.3.1.2 Heat Conduction in

10.3.5 Cornering

Components

10.4 Methods of Measurement in Road Tests

11.3.1.3 Computing Model and

Results of Simulation

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