Afternoon Session - e-library WCL
Management: Principles & Practices
(Applicable to Mines)
APPENDIX –l
SYLLABUS FOR THE EXAMINATION FOR FIRST CLASS MANAGER’S CERTIFICATE OF COMPETENCY
(Under Coal Mines Regulation,1957)
(a) Mine Management: Legislation and General Safety
Mine Management:
Introduction: - Evolution of management, theory and practice, principles of scientific management, elements of management function, planning, organisation and control, structure and design of organisation for mining enterprises.
Personal Management & Organizational behaviour, selection training and development of human resources for mining enterprises, leadership, study of traditional leader behaviour, autocratic, democratic and Laissel-Faire behaviours, conflict management, conflict in organisation, source of conflict, dealing with conflict, organizing for conflict resolution, conflict and growth, individual motivation, two way personal communication.
Production Management: Determination of norms and standards of operations by work study, analysis of mine capacities and capability, production planning, scheduling and control, short term and long term planning, productivity, concepts and measurements, application of Ergonomics in mine operation.
Financial Management, Capital budgeting, techniques for mining project, project evaluation, pay back period and IRR, methods of cost analysis and cost control, break even charts, working capital management, ERP ( Enterprises Resource Planning).
Mining Environment: ELA (Environment Impact Assessment), EMP(Environment Management Plan), ETP ( Effluent Treatment Plant), STP (Sewerage Treatment Plan) threat to environment from underground and surface mining, means of mitigation, treatment of pollutants, monitoring systems, water management, mine closure plan, P & R ( rehabilitation and resettlement).
Economic impact of Mining: Economics of mining, effect on community – before, during and after mining, corporate social responsibility (CSR)
Material Management for mining sector, ABC analysis, Inventory Management.
Industrial Accident: Study of human factors of industrial accidents, their causes and remedies.
APPENDIX –ll
SYLLABUS FOR THE EXAMINATION FOR FIRST CLASS MANAGER’S CERTIFICATE OF COMPETENCY
(Under Coal Mines Regulation,1957)
(a) Mine Management: Legislation and General Safety
Mine Management:
Introduction: - Principles of scientific management, management function, planning, organisation and control, structure of organisation for mining enterprises.
Personal Management: Selection training and development of human resources for mining enterprises.
Production Management: Production planning, scheduling and control, short term and long term planning, productivity and its measurements.
Environmental Management: Mine environment monitoring and control, EMP (Environmental Management Plan), mine closure plan, R & R (rehabilitation & re-settlement).
1) Introduction:- Evolution of management, theory and practice, principles of scientific management, elements of management function, planning, organisation and control, structure and design of organisation for mining enterprises.
A MANAGER, whether he be in –charge of a production or a marketing function, deals with human beings and gets his job done through and with people. According to Lawrence Appley ,the managers job is human relations job that functions through several major activities and that human relations is…..the beginning and the end of the management .Management is the development of people and not the direction of things . In fact .if we look at the word management. it can be divided into MANAGE-MEN - T . If the word tactfully is substituted for the T, the word management would read MANAGE MEN TACTFULLY. Thus the word itself suggests the most important aspects of management, namely, of managing men or human beings in a particular manner, namely, tactfully. Evolution of management-
One of the most important human activities is managing. Ever since people began forming group to accomplish aims they could not achieve as individuals. Managing has been essential to ensure the co-ordination of individual efforts. As society has come to rely increasingly on group effort and as many organized groups have become large, the task of Managers has been rising in importance.
Management is a continuous, likely and fast developing science. It is basically concerned with ideas, things and people. It has been defined by different authors in a number of ways. “Management is defined as the process of planning, organizing, actuating and controlling in organization’s operations in order to achieve a co-ordination of the human and material resources essential in the effective and efficient attainment of objectives.” Management is the process of designing and maintaining an environment in which individuals, working together in groups, efficiently accomplish selected aims.
Prof. Theo Haimann has used the term “Management” as a synonym of Managerial Personnel also. It is a fact that in practice, the term ‘Management’ is frequently used to devote managerial personnel or individuals managing an enterprise. Management has also come to be recognized as a body of knowledge and practice.
CHARACTERISTICS OF MANAGEMENT
1) Management is an Activity: It is an activity which concerns with the efficient use of human and non-human resources of production. It is the driving force that inspire an undertaking, knits it into an entity and the conditions and relationship which brings about a full ‘ case of its power and resources’
2) Management is a social process: All business organizations are social organizations as they are constituted of men. The management has to control, organize and motivate them. It can improve their lines and creates a favourable climate for their development.
3) Management is getting things done: A manager does not do any operating work himself. He gets the work done by, with and through the people. He has to direct them and develop their talent by adopting technical, human and psychological skills.
4) Management is an universal activity: Managing involves getting things done through and with the people. Managers perform the same functions regardless of their place in the organisation structure or the types of enterprise in which they are engaged. The technique and tools of Management are universally applicable.
Management Principle
Management scientists and writers on organisation have developed certain Management Principles which may be regarded as generally statements of organizational and management behaviour. These principles are usually stated in a form that identifies cause and effect relationships. In other words principles provide guides to thought & action. “In doing so”, as Trewatte and Nessprot argue “they contribute to the avoidance of mistake by providing insights into possible results”. Consequently advocates of management principle feel that their application will bring about good results, that is “a more effective and efficient achievement of organizational goals.”
Management is a best an inexact science. This implies that managerial functions are based on certain fundamental principles.
A principle is a fundamental truth and, assorted, it is generally stated in the form of cause and effect relationship. According to Koontz and O’ Donnell, “Principles are fundamental truths which are believed to be truths at a given time, expressing relationship between two or more sets of variables.
A number of principles of management have been developed to assist managers in performing their function well. A large number of principles has been contributed by the management authors belonging to the traditional school of management thought. Henry Fayol, a French industrialist, offered fourteen principle of management first time in 1916. In spite of this the so-called principles of management the guidelines on organisation structure developed by management theorists like F.W. Taylor, L.F. Urwick and J.D.Mooney.
Fayol’s General Principles of Management
i) Division of work: Division of work means specialization. Each job and work should be assigned to the specialist of his job. Division of work promotes efficiency because it permits an organizational member to work in a limited area reducing the scope of his responsibility. Fayol wanted the division of work not only at factory but at management levels also.
ii) Authority and responsibility- Authority and responsibility go together. Fayol stressed upon this right and power to give order should be balanced by the responsibility for performing necessary functions.
iii) Discipline: Fayol saw discipline in terms of obedience, application, emergy and respect to superior. According to him penalty for poor performance should be coupled with competent and fair supervision.
iv) Unity of command: A subordinate should take orders from only one boss. Fayol claimed that if the unity of command is violated, “ authority is undermined discipline in danger, order disturbed and stability threatened.
v) Unity of Direction: Each group of activities having the same objective must have one head and be planned. It will create dedication of the purpose and loyalty.
vi) Subordination of Individual Interest to General Interest: The interest of business enterprises ought to come before the interest of the individual workers.
vii) Remuneration: Remuneration should be fair and adequate. It should afford the maximum satisfaction to both types of incentives, financial as well as non-financial.
viii) Centralization: There should be one central point in the organisation which exercise overall direction, control of all the parts. But the degree of centralization of authority should vary according to the needs of the situation.
ix) Scaler Chain: The scaler chain is chain of supervision from the highest to the lowest rank. An employee should feel the control of his superior.
x) Order: The Principle or order applies both to material as well as man. An organisation ought to be based on an orderly, rationally thought plan.
xi) Equity: Kindness and justice should be exercised by management in dealing with their subordinates. This will create loyalty and devotion amoung the employees.
xii) Stability: Stability is linked with long tenure of personnel in the organisation. Efficiency is promoted by a stable workforce.
xiii) Initiative: To ensure success plans should be well formulated before they are executed.
xiv) Espsit de Crops: Fayol said, “ in union there is strength”. The whole organisation should function as a team and every team member should work to best accomplish organizational good. He emphasised the importance of good communication in achieving team work.
Henri Fayol has emphasized the point that management are universal. These can be applied in all types of organisations like Business Firms, Government Departments, Charitable Trusts, Hospitals etc.
The Universality of Management- We has defined management as a process. A closer scrutiny reveals there are three aspects to such a definition.
i) Firstly, there is the need for co-ordination of resources.
ii) Secondly, there is need to give consideration to performance of the managerial function.
iii) Finally, since management is purposeful in natures, it is necessary to include the purpose of the management process.
Frederick Taylor and Scientific Management
He has given his philosophy in his book “Principle of Scientific management”
which rested on four basic principles:
i) Develop a science for each element of a person’s work, which replaces the old role of thumb method. The implication is clear the manager should develop a true science of management, so that, for example, the best method for performing each task could be determined.
ii) Scientifically select and then train, teach and develop the workers. If the workers are selected scientifically, each worker could be given responsibility for the task for which he/she was best suited.
iii) Heartily co-operate with the workers, so as to ensure that all the work is being done accordance with the principles of the science which has been developed.
iv) There is almost equal division of the work and the responsibility between the management and the workers. This implies intimate and friendly cooperation between management and workers.
At last we can say that management principles are those fundamental truths which help the managers in handling the problems in given circumstances. Management principles are neither culture bound nor affected by the differences in objectives of the different enterprises. It is only the practices of management which is culture bound. So, when we say that management principles universally applicable, it is true. But according to the nature, size and other back ground of organisation their application will differ according to circumstances.
Theory of management- The theories of management are summarized in the table given below:-
|Management Theory |School of thought |Role |Area |
|Scientific Management |F.W.Taylor (1856-1915) |i) Time Study |Work Methods & Measurements. |
| | |Data gatherer | |
| | |Measures | |
| | |Analysit | |
| | |Designer | |
| | |Trainer |Designing of Incentive scheme. |
| | |ii) Incentive Scheme | |
| | |Advocate |Facilities(Plant Location etc), |
| | |Negotiator |Production Planning & Control |
| | |iii)Work Efficiency |etc. |
| | |Expert | |
| | |Creator | |
| | | | |
| | | | |
|Organizational |Henry Fayol (1841 – 1925) |Decision Maker |Management Systems |
| |Max Wever ( 1964 – 1920 ) |Project Manager |(Organizational Structure, |
| | |Co-ordinator |manuals etc) |
|Behavioural |A.Maslow (1908 – 1970) |Motivator |Designing of Incentive schemes |
| |D.Mac Gregor (1906 – 1964 ) | |etc. |
|Quantitative | |Data Gatherer |Forecasting Inventory Planning |
| | |Analyst |Quality Assurance etc. |
|MIS | |-do- |Computer & Information. |
The Manager’s job
A Manager deals with human beings and gets his job done through and with people. Basically the job of a manager is to direct the activities and the people under him to reach pre-determined objectives with the optimum use of the resources available to him. The job of a manager can be looked upon as a process involving basically five steps, namely.
i) Planning, which is concerned with achieving the desired results or goals;
ii) Organizing; which is aimed at integrating the available factors into an optimum relationship with a view to effectuate the plan;
iii) Staffing, which seeks to select and develop the right type of personnel;
iv) Motivating, which aims at inspiring and inducing the people within the organization to direct their efforts towards the implementation of the plans, and
v) Controlling, which periodically evaluates performance and attempts to ensure that the activities are actually executed in consonance with the plan.
Planning:- Planning involves selecting missions and objectives and the actions to achieve them, it requires decision making which is choosing future course of action from the alternatives. It is basically plotting the use of time, resources and efforts towards the realization of what management derives to accomplish. Realistic planning is based upon an accurate analysis of present resources, past performance, present situation and future goals. It is the pre-action stage and a blueprint for future activities. The function of management planning is both general and specific, both long term & short term.
Steps in Planning:-
The steps in planning is listed below:
i) Being Aware of Opportunities- Although it precedes actual planning and is, therefore, not strictly a part of the planning process, an awareness of opportunities in the external environment as well as within the organisation is the real stating point for planning. All managers should take a preliminary look at possible future opportunities and see them clearly and completely, know where they stand in light of their strengths and weakness, understand what problems they wish to solve and why and know what they expect to gain. Setting realistic objectives depends on this awareness. Planning requires a realistic diagnosis of the opportunities situation.
ii) Establishing objectives- The second step in planning is to establish objectives for the entire enterprise and then for each subordinate work unit. This is to be done for the long term as well as for the short term. Objectives specify the expected results and indicate the end points of what is to be done, where the primary emphasis is to be placed, and what is to be accomplished by the network of stratgegics, policies, procedures, rules budgets, and programmes.
Enterprise objectives give direction to the major plans, which by reflecting these objectives, define the objective of every major department. Major department objectives, in turn, control the objectives of subordinate department, and so on down the line. In other words, objectives from a hierarchy. The objectives of lesser departments will be more accurate if subdivision managers understand the overall enterprise objectives and the derivative goals. Managers should also have the opportunity to contribute their ideas for setting their own goals and those of the enterprises.
Iii) Developing Premises-
The third logical step in planning is to establish, circulate, and obtain agreement to utilize critical planning premises such as forecast, applicable basic policies and existing company plans. They are assumptions about the environment in which the plan is to be carried out. It is important for all the managers involved in planning to agree on the premises. In fact the major principle of planning premises is. The more thoroughly individuals charged with planning understand and agree to utilize consistent planning premises, the more coordinate enterprise planning will be
Forecasting is important in premising. What kinds of markets will there be? What volume of sales? What prices? What products? What technical developments? What costs? What wage rates? What tax, rates and policies? What new plants? What policies with respect to dividends? What political or social environment? How will expansion be financed? What are the long term trends?
iv ) Determining Alternative Courses-
The fourth step in planning is to search for and examine alternative courses of action, especially those not immediately apparent. There is seldom a plan for which reasonable alternative do not exist, and quite often an alternative that is not obvious proves to be the best.
The more common problem is not finding alternatives but reducing the number of alternatives so that the most promising may be analyzed. Even with mathematical techniques and the computer, there is a limit to the number of alternatives that can be thoroughly examined. The planner must usually make preliminary examination to discover the most fruitful possibilities.
v) Evaluating Alternative Courses-
After seeking out alternative courses and examining their strong and weak points, the next step is to evaluate the alternatives by weighing them in the light of premises and goals. One course may appear to be the most profitable but it may require a large cash outlay and have a slow payback; another may look less profitable but may involve less risk; still another may better still the company’s long – range objectives.
There are so many alternative courses in most situations and so many variables limitations to be considered that evaluation can be exceedingly difficult. Because of these complexities, newer methodologies and applications and analyses are discussed in Part 6 on controlling.
vi) Selecting a course-
This is the point at which the plan is adopted- the real point of decision making. Occasionally, an analysis and evaluation of alternative courses will disclose that two or more course are advisable and the manager may decide to follow several courses rather than the one best course.
vii) Formulating Derivative Plans-
When a decision is made, planning is seldom complete and a seventh step is indicated, Derivative plans are almost invariably required to support the basic plan.
viii) Numberizing Plans by Budgeting-
After decisions are made and plans are set, the final step in going them meaning, as was indicated in the discussion of types of plans, is to numberise them by converting them into budgets. The overall budgets of an enterprise represent the sum total of income and experiences, with resultant profit or surplus, and the budgets of major balance sheet items such as cash and capital expenditures. Each department or programme of a business or some other enterprise can have its own budgets, usually of expenses and capital expenditures, which tie into the overall budget.
If done well, budgets become a means of adding the various plans and set important standards against which planning, progress can be measured. Budgets will further be discussed in connection with managerial control in Chapter 19.
Organizing: - Organizing is that part of managing that involves establishing an intentional structure of role for people to fill in an organization. It is intentional in the sense of making sure that all the tasks necessary to accomplish goals are assigned and it is hoped, assigned to the people who can evacuate them best.
It is the arrangement of the work of individual and groups, and the provision of the facilities necessary for doing that work in such a way that the best, most efficient and economical results will be obtained. When an organization is planned it should be sufficiently flexible to allow for change and expansion.
Organizing is also thought as:
• the identification and classification of required activities;
• the grouping of activities necessary to attain objectives;
• the assignment of each grouping to a manager with the authority necessary to supervise it, and
• the provision for co-ordination horizontally and vertically in the organization;
Controlling: - The managerial function of controlling is the measurement and correction of performance in order to make sure that enterprise objectives and the plans devised to attain them are being accomplished. Planning and controlling are closely related. Without objectives and plans, control is not possible because performance has to be measured against some established criteria.
Controlling is measuring and correcting individual and organizational performance to ensure that events conform plans. It involves measuring performance against goals and plans showing where deviations from standards exist and helping to correct deviations from standards. In short, controlling facilitates the accomplishment of plans. Although planning must proceed controlling, plans are not self-achieving. Plans guide managers in the use of resources to accomplish specific goals; then activities are checked to determine whether they conform to the plans. The basic purpose of controlling includes the following:-
• to clarify and project desired results more accurately.
• to identify and forecast major trends and the probable need for changes in significant areas.
• to detect operating problems in time to take corrective action before they become critical.
• to provide continuous guides for improving performance and conserving time and effort.
Control involves the comparison of actual performance with some determined criterion. Obviously, budgeting is a control device, because manager compares the actual costs and revenues with the budgeted norms. Other accounting techniques that provide manager with control information are
i. Standard costs- These are predetermined costs developed from the past experience, motion and time study, expected future production costs or some combination of theses.
ii. Responsibility accounting- In this costs are identified with those individuals who are responsible for their control.
In taking managerial decisions, the manager has to select from the different alternative courses of action available to him in terms of the objectives he is seeking to achieve. Thus a good manager tries to plan, organize & control his activities in such a way that he makes things happen. The effective manager makes things happen through an adequate system of planning and there after so using the resources available to him that the plans are implemented effectively.
An effective manager of a large O/C mechanized mine can skillfully plan, organize and control activities in day to day as well as long term basic in following manners:-
i) Target setting:- After obtaining statutory permission from DGMS for deep hole blasting, the manager will set target for extraction of mineral taking into consideration thickness of ore body, reef width, stoping width, size of blocks to be stopped etc. Subsequently, man power, machinery and materials shall be skillfully planned, organized and controlled by the manager for achieving the target already set in. For controlling the activities and judging the performance, the actual achievements shall be compared with budgeted norms.
ii) Deployment of men & machinery:- In order to achieve targeted production & ensuring safe operation in large open cast mechanized mine, matching men ( statutory & non statutory ) and machinery such as shovels, drills, dozers & dumpers etc shall be engaged in rational manner as per provision of approved project report.
iii) Preparation of Plan:- Based on availability of mineral resources, working plan shall be prepared and all activities in day to day and long term basis shall conform to this Plan.
iv) Setting criteria for use of heavy machinery / deep hole blasting:- As required under Reg. 106(2) of MMR 1961, the following action shall be taken:
a) Bench geometry – The height & width of benches in OB ore body or other rock formation shall not be more than the permissible limits as permitted by DGMS in permission letter. To comply with this, bench geometry shall be maintained in safe manner in order to avoid collapse of benches. For control, manager shall engage surveyor for measuring and record keeping of the bench geometry & the same shall be checked by manager personally time to time.
b) Roads for truck & dumpers etc:- All roads from the O/C workings shall be arranged to provide one way traffic. If not possible, no roads shall be of a width less than 3 times the width of largest vehicle plying on that road unless definite turnouts and waiting points are designed. Manager shall ensure this provision by passing necessary instructions to surveyor and engineer in charge of the project.
c) Supervision- During every production shift, the O/C workings shall be placed under the charge of an ACM possessing 1st class certificate & during maintenance shift the workings shall be placed under the charge of Engineer in charge.
d) Drilling, blasting & charging of blast holes:- Manager shall plan, organize and control all activities related to drilling, blasting & charging of short holes including transport of explosives. If necessary, scientific agency shall be engaged for practicing controlled blasting technique.
No blasting shall be planned during dark hours and thunderstorm. In order to control fly rocks, ground vibration, noise etc, the charge per delay and charge per round shall be fixed based on blasting vibration study. The blast vibration study shall be conducted on day-to-day basis and the results thereof shall be compared with the permissible limits for prevailing condition and incase of any deviation, preventive measures shall be taken.
e) General Lighting:- In dark hours, sufficient lighting arrangements shall be provided & maintained as recommended by DGMS.
f) Operation of machinery:- Only skilled, competent and sincere workmen shall be authorized to operate the machinery. The availability and utilization of machinery shall be compared with set standard norms. In case of any deviation, maintenance schedule must be prepared and implemented in order to increase its availability and utilization to optimum level.
g) Precaution against noise & dust:- Adequate arrangements to allay dry dust by wetting shall be planned and organized during any operation of drilling, loading, unloading , crushing etc. Also suitable steps must be planned and organized by manager by all appropriate means to reduce the exposure of workers to any excessive noise and vibration. The plan should also include the dust and noise survey at frequent intervals.
v) Framing of traffic rules:- The code of traffic rules for regulating the movement of heavy machinery ( commensurate with the capacity / size and type of machines), incorporating procedures, speed limits, right of way, parking & standing, overtaking, signs, mechanical condition of vehicles etc shall be planned, organized and implemented by the managers in mechanized open cast mines.
vi) Framing of code of practice for prevention of injuries to persons engaged in tipping and dumping operation:- The Manager shall plan, frame & implement code of practice for prevention of injuries to persons engaged in tipping and dumping operation clearly indicating hazards, responsibilities of mine officials, safe operation of equipment and machinery etc.
vii) Consumption of POL, explosives and other consumables:- In order to control the excess consumption of POL, explosives and other consumables, manager shall compare the actual consumption against the norms. In case of any deviation from norms, necessary instruction must be past and implemented.
2) Personal Management & Organizational behaviour, selection training and development of human resources for mining enterprises , leadership, study of traditional leader behaviour, autocratic, democratic and Laissel-Faire behaviours, conflict management, conflict in organisation, source of conflict, dealing with conflict, organizing for conflict resolution, conflict and growth, individual motivation, two way personal communication
Leadership is the knack of getting other people to follow you and to do willingly the things you want them to do.
Leadership is a human characteristic that lifts a man’s vision to higher sights, raises a man’s performance to higher standards and builds a man’s personality beyond its normal limitation.”
Leadership is a natural gift. They believe that leaders are born. Others say that leaders are made and believe that leadership qualities can be acquired. It is in fact a natural gift and development of that gift by dedication and hard work.
Ingredients of Leadership:
Successful leaders possess the following qualities:-
1) High Character – The most outstanding qualities of a leader are honesty and integrity. He must be honest to himself, his people and above all to his mission. He must possess moral courage to stick to the principles and to face the obstacles that come in his way. He should not fight shy of public criticism.
2) Competence- A good leader must possess a higher level of intelligence than the people he has to supervise and lead. He should have a sound wide based technical knowledge and the laws of the environment in which he has to operate. In an industrial setting, the working knowledge of the concerned technology, economic, legal, financial and personnel.
3) Sense of Mission- He must have a strong sense of mission for the accomplish- ment of the objective and a devotion to the people and the organisation.
4) Initiative- Creative abilities and an instinct to take initiative amidst uncertainties is an outstanding quality of a leader.
5) Good Judgment- A leader should be able to have a quick grasp over situation and be able to arrive at a quick decision.
6) Sense of Responsibility- A leader must ever be willing to shoulder responsibility. He should never shirk his responsibility and should always be willing to accept the consequences of his actions.
7) Ability to Inspire- By virtue of his knowledge, skill and attitude a leader should be able to win the confidence of people both within and beyond the organisation. He must be abele to inspire people to secure their voluntary support and action. He should know how to integrate the activities of different groups.
8) Flexible- A leader should never adopt an inflexible posture. He should be aware of the ever changing technological, economic, social and political conditions and to adapt himself to the new situation.
9) Positive Attitude- A tender should adopt a positive attitude towards the problems and should move ahead with hope and confidence to find solutions. He should always strive to build on the strength of people rather than on their weakness and focus on good points.
10) Other characteristics:-
• Energetic
• Faith and respect from followers.
• Sympathetic, understanding and humane
• Socially conscious
• Ability and willingness to develop and improve the people
• Predictable
In addition a good personality, pleasant manners and poise add to the charm of leader.
Types of Leaders:
Leaders are classified according to their styles of functioning. All leaders can be divided into one or the other distinguishing group. Leaders of a particular group exhibit identical traits. They are classified as under:-
1. Autocratic Type- They are also known as authoritarian or dictator type. They never like to delegate their power. They do not consult their subordinates, make their own decisions and command people to work by generating fear in their mind. He practices one way communication. He seeks power for himself and has little regard for the attitudes of other people.
2. Democratic Type – Such leaders consult their subordinates, encourage them to contribute their opinions, delegate power and authority and involve them in decision making process. He is motivated by group interest, adopts two way communication and is committed to the group interests.
3. Persuasive Type- Such leaders try to get the work done through personal contacts and persuasion. They command love and respect of their people.
4. Intellectual Type- Leaders possessing superior knowledge, skill and intellect come under this category. He commands respect by virtue of his intellectual superiority people trust and honour his advice.
5. Free Rein Type- Such leaders exercise minimum of control. This is suitable for a work force conscious of its responsibility and competent to make decisions. The leaders simply works as a co-ordinator and information centre. Such leadership especially suits research establishment.
It is possible to get the results by adopting any one of the above styles of leadership. However, autocratic type of leadership is considered old fashioned whereas, democratic leadership is the best and modern. On the basis of extensive research the management specialists have come to some valuable conclusions. These are:-
a) that there is no one best leadership style and there are no leaders who excel under all circumstances.
b) “ almost every manager in an organisation can perform effectively, providing that we place him in a situation that matches his personality, providing we know how to match his training and experience to the available jobs” and providing that we take the trouble”.
According to Fred E.Fielder” Leadership is essentially a work relationship involving power and influence. He has long been identified that the “ leadership performance depends on the situation, as well as on the leader”. Some leader perform better in one kind of situation while other leaders perform better in different situation. The importance of a situation depends upon how much power and “situational favorableness.
Leadership
Leadership is one of the most critical behavioral processes by all human activities. Survival, development and continuity of civilization depend upon the quality of leadership. Therefore, it is no wonder that the content and the processes of effective leadership are being examined time and again by the academic, practitioners and the management consultants all over the world.
One of the classic studies made on leadership styles was that by Re-white (5955) who investigated the effects of three different styles of leadership i.e. Democratic, Autocratic and Laissez faire, on productivity and number morale.
• The result should that Democratic leadership resulted in greater production ( measured in terms of the amount of work done) than did the Laissez faire leadership. On the other hand, automatic leadership led to greater productivity than did the democratic leadership. However the quality of work was consistently better in the democratic than in autocratic group.
• More direct or indirect discontent was expressed in the autocratic groups than in democratic one.
• More cohesiveness and satisfaction was expressed in the democratic tan in the other two
• Group members evidenced more submissive and dependent behaviors in autocratic groups than in the other two and showed unsurprisingly less talking back to leaders.
However, experience and further research showed that leadership styles tend to very considerably from situation to situation
High supportive High directive
& &
High directive High support
Behavior behavior
(S3) (S2)
Low supportive High directive
& &
Low directive Low supportive
(S4) behavior (S1)
Autocratic behavior
Low (Directive) High
Each of the four leadership styles depicted in above fig. represents different combinations of directive and supportive leadership behaviours. These combinations differ on three dimensions:-
i) the amount of direction the leader provides.
ii) the amount of support and encouragement the leader provides.
iii) the amount of follower involvement in decision making.
Leadership behavior as problem is solving and decision making styles:-
a. High directive low supportive leader behavior (S1):- It is referred to as DIRECTING style. The leader defines the roles of the followers and tells them what, how, when and where to do various tasks. The problem solving and decision making are imitated by the superior. Solution and decisions are communicated largely one-way and implementation is closely supervised.
b. High directive and high supportive leader behavior (S2): It is referred to as COACHING. In this style the tender still provides a great deal directions, but also attempts to hear the followers feeling about decisions as well as their ideas and suggestions while two way communication and support are increased, control over decision making remains with the leader.
c. High supportive & low directive behavior (S3):- It is referred to as SUPPORTING. In S3, the locus of control for day to day decision is making and problem solving shifts to a large extent from leader to follower. The leader’s role is to provide recognition and to actively listen and facilitate problem solving / decision making on the part of the follower.
d. Low suppertime & low directive behavior (S4):- It is called DELEGATING. In S4, the leader discusses the problem with the sub-ordinates until joint agreement is reached and then the implementation is delegated to the sub-ordinates who have significant control for deciding how tasks are accomplished.
Best leadership style:-
Though some people claims that there is one best style that maximizes productivity, satisfaction and growth in all situations. Further research in the last several decades has clearly supported the view that there is not best leadership style: Successful leaders are able to adopt style to fit the requirements of the situation.
While the situational approach to leadership does make much sense, it is not very helpful to practicing Managers, who have to make leadership decision every day. If “it all depends on the situation” they would like to know when to use what style.
Factors influencing leadership style:-
A number of situational factors influencing the leadership style are:
• Time frames
• Job and task demands
• Organizational climate
• Skills values and expectations of supervisors, peers and sub-ordinates.
It every time all these factors have to be analyzed by the managers, it will result in a paralysis by analysis and consequent inaction.
The immediate key factor that a leader should take into account is the subordinates. In particular the amount of direction and support a leader should provide depends on the development level shown by sub ordinates on a specific tasks, function or objective that the leader is attempting to accomplish through individual or group.
Development level – It is defined as the competence and commitment of the subordinates to perform a particular task. Situational leadership identifies four development levels:
i) Low development level(D1)
ii) Low to moderate development level (D2 )
iii) Moderate to high “ “ (D3 )
iv) High “ “ (D4 )
Each of these development levels represents a different combination of competence and commitment. Development level is not a global concept, it is task specific concept people tend to be at different levels of development depending on the specific task, function or objective they are assigned.
In determining what leadership style to care with what development level, just remember that leaders need to provide their people with what they cannot do for themselves at the present.
The following table indicates the kinds of leadership styles needed for different development levels:-
Srl.No. Development level Leadership style needed
1. Low Development level (D1) Directing (S1)
2. Low to moderate dev.level ((D2) Coaching (S2)
3. Moderate to high dev. level (D3) Supporting (S3)
4. High dev. level (D4) Delegating (S4)
In nut shell, effective managers know there sub-ordinates well enough to flexibly manage ever-changing demands upon there organisations. As responsibilities and tasks are assigned to individuals or groups, development level must be assessed. The manager should their vary his/her leadership style in response to individuals development level for direction and support. It should be remembered that over the time, subordinate & subordinate group develop there own patterns of behaviour and ways.
Leadership-
Tannen boum, Washler & Massarik (1974) defined leadership as “ interpersonal influence, exercises in a situation and directed through the communication process, towards the attainment of a specified goal(s)”. i.e. leadership always involves attempts on the part of a leader (influencer) to affect (influence) the behaviour of a follow(s) (influences) in a situation.
Leadership is the activity of influencing people to strive willingly for mutual objectives – Terry (1961)
Leadership refers to the quality of the behaviour of individuals whose by they guide people of their activities in organized effort- Barnand(1956)
Communication
Meaning of Communication:-
Management at any level gets the work done through its subordinates. The manager does it by passing facts, feelings, orders, information and getting a feed back to ensure that his idea and decisions have been effectively communicated to the other end. This process of transmission and receipt of information is called communication. It is a two way process in which the sender transmits a message and the receiver responds to the communication. For properly guiding and directing the employees the manager must know their responses or reactions. The labour should have the freedom to express his own thoughts complaints and suggestions to his supervisor. Communication is, therefore, called a two way traffic.
Communication is deceived from a Latin Word “Communicate or Communico” means to share. It is not only a piece of information to be shared but a complex of ideas, attributes and emotions to be shared with others.
Communication is the transfer of information from a sender to a receiver, with the information being understood by the receiver. It is essential for the internal function of enterprises, because it integrates the managerial functions.
Especially, communication is needed:-
• To establish and disseminate goals of an enterprise
• To develop plans for their achievement
• To organizing human & resources in most effective and efficient way.
• To select, develop and appraise members of the organisation
• To lead, direct, motivate and create a climate in which people want to contribute.
• To control performance.
Purpose & function of communication.
Communication not only facilitates the managerial functions but also relates an enterprises to its external environment. It is through information exchange that Managers become aware of the needs of customers, availability of suppliers, claims of stock holders, regulation of Govt. and concerns of a community. It is through communication that any organisation becomes an open system interacting with its environment. The figure below depicts the purpose and function of communication:
Planning Organizing Staffing Leading Controlling
Communication process:-
Channels of communication:-
Generally, there are two district channels of commutation:-
1) Formal channels
2) Informal channels.
1. Formal channels are those which follow officially established and recognized channels.
a) Upward Communication :- ACM to Manager and Manager to General Manager
b) Downward Communication: - It is the opposite of upward communication.
c) Lateral Communication:- Communication amongst same level communication between Engineer(Elec.) to Engineer(Civil)
2. Informal Channels are also called grapevine because channel is not formal. They are free to move in any directions, skipping authority levels.
Choice of Communication channels:-
Proper selection of channel is very important for manager to communicate efficiency, channels differ in their capacity to convey information. Rich channels are those which have the ability to :
• handle multiple cues simultaneously
• gives a rapid feed back
• be very personal.
Similarly types of messages can be at one extreme to be “non routine and ambiguous” and at other extreme to be “routine and clear”
Now depending upon these two variables, we can select our channels:-
|Channel Richness |Types of message |Information medium |
|Riches |Non routine |Face to face take |
| |ambiguous |Telephone |
| | |e-mail |
| | |Memes |
| | |Letters |
| |Routine |Bulletins |
|Leanest |clear |General report |
Depending upon the channel richness and type of message, a manager should decide upon the appropriate medium:
Element of communication/Process of communication:
In its simple form, the communication process involves the sender, transmission of message through a selected channel & the receiver.
• Sender
• Receiver
• Media/Language – Message
Written Verbal Audio/Visual Body language
Comply
Process of communication- Store
Ignore
Barriers
Sender ……….. Receiver
Sender Receiver
a) Sender of message - Communication begins with the sender, who has a thought or an idea which is then encoded in a way that can be understood by both the sender and the receiver. While it is usual to think of encoding a message into the English language, there are many other ways of encoding, such as translating the thought into computer language.
b) Use of a channel to transmit the message- The information is transmitted over a channel that links the sender with the receiver. The message may be oral or written and it may be transmitted through a memorandum, a computer, a telephone, a telegram or a television. Television, of course, also facilities the transmission of gestures and other visual clues. At times, two or more channels are used. In a telephone conversation, for instance, two people may reach a basic agreement that they later confirm by a letter. Since many choices are available, each with advantages and disadvantages, the proper selection of the channel is vital for effective communication.
c) Receiver of the Message
The receiver has to be ready for the message so that it can be decoded into thought.. The next step in the process is decoding, in which the receiver converts the message into thoughts. Accurate communication can occur only when both the sender and the receiver attach the same or at least similar meanings to the symbols that compose the message. Communication is not complete unless it is understood. Understanding is in the mind of both the sender and the receiver. Persons with closed minds will normally not completely understand messages, especially if the information is contrary to their value system.
Barriers of Communication-
There is mismatch between the message sent and message received which is known as gap in communication. The reasons for gap in communication is termed as barriers.
| |
|Barriers |
| | | |
| | | |
|Personal |Physical |Semantic |
| | | |
Senders
The bigger the gap is, the larger the uncertainty is. The main contributors of the uncertainty is distortions, ambiguities and in congruities. These uncertainties have a negative impact on satisfaction. A less distorted message will reduce ambiguities and clarify the group’s task. Extensive use of right communication channels at the appropriate time with increase communication flow reduce, uncertainty and improve group performance. As a result, better employee satisfaction and better motivational level is achieved.
It is stated time and again that “perfect communication” is unattainable. But a proper understanding of the mechanism will equip us to communicate with lesser and lesser distortions, there by reducing uncertainty and boosting employees moral and satisfaction.
1. Personal barriers-
i) Filtering / Human emotion: - A sender often manipulates information so that it is seen more favorably by the receiver. While sending production report to General Manager, Production Manager may like to inflate the production because he thinks that it might please his boss.
ii) Perception- The receiver in the communication process selectively hear and see based on their needs, motivations, experience, back ground etc.
iii) Defensiveness: - A communications in which communicate feels that they are being threatened, they tend to be defensive, thereby reducing the chance of a meaningful communication and might engage in behaviors like shouting, making sarcastic remarks, questioning others motives etc.
iv) Listening habits: - This is needless to mention that the business is tied together by a system of communication. Effectiveness of the spoken word hinge not so much on how people talk as on how they listen. If the message is simple, clear, crisp and timely, it has a better chance to be communicated well. Listening is a skill and any skill can be improved by practicing. As a communicator or as a communicate if we know these simple traits, then our chance of sending a message well or to receive a message well increases, and both are the part of the fundamentals of effective communication.
2. Physical barriers-
i) Noise- Unfortunately, communication is affected by “noise” which is anything-whether in the sender, the transmission, or the receiver that hinders communication.
• A noise or a confined environment may hinder the development of a clear thought.
• Encoding may be faulty because of the use of ambiguous symbols.
• Transmission may be interrupted by static in the channel like an experience in a poor telephone connection.
• Inaccurate reception may be caused by inattention.
• Decoding may be faulty because the wrong meaning may be attached to words and other symbols.
• Understanding can be obstructed by prejudices.
• Desired change may not occur because of the fear of possible consequences of the change.
• Since language is an especially important factor in cross-cultural communication, not only verbal expression but also gestures and posture can result in “noise” hindering communication.
ii) Distance
In both the cases, the element responsible for communication lapses are factors like extended noise, music, shouting, noise of crowd etc. Similarly a communications sent through a distance is likely to be distorted nose.
3. Semantic barriers – It deals with science of meaning. To be precise, it is arising from the different meanings of words and symbols. The meaning may be different in the same language or there may take different meaning in different region or country or culture.
Hence, whenever we want to communicate these barriers will be there. We don’t have a common perception for overcoming these.
But once we are aware about the type of barriers, roots and causes, we will be judicious in selecting our word, selecting the media, selecting the timings and selecting the communicate.
The process is an on – going one and its different facts make it likely interesting and challenging.
.
Two way of Communication system for managing a large mine:-
For managing a large mine, it is very much necessary to have well established the way communication service. This may be done as follows:-
1) Assuming that head of the Organisation is a G.M., and at out level, head in all agent, and the responsibility of the production lies with manager of the mine. The two way communication will be from top to bottom and bottom to top.
2) G.N. will hold meeting every evening or at-east twice a week with Agent. In this meeting, he will discuss on production, safety, personnel and way related matter in connection with management of the mine.
3) The manager will hold daily meeting with ACM’s every evening in which he will discuss the detail, the instructions of G.M., the action required for production and safety including requirement of material and manpower.
4) ACM’s will discuss with the over-man, how the production can be achieved safety and efficiently.
5) The manager will discuss with the ACM everyday on the pit tap regarding the daily problems and how the same can be tackled.
6) The manager will inspect the mine 4 days a week. Some of the inspection may be in the insight shifts. During inspection he will discuss with ACM and Over-man on the status of the faces.
7) Surprise inspection by manager in odd hours- This will be done for monitoring the actual condition of the mine.
8) System of data collection regarding production, employment from every shift and every day and sending the same to the higher up. There will be also system of sending instruction depending on the production parameters.
9) Manager and Agent will have weekly meeting with the trade union to get information regarding these problem and finding out the solutions.
10) These may be grievancial set up to get the information with regard to personnel and general grievance.
11) Going through the report books there may be supplementary reports books also for the purpose of the way communication.
12) Manager will conduct the safety committee meeting which in a forum on safety matter of the way communication. This is done monthly.
13) Liaisons with outside agencies like DGMS,CMRI, CMPDIL etc for the purpose of better management of the mine.
The information collection and reaction to it may be done by Physical Communication System i.e by telephone to the addition to other means.
Two way communication at cor-porate level:
In CIL, For the purpose of promoting havemonus human relation and to achieve the coal, the following the way communication systems are operating:-
i) grievance machinery and procedure
ii) periodical bi-latest meetings with the operating trade unions at different levels.
iii) joint consultation with the central trade union at regular intervals.
iv) JBCCI ( Joint bipartite Committee for Coal Industry)
v) Standariciation Committee
vi) Committee on production and productivity limited bonus schemes.
Achieving Effective Communications:
Besides the manager’s skill with language, the effectiveness of communication also requires:-
i) a known and comprehensive communication structure.
ii) a code governing the relations among people occupying various roles; and
iii) a quality of relationship among people immediately connected with each other.
Jaques also indicates that for communications to operate effectively in hierarchical channels. “there must be freedom from anxiety at the top, and a willingness not only to receive upward communications, but essentially to exert a continuous pull to ensure that subordinates bring crucial problems forward.” Communication thus takes place within a network of human relationships. The quality of human relations naturally affects the quality of the communication. A desire and willingness to communicate must exist and an appropriate climate must be set by top management. The latter is particularly relevant in upward communications.
The Essentials of Effective Communications
The following are given as the ten principles or fundaments or guidelines for effective communications.
i) Communication objectives:- One must be very clear regarding what one wishes to communicate as well as the objective of that communication. It is necessary to decide what the receiver should know. Before communicating, it is necessary to be clear regarding the problem involved and the idea sought to be communicate. The communicator must be sure of what he really wants to accomplish through the communication or message. Does he want to obtain further information? Is it his desire that certain action must be taken? If the objective is clear, communication is more likely to succeed.
2) Avoid the Language Barrier: It is more effective to use the language of the receiver. Use words he can understand. One must therefore be familiar with the language patterns of the several types of people with whom one deals like one’s superiors and subordinates. For example, the language used at the lowest level, say in case of peons, for communication must necessarily be different in terms of sophistication. In Indian often the languages used by such persons normally vary. Thus the barriers of faulty translations must be removed.
3) Watch the Extent of Communication: The amount of communication must be adequate. One is often inclined to talk or write or write too much on aspects of little interest to the receiver. This should be avoided. As against this, communicating too little may widen the communication gap. It is therefore necessary to communicate the right amount in terms of the subject-matter, the medium used, the situation and the persons involved.
4) Determine the Adequate Medium: In terms of the objective and the situation involved, it is necessary to determine the right medium of communication like whether it should be oral, written or visual. The use of illustrations, charts and diagrams can help towards a better perception by the receiver of the communication.
5) The right Climate: Particularly in case of upward communications it is necessary to remove the organizational and international blocks that might be present. If they cannot altogether be removed, the effect of such communication barrier should be reduced. Whilst communicating, it is also desirable to consider the total physical and human setting. One of the rules of human relations, for example, is to praise in public and scold in private. The emphasis’s the importance of the physical setting of the communication. The pattern or tone of the communication is also set by the social climate or the working relationship.
6) Listen Attentively: Whilst communicating, one often ceases to listen. One’s desire is generally to be understood rather than to understand. This often results in marginal listening. Generally, the speed of the receiver’s mind is quicker than the speed of the words spoken by the communicator. This excess time is often devoted to evaluating what is being said and for preparing the answer rather than listening more attentively. The result of such marginal listening is often a lack of full understanding of what is sought to be communicated. The listener should try to project himself into the speaker’s position, if he wants to understand clearly. He must listen without evaluating. It is only after he has understood what has been said, that he should begin the evaluation process. Rogers observes that “Each person can speak for himself only after he has related the ideas and feelings of the previous speaker accurately and to that speaker’s satisfaction.
Thus, whilst one may not ultimately agree with the view expressed, it is desirable to try and understand the viewpoint clearly before evaluating. Empathic listening is what is required. This needs the skill to be able to listen for feelings and not merely for words. This skill can be developed with practice.
7) Avoid unintentional communication: When communicating, even the tone of the voice can be very expressive. When a woman lowers her voice, the chances are she wants something. When she raises her voice, it is generally because she did not get it. The tone can thus be very expressive. In addition, one often overlooks the very fact that one is communicating. When a subordinate talks to his boss, the boss often frowns unconsciously. He thereby communicates, unintentionally, that he is not happy with what is being said. A bored look, whilst somebody else is communicating is another example.
8) Realise that communication is Two-way process: Having said or transmitted the words involved does not end the communication. It is
TOWARDS AN EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION
The Communication process model introduced at the beginning of this chapter (Figure 17.2) helps identify the critical elements in the communication process. At each stage, breakdowns can occur in the encoding of the message by the sender, in the transmission of the message, and in the decoding and understanding of the message by the receiver. Certainly, noise can interfere with effective communication at each stage of the process.
Guidelines for Improving Communication
Effective communication is the responsibility of all persons in the organization, managers as well as non-managers, who work towards a common aim. Whether communication is effective can be evaluated by the intended results. The following guidelines can help over come the barriers to communication.
i) Sender of message must clarify in their minds what they want to communicate. This means that one of the first steps in communicating is to clarifying the purpose of the message and making a plan to achieve the intended end.
ii) Effective communication requires that encoding and decoding be done with symbols that are familiar to the sender and the receiver of the message. Thus the manager (and especially the staff specialist) should avoid unnecessary technical jargon, which is intelligible only to the experts in their particular field.
iii) The planning of the communication should not be done in a vacuum. Instead, other people should be consulted and encouraged to participate to collect the facts. Analyse the message, and select the appropriate media. For example a manager may ask a colleague to read an important memo before it is distributed throughout the organization. The content of the message should fit the recipient’s level of knowledge and the organizational climate.
iv) It is important to consider the needs of the receivers of the information. Whenever appropriate, one should communicate something that is of value to them, in the short run as well as in the more distant future. At times, unpopular actions that affect employees in the short run may be more easily accepted if they are beneficial to them in the long run. For instance, shortening the workweek may be more acceptable if it is made clear that this action will strengthen the competitive position of the company in the long run and avoid layoffs.
v) There is a saying that the tone makes the music. Similarly, in communication the tone of voice, the choice of language, and the congruency between what is said and how it is said influence the reactions of the receiver of the message. An autocratic manager ordering subordinate supervisors to practice participative management will create a credibility gap that will be difficult to over come.
vi) To often information is transmitted without communicating, since communication is complete only when the message is understood by the receiver. And one never knows whether communication is understood unless the sender gets a feedback. This is accomplished by asking questions, requesting a reply to a letter, and encouraging receivers to give their reactions to the message.
vii) The function of communication is more than transmitting the information. It also deals with emotions that are very important in interpersonal relationships between superiors, subordinates, and colleagues in an organization. Furthermore, communication is vital for creating and environment in which people are motivated to work toward the goals of the enterprise while they achieve their personal aims. Another function of communication is control. As explained in the discussion of management by objectives (MBO), control does not necessarily mean top-down control. Instead, the MBO philosophy emphasizes self-control, which demands clear communication with an understanding of the criteria against which performance is measured.
viii) Effective communicating is the responsibility not only of the sender but also of the receiver of the information. Thus, listening is an aspect that needs additional comment.
Motivation
Managing means creating an atmosphere or environment for effective performance to accomplish the organizational goal. A manager can do it only when he knows what motivates men to do things. Every human being is interested in one or the other activity. Sometimes individuals towards a job but don’t know why they have done it. Hence they need guidance. An executive has to guide their activity towards a desired goal. It needs knowing what leads people to do a thing or what motivates them. Therefore, motivating employees to their best is essential.
The most important problem in managing people these days is motivation. Most interpersonal and inter group problem in organizations appear to have a dominant motivational role.
The changing environmental condition makes the motivational issues even more complex and problematic.
Normally human motives are based on need.
Need--------Want---------Tension---------Action-------------Satisfaction
Thus motivation is an inner state that energizes or activates or moves behaviour towards a goal. Motivation therefore consists of three interacting and independent elements viz. need, drives and goals.
a) Need: Need means deficiency. Need are created by physiological or psychological imbalance.
b) Drive: Drive is deficiency with direction. Drives are action-oriented and provide energy towards accomplishment of goals.
c) Goal: Goal is something which will alienate a need and reduce a drive.
Thus stimulus to humans behaviuors is derived from particular response. A response is a motive which moves human behaviour. It is –
a) Caused by some reason
b) Directed towards goal consciously or unconsciously
c) Motivated to a direction.
Thus is always needed for directing the human behaviour by some incentive to achieve a goal. According to McFarland “Motivation refers to the way in which drives, desires, aspires, strivings need direction, control or explain the behaviour of human beings.
Theories of Motivation
There are a number of theories regarding motivation.
1) The interaction Theory: Organisation has three variables- groups, individuals and environment which (a) activity (b) interaction (c) sentiments (d) self interest. The human motives are product of group life and the gains of the group not just the individual. It is based on the interaction of the group and the individuals.
2) Participative Theory: Some management thinkers have said that participation is decision-making is the motive. This approach is based on the theory of Dongles McGragor. It means that by participation a worker feels involved and obeys the leader.
3) Pattern Concept: A man does something for the pleasure of achievement. If positive achievement oriented frame of mind is created in individuals they may be favourable for work. They may be motivated.
All the above facts lead to psychological factor. The most important psychological theory is the “Maslow’s Need Hierarchy”
MASLOW’s Theory of Human Motivation:
Maslow’s has given classification of needs:
i) Psychological needs
ii) Security needs ( safety needs )
iii) Involvement or social needs
iv) Esteem need
v) Self-actualization need
i) Psychological needs- At the lowest level of the hierarchy of needs are psychological needs. These are the needs which must be satisfied to maintain needs. For, air, water, rest activity and temperature etc. are included in it.
ii) Safety Needs: Once the psychological needs are satisfied, the need of security for life for service arises. These needs concern with the physical and financial security. Safety needs begin to dominate man’s behaviour.
iii) Social Needs: When these two needs are satisfied, the need of affiliation or involvement arises and one can be motivated by creating the feeling of affiliation or involvement in the organisation. These needs refer to the needs of love and social security.
iv) Esteem needs: Next in this hierarchy is esteem or egoistic needs. They include self- confidence, achievement, and competency, knowledge of facts, self-respect and freedom. These all can be expected in these three words- status, prestige and self respect.
v) Self actualization needs: The last need which motivates individual is the need of self actualization, i.e. need for perfection and attainment. These are the individual’s needs for realizing his own potentialities, opportunities for creativity and for continual development of the individual’s skill and power.
Herzberg’s Theory of motivation:
Herzberg has improved the theory of Maslow and has given a theory known as “Hygiene Theory”.
Maslow Herzberg
a) Basic Needs Salary, Personal requirement
b) Security Job security, Wlorking condition
c) Affliction Interpersonal relation company policy
quantity of policy.
d) Esteem Advancement, Recognition, Status
e) Self-Actualization. Challenging Achievement, Growth in job
Herzberg has given a two factor explanation of motivation:
i) Dissatisfier Company policy, Administration,
Supervision, Working Condition,
Status, Salary, Job Security,
Interpersonal relations, Personal life.
Their low quality and quantity in work environment is dissatisfied.
ii) Satisfier All related to job content achievement,
recognition challenging work, advance-
ment growth in job.
These are motivators.
The first group is called as hygiene or maintenance factors. Their presence will not motive people yet they must be present or dissatisfaction will arise. Motivation will not be effective if hygiene factor are missing.
The ‘Job Content” factor are real motivators and they have the potential of yielding satisfaction. Hence manager must be given attention to upgrade job contents.
Herzberg’s theory was applied in Texas Instruments by Myer’s. On the 282 employees of the firm. He concluded that motivating factor depends upon persons and opportunity.
Expectation Theory: Mr Vroom said expectation of result of each action is the motivating factor.
He says Force = Valence x Expectancy
Force - The strength of persons’ motivation.
Valence - The strength of an individual’s preference for result.
Expectation - The probability that an action will lead to a desired
Outcome.
If valence is zero or negative there can be no motivation.
If Expectancy is zero or negative then also there will be no motivation.
Mc-Clelland’s Need Theory
This theory identify three types of basic needs which motivates individuals:
i) Power need : Seeking leadership
ii) Affiliation need: Seeking affection, love and pleasure
iii) Achievement : Seeking success
Mc-clelland has said that workers and managers can be motivated by the satisfaction of these needs. These needs may be created in individuals by education. Training programmes have been successful in creating need of achievement.
Thus all the theories lead to a situation of understanding the individual behaviour.
A person’s motive structure undergoes continuous up-gradation or change. Habits, interests,goal and desire change with changing circumstances and advancing years. We are normally in the process of becoming more or less secure, more or less concerned about our interaction with other people, more or less pre-occupied with one self image and the opinions of as held beg our associates.
So, lastly we can say that a highly motivated manager is one who finds his job, fulfils his needs and he is therefore, likely to put forward more effort, to take initiative and responsibility and to be more creative in his approaches to the job. On the other hand a manager who finds his job does not fulfill his needs is likely to put forward less effort, to look for another job and to be absent a good deal.
Motivation is a management function which provides all the stimulus’s which a man needs so as to ( by a providing a motive) to act in a desired manner i.e. not only to work hard but also to work as par with manner i.e. his knowledge skill and ability permit. Possession of knowledge, skill and ability by an individual does not by itself guarantee that he will be putting his best effort in doing the job. Motive is something which exists within an individual which impels him to action. It is only when an individual is motivated properly that he will use his skill, knowledge and ability so as to produce the optimum performance. Once the needs of subordinates are determined the manager can proceed to identify the factors which are most likely to arise him to action. People work to satisfy individual and family needs and also sometimes to meet group or social pressures, defining the meets, emotions, desires etc of an individual is therefore an indispensable element the developing a sound motivational system. Motivation consists of both subjective as well as objective aspects. Need is essentially a subjective phenomena factors for motivation or desire is generally objective.
For effective performance, managers at all levels in organisation must motivate. However, a manager responsibility for motivation is largely limited by his authority and also by the philosophy of the top managements.
Motivational Techniques:-
1. People feel highly motivated when rewarded with more money. Introduction of monetary rewards/incentives such as higher pay, bonus, cash reward etc motivates people for work.
Motivation is more effective and direct when based upon individual incentives rather than group incentives.
2. Job security and promotional avenues for higher status and order recognition.
3. Motivation can be done based on human needs namely:
(a) Physiological need such as proper pay, scale of pay freich benefit etc.
(b) Security needs .e. the needs related to freedom from bodily harm, protection against danger, false and deprivation etc. For providing these, healthy trade union movements shall be encouraged.
(c) Several groups are developed in any organisation for satisfaction of social needs. Management should encourage constructive and protective groups and whenever possible change job assignment so that groups are maintained intact
Destructive groups should either be eliminated or rendered harmless. If necessary to make such scatter the member by frequently transferring them to different jobs. Attempts should however be made to turn hostile groups into constructive one through understanding and using dynamic leadership quality. Group interaction should also be encouraged.
(d) Ego needs:- These are of two kinds namely :
i) Needs relating to self respect, self confidence and achievements.
ii) Needs relating to status, recognition and prestige, attention etc.
To satisfy these needs the management should provide for promotion, status symbols, job guarantee, recognition of special achievements etc. The workers and subordinates should feel that they are doing useful job for the organisation.
(e) Self actualization need:- Management should encourage and reward creativity and thus enable the subordinate to grow and realize his full potentials.
4. Application MBO(management by objectives):- For this purposes, the manager fixes targets the consultation with individuals and appraises their performance. Thus a feeling of sense of belongingness inspires the workers to achieve the objectives.
5. Job techniques:- To remove and to improve the quality of works, steps may be taken for job rotation.
6. Introduction of competition for achievements of target with assured reward.
(Workers reluctant to ear more because of tax fear)
7. Proper and unbiased leadership also motivates workers to put in their best.
8. Useful training.
Self Motivation
Self/individual motivation is the greatest of all motivators. It is individual, specific and produces long – standing and permanent effects. The pre-requisites of self-motivation are:
i) An awareness of what motivates self i.e. ones own ambitions, desires, needs etc.
ii) Awareness of work ethics and a realization of the values of ones life and faith.
iii) Matching Carrier- A carrier not matching to ones trails / personality, a person had to adopt in life by mere force of circumstances quite contrary to his/her real desires and needs is a great hurdle for self motivation.
iv) Development of a love for ones job: The only solution to cope up with the conflicts due to non matching carriers/jobs, is to develop a liking for the job one was forced to adopt in life. The factors which help in this process are:
a) Acquisition of adequate job knowledge and skills (job training, job rotations and enlargement, job orientation etc.)
b) Identifying and developing common interests in the job situation
c) Development of hobbies related to the job
Leaving aside self motivation all other aspects of motivation are circumstantial, temporary and short lived.
Motivational technique:-
- Self- motivation
- Rewards and punishment
- Participation
- Enabling people through education, health & infrastructural facilities.
- Leadership.
Manager Vs Leader
|Manager |Leader |
|1. Manager is new ( 10th Centrry ) |Leader is old ( 18th Century) |
|2. Decides “ HOW” to achieve |Decides “What” to achieve |
|3. Has to be a leader |May or may not be a manager |
|4. Doer |Drawer / Visionary |
|5. Interested in efficiency(Machine/Material |Interested in effectiveness (Human) |
|6. Does things RIGHT |Does ‘ RIGHT’ things |
|7. Uses analytical powers |Uses charismatic powers |
|8. Manager is “WHOLE” (Planning, |Leader is “PART” |
|organizing , co-ordinators, controlling and directing) |(Influencing and directive) |
|9. Left brain oriented (Logical) |Right brain oriented (Innovative) |
|10.Interested in URGENT matters. |Interested in IMPORTANT matters. |
|11.Reactive / Active |Pro-active |
|12.Drives his men. |Guides his men. |
|13.Behaviour based |Attitude based |
|14.Sells his ideas |Makes others buy his ideas. |
Junior Most Senior
Study of traditional leader behaviour:-
Leadership refers to situational approach to manage people Dynamic and effective leadership is considered by all to be one of the major requirements of successful management. Leadership is the ability to persuade others to seek defined goals and objectives enthusiastically.
Leadership style is the pattern of behaviours used by the leader to influence the behaviour of others:
Leadership style:-
a) An automatic / directive style
b) A democratic / supportive style.
Automatic leaders used position power and there authority to get results while dichromatic leaders uses personal resources (Power) and involved others in participative problem solving and decision making.
3) Production Management: Determination of norms and standards of operations by work study, analysis of mine capacities and capability, production planning, scheduling and control, short term and long term planning, productivity, concepts and measurements, application of Ergonomics in mine operation
Application of Ergonomics in mine operation:
With the progress of Industrialization, the complexities of man – machine behaviour are increasing at a tremendous speed causing modern and sophisticated machineries or jobs to demand skills, speed, sensitivity and endurance beyond the limits of the average workers. This creates an environment of hazards on working condition:-
Ergonomics:
Ergonomics simply means fitting the proper job to proper men. It is an integral part of any occupational health service. By introduction of ergonomics, it is tried to achieve the best mutual adjustment of men and his work.
It is the application of human biological sciences in conjunction with engineering sciences to achieve the optimal mutual adjustment of men and his work. The benefit is measured in terms of human efficiency and well being. This mutual adaptation reduces tress, lightens work load and increases safety. Plant & Equipment are used more efficiently and their reliability is improved. It goal is to fit the (adopt) work to individual, as opposed to fitting workers to a work. In the process of mutual adaptation between men and his work environment ergonomics deals with:
▪ Assessment of human capabilities & limitations ( Biomechanics & Anthropology)
▪ Work and Environmental stresses including fatigue and vigilance ( Work Physiology & Industrial Psychology.)
▪ Static and Dynamic forces of human structure (Biomechanics)
▪ Design, simulation and training ( Anthropometrics & Engineering)
The goal of ergonomics is not to reduce the effort but to maximize the workers productivity at a level of effort that is not harmful to the workers. So, when definite stressors are identified in the work environment the next step is to modify work process to reduce the stressor itself by applying definite “ergonomic principles”.
Ergonomic principles:-
Some ergonomic principles applied to reduce work place stress are:
1) Principle - l
i) Design & modification of work methods:
▪ Manual labour is to be minimized where possible with simultaneous introduction of automation.
▪ Job rotation amongst workers to reduce physiological stress as well as monotony and fatigue.
ii) Correcting work postures:
▪ Bent , unnatural postures to be avoided.
▪ Keeping an outstretched either forward or sideways should be avoided.
▪ Prolonged standing working posture should be avoided
▪ A more comfortable with back rest and erect sitting posture is desirable.
2) Principle - ll
Design & modification of work spaces & work place layout for ease and speed of operation, service & maintenance:
▪ Work place should provide sufficient clearance for the work force head, torso, anns, knees, feet etc.
▪ Unless otherwise mandated by the nature of work, a seated work place should be designed for work, keeping in mind the following:
- Upper ann and lower legs are vertical.
- Fore ann and thing are horizontal.
- The seat backrest supports the inward curvature of the spine (lumar region)
- The weight of the upper body is evenly distributed on large surface over buttocks and thigh.
One of the important functions of OHS is surveillance of the adoption of jobs to workers with respect to their Physical abilities, participation in the rehabilitation and retaining of handicapped workers – ergonomics & job analysis has to be applied.
As per recommendation of 10th Safety conference – Under proposed environmental surveillance in every mine at periodic intervals, ergonomics assessment of all latest machines, before their introduction into mining operation should be done.
Ergonomics assessment should include:
▪ Assessment of work process
▪ Assessment of working aids/tools
▪ Assessment of working posture.
Ergonomics- It deals with the functions and measurement of ability, endurance, skill and sensibility of a human being in terms of anatomy, physiology and psychology with relationship of engineering. It helps to match the human skills and intelligence needful for the operation of machines. It aims to enable a man to work with optimum physical and mental comfort and to use his senses with best effects.
Attributes of physical behaviour to the hazards:-
• Forcing workers into difficult and dangerous postural attitudes by wrongly positioned apparatus.
• Providing restricted access to machines for repair and maintenance.
• Wrongly designed sitting arrangement which forces a poor body position lading to aches, pains, postural deformities and probably series injuries.
• Lack of handles or some proper means of carrying cases, boxes etc. enforces dangerous holds and leads to a tense, over strenuous work.
Elimination of hazards :-
Many of the hazards associated with manual work can be eliminated if the following rules/Principles are observed:-
i. Correct grip:- A full palm grip enables this arms to be kept straight and permit the load to be distributed over the whole of the body.
ii. Arms close to body:- This is of vital importance the whole body is implied to carry the load and the frame work can support tremendous weight without stress. Carrying on the back is shoulder is the best procedure. If the object must be supported by the arms in front of the body, the arms must be kept straight as close to the body as possible.
iii. Chin In:- Tucking in the chin locks the vertebrae and prevents injury in the cervical region.
iv. Flat Back:- The adoption and maintenance of a flat back during effort elements compression of the abdomen contents. There is no uneven stress on the disks and back muscles are not subjected to sever stress. This position with proper foot position provides a definite mechanical advantage that reduces the work done to absolute minimum and even heavy can be done in safe and easy manner.
v. Foot Position:- For any action, the body is required to be at a balanced state and the position must be comfortable. Facing the fact a hip-breath apart gives a large base and balance is assisted in a lateral direction. Putting one foot forward and to the side of an object to be moved gives on even bigger base and balance in all directions. The knees now can be bent to lower the body vertically, allowing the back to be kept flat and in fact, permitting all other principles to be employed in proper manner.
Physical consideration for safe job performance:-
Some physical specification can be established to assist in assuring that job assignments will not be made which insight bring home to the workers and or their colleagues. These are enumerated below:-
i. Near vision acuity – Excellent near vision is needed for dangerous in active operations.
ii. Far Vision:- Excellent far vision is required for crane operation, locomotive engine driving, truck/dumper driving, work around dangerous power machine etc.
Vision can be improved by wearing proper glasses / leucosis and improving illumination level, reduction of glove, judicious application of contrast, increasing the time available for seeing etc.
iii. Colour Percepher:- Red, Green, amber colour perception is essential for HEMM/ vertical operation.
iv. Depth perception:- Depth perception has an important bearing on the ability to judge the relative speed of moving vehicles and is a physical requirement for vehicle driver, crake operator, shovel operation etc.
v. Hearing and nose:- Exposure the exceptionally loved noise can cause permanent damage to hearing Ear plug or ear muffle should be provided to the workers who are continuously exposed to such environment.
vi. Design feature:- Human engineering or ergonomics can play a great role in “Safety Management“. No few human being are identical, and therefore, the designer will have to give proper allowance in the design of machines, sittings arrangements, visibilities etc.
4) Financial Management, Capital budgeting, techniques for mining project, project evaluation, pay back period and IRR, methods of cost analysis and cost control, break even charts, working capital management, ERP ( Enterprises Resource Planning).
ERP:- The need for a integrated solution for mining business process- Information Technology (IT) and its applications in the mining industry in India is not an alien idea altogether. For about last two decades, reasonable sincere attempts have been made to apply computers and IT in the mining industry specific areas. Notable among them are Post Exploration Analysis and Mine Planning through extensive use of MINEX, DATAMINE and SURPACK or similar packages. The modules in the packages are Borehole data system, Geological Modeling System, Mine Reserve System, Mine schedule system, Mine survey system.
Apart from applications in mine modeling or other core mine planning activities, IT applications in business process areas of typical mining industries are not quite unknown. Piparwar of Central Coalfields Ltd (CCL) is the one mine in India where serious attempts were made to integrate all the business functions like production, HEMM, E&M Maintenance, Materials Management, Cost Accounting, Financial Accounting, Budget & Budgetary Control, Plant Maintenance, Sales & Despatch, Personnel etc. At Gevra of South Eastern Coalfields (SECL0, the functional areas like production planning & Control, Truck despatch system, Equipment Maintenance System.
Personnel Management System, Payroll System, Survey Data Management System, Coal Billing System are computerized. At Rajmahal of Eastern Coalfields Ltd., a computerized automatic Truck Despatch System (TDS) was introduced was introduced to optimize the utilization of the HEMM and assist in quality control. The computerized maintenance planning system and control system monitors equipment and component inventory, preventive maintenance, work order issuance and maintain historical data for each piece of equipment.
All these had played their important roles in raising awareness level about the possibilities of IT application in the mining industry. In their own way each of them had a positive effect on creation of the overall understanding of the potentials of IT. As is seen in similar situations, these attempts resulted into independent, stand alone systems running in isolation in various parts of the enterprise. They had no on line interaction among them selves and essentially catered to specific user departments like production, projects, finance, materials management, sales and marketing etc. Obviously, they could not be integrated together in absence of effective and reliable data communication system and hence they did not address to information needs of Top management for their decision making. Another problem was that the traditional communication system in Indian mines are voice-oriented, which carries only analogue signals. Hence they are inherently slow, noisy and unfit for data transmission.
A outcome of this kind of isolated scenario was that in may cases same data is entered and repeated in different systems resulting into little data consistency. Data was mainly entered from secondary sources like vouchers, so chances of inaccuracies increased. Centralized monitoring of business indexes was also not possible.
Hence for a typical mining industry a need for development of a total on line business solution for encompassing all areas of management is being felt. It is increasingly being understood that what is required is a single, integrated, unified system solution for the entire enterprise naturally, a need arises for a single solution for all user and application areas like MM, Finance, Equipment management etc. The above two, when combined together by a Wide Area Network for on line access, updating and maintenance gives rise to a solution, which is popularly known as Enterprise Resource Planning (ERP).
Enterprises Resource Planning:-
Integration of the enterprise processes in a mining industry is quite complex, because of the complexity of the mining processes, the geographical dispersions and the uncertainties due to geological reasons. Essentially that is the driver for the technology solutions need to be developed on the specific requirements. The key requirements are basically meeting the needs of information exchange and to manage the enterprise strategy and direction. These requirements can be addressed by the introduction of enterprise planning systems for mining enterprise. The most common classifications for enterprise planning systems are ERP and EAM which stands for Enterprise Asset Management.
Enterprise resource planning (ERP) – ERP is really a business tool, which seamlessly integrates all the functional disciplines of a mining organization like production, project management, finance, materials management equipment management, personnel management etc., thus providing an effective means to integrate an enterprise and achieve the future state in the transformation plan. It thus helps an organisation putting it resources to the best possible use. The roots of ERP lie in Material Requirements Planning (MRP) which evolved into Manufacturing Resources Planning (MRPII). An subset of ERP is Enterprise Asset Management (EAM), which evolved from the concept of computerized maintenance management systems which meet the needs of maintenance departments of any organisation to schedule planned maintenance and breakdown repairs for the fixed and mobile plant. This concept has been suitably expanded to include the efficient usage of all assets, including human resources and inventory. EAM systems are typically used in enterprisers where there is only one product such as coal, iron or water or electricity. These organizations rely heavily on the availability of their capital equipment for their success. In these organizations the goal is not to respond to market change but to provide maximum ‘up time’
Benefits of ERP:-
In a typical mining industry scenario, with widely dispersed production units, the benefits are manifold, the most practical and tangible ones are:
▪ Data entry only once, on line and at the points of use.
▪ An optimal solution combining hardware, software and telecommunication system.
▪ Ability to view, up-date, manipulate, access any data from any level and any location.
▪ Ability to “Drill down” from summary information to the lowest level ( document/voucher level)
▪ User-friendly graphic interface.
▪ “Virtual enterprise” at any level, protected by access control and security protocols.
▪ Better decisions at all levels.
▪ Right information at right time for right people.
▪ Improved productivity, capacity utilization and financial performance due to better decisions.
▪ One single system concept combining all sites.
▪ Can navigate from any module to another.
▪ Clean, accurate, consistent, updated data at any node at any location.
▪ No redundancy or duplication of data.
▪ Analysis with multi-disciplinary data cross multi-company boundaries possible at a click of a mouse.
▪ Wed-enabled solution, hence can send any on line data/information/memos through an intra-net from any location to other.
▪ Centralized on-line monitoring of any defined business index. Work flow integration.
Selection of an ERP package
Thus ERP solutions are essentially flexible, modular, scalable software packages, which oftener than not, needs little customization to meet specific customer needs. Most of the ERP packages are feature rich and acts a enterprise wise enablers for optimizing the business process.
The process of selecting a particular ERP package is very complex and requires objective comparison metric to choose a solution from amongst a host of “top of the run” packages available in the market. One way to do it is to define the overall business goals and then map the available features in the various packages to the specific business objectives.
When planning to buy a ERP solution for a Coal mining industry, a similar problem was encountered. The need for objective evaluation was more pronounced as the selection was required to be made through international competitive bidding.
For coal industry, selection of an ERP package should be done based on specifications of the systems in the following logical sequence:
▪ Overall system requirement
▪ Scope of supply
▪ General Requirements of the Software system.
▪ Other system requirements
▪ Brief specifications of the modules of the system.
5) Mining Environment: ELA (Environment Impact Assessment), EMP(Environment Management Plan), ETP ( Effluent Treatment Plant), STP (Sewerage Treatment Plan) threat to environment from underground and surface mining, means of mitigation, treatment of pollutants, monitoring systems, water management, mine closure plan, P & R ( rehabilitation and resettlement).
Introduction- Mining of minerals is associated with serious environmental damages. It is true that mining has necessarily to take place where minerals occur. Nevertheless, in consonance with our country’s policy for protection of the environment and eco-balance, the industry has to ensure that mining operations are carried out in an environmentally compatible manner. As such, environmental management has become as important as mine management or financial management or personnel management.
In the past, projects-whether industrial or mining –were started exclusively on the basis of project economics, with emphasis on profits. In the later years, the concept of “techno economics” was accepted and adopted. In the wake of growing awareness for protection of the environment, a spate of environmental legislations were introduced and mining operations are subject to compliance with such environmental statutes. Mining in forest land is governed by the Forest (Conservation) Act 1980 and Guidelines issued there-under. Govt. of India have stipulated that the approval to the mining projects are conditional and subject to clearance from the environmental angle.
To facilitate scrutiny of mining project from environmental angle, the project proponent is required to submit to the Ministry of Environment and Forests, Govt. of India (MOEF), “Environmental Management Plan” more commonly known as EMP. Pre-requisites for environmental clearance for coal projects include furnishing by the project proponents.
• Master Plan giving broad plan of exploitation of coal for all the Blocks in the Coalfield.
• EMP for the Coalfield.
• EMP for the Coal Project, in question.
Govt. of India have directed that Environmental Management Groups should be created in all major developmental agencies to prepare and implement EMPs.
In today’s context, all those who are concerned with the mining sector, whether mine planners mine operation or mining regulatory authorities, are required to understand and be familiar with EMP for mining projects.
ENVIRONMENT & EMP
For understanding EMP, one should know the meaning of environment. Environment is the complex aggregated of external conditions which affect the file, development and survival of all organisms. Environment embraces air, water, land flora & fauna and many more. It is made up of biophysical and socioeconomic elements.
Environment management in mining parlance has in fact extensive coverage. For underground mines, the environment relates primarily to work place environment. It essentially covers management to work place environment. It essentially covers management of gas, dust, high rock temperatures, humidity, and wastes (hazardous or innocuous), Mining would interfere with surface and subsurface water resources & aquifers, mining causes surface damage due to subsidence, and water pollution is caused by mining operations. Occurrence of mine fires is another problem further complicating already complex environmental scenario. In the case of open case mining, whilst the various environmental problems hitherto elaborated exist, major environmental impact is extensive damage to the surface, leading to total and immediate despoliation of landscape, destruction of flora and fauna affecting eco-balance and human habitation. Whilst the qualitative and quantitative pollution is influenced by several factors i.e. nature of mineral, technology for mineral winning, beneficiation etc, the basic environmental problems are more or less common. Environmental Management Plan (EMP) for Mining Project has to address itself to the gamut of environmental problems as above.
EMP for Mining Project is essentially Environmental Readiness Document, which has to fulfill following objectives:
o Conform to National and Regional Environmental policies and priorities.
o Attainment of National and Regional Environmental performance Standards.
o Compliance with Environmental Statute, Mine Rules and Instructions of DGMS governing mining operations in an environmentally compatible manner.
o Assessment of preminig environmental scenario and environmental impacts arising out of various mining operations for different mining technology options.
o Pollution Control Technology and Mined Land Reclamation Alternatives and identifications of Cost effective technology including assessment of funds for environmental management of the mining project.
o Action plan (time bound) for environmental management of the mining project.
EMP for the coal project has to dovetail into EMP for the Coalfields.
EMP has to recognize that mining envisages interim land use and not final land use. One of objectives of EMP should be restrict environmental and land degradation to the minimum and to aim at corrective measures concurrently with mining operations and if this is not possible, with least time gap. Of late, there has been great emphasis for concurrent reclamation and reclamation consists with premining land potential and land capability, instead of premining land use.
CONTENTS OF EMP
This should include the follow:
Introduction:-
• The Project
• Objectives of EMP
• Environmental Management Priorities
• Plan of Action
Description of the mining project-
• The Overall project.
• Project location, extent, starting & time schedule, target and phased mineral production, project cost etc.
• Project facilities, communication ( road network, railway)
• Project requirements: Land, Water, Transport, Services, Housing.
• Project constructing.
• Project Operation and phasing.
Environmental Management & Land Reclamation Objectives.-
• Legal or regulatory requirements
• Company Policy and procedures
• Local or regional objectives.
• Relevant standards or guidelines
• Future land use.
Base Line Environmental Data:
➢ Site description:- Topography, drainage, meteorological conditions, land classification and use.
➢ Four season data on ambient air, noise and water quality over adequate number of stations.
➢ Surroundings: Land use, population, and infrastructure.
➢ Socio-economic profile covering population (sex-wise and age-wise) distribution, literacy level, occupation and income pattern, crops and their yield, migration tendency etc.
➢ Inventory of flora and fauna with special reference to endangered species of flora and fauna.
➢ Special Topics as Relevant: Soils, vegetation, water balance, hydrology, atmospheric conditions.
➢ Where forest land is involved, all information and data relating to evaluation of loss of forests, cost benefit analysis, as elaborated in the guidelines under The Forest (Conservation) Act.
Environmental Impact Assessment
Socio-economic profile
i. Social aspect
ii. Economic aspect
iii. Land ousters
Air Pollution
i. Inventory of sources of air pollution.
ii. Quantitative assessment of pollutants by air quality modeling for identified time horizons & corroborated by observed values (in the same Coalfield or comparable other Coalfields) for similar conditions.
Water Pollution
i. Effect of mining and associated operations on surface and ground water sources.
ii. Identification of possible sources causing water pollution to identified time horizons based on modeling or comparison or qualitative data for similar conditions ( coal projects in the same coalfield or other comparable Coalfields).
Noise Pollution
i Inventory of noise sources, identification of high noise mining and associated activity centre, identifications of high noise plant and equipment.
ii. Noise level at strategic locations and high noise activity centres, control area, residential colony etc.
Ecology and habitat
i. Land –
❖ Effect of mining and associated operations on land use pattern.
❖ Degradation of land and soil (including soil wash off soil erosion etc.)
❖ Aesthetics (P.B. dumps, reject/ waste piles, dug quarries etc.)
ii. Degradation of forest area.
iii. Effect of mining and associated operations on flora and fauna of the area.
Ground vibration
Cause effect relationship between explosive ( type and charge) use and ground vibration.
Assessment of other hazards
This would include toxic substances , acid mine drainage etc.
Environmental Impact Matrix (without control measures).
Environmental Management of the Project-
Management of Air Pollution
• Control measures for dust (especially respirable dust) and gases.
• Chemical additives for dust suppression.
• Methodology of stock piling of coal at mine head to minimize spontaneous combustion and consequent air pollution.
• Mechanised soft coke making as replacement for soft coke making by traditional ‘open bahatta’ method.
Management of Water Pollution
• Cost effective treatment method in reference to ( each of ) inventory of water pollution.
• Conservation of water.
• Close water circuit for CHP Coal Washery etc.
• Management of surface runoff.
Management of Noise Pollution
• Control / abatement of noise at source.
• Planning noise abatement at pre-engineering and design stage.
• Noise abatement by proper operation and maintenance.
• Vegetative plantations for noise absorption.
• Personal safety measures.
Management of Socio-Economic Environment:
• Community development including adoption of villages(close to the project)
• Rehabilitation Scheme for land oustees.
• Infrastructural development.
• Employment opportunities & vocational training.
Management of Degradation
In addition to tree plantation, arboriculture in the project area, landscaping to improve aesthetics and prevention of pollution.
Environment Impact Matrix (With Control Measures)
For each of the above themes, following details should be give:
o Source of impacts.
o Predicted levels of impacts with quantitative assessment or by modeling, as is relevant and appropriate.
o Control measures which can meet environmental standard or achieve environmental goals.
o Technical specifications and performance of control measures.
o Forecast of cost for measures.
Mined Land Reclamation.
• Justification for land and its extent demanded for mining and /or associated operations.
• Top soil management.
• Overburden and waste management.
• Calender or 5 year / 10 year interval Stage Reclamation plan consistent with predetermined post mining land use.
• Final Reclamation Plan.
EMP Implementation & Monitoring
• Responsibility of Implementation and monitoring.
• Specific and time bound implementation arrangements for dust control, effluent treatment reclamation etc.
• Monitoring programme for implementation of sanctioned EMP.
• Staff and Infrastructure requirement
• Modality for periodic environmental quality.
• Environmental Management Budget.
Check list and questionnaire of MOEF duly filled in.
MINING IN FOREST LAND
When mining in forestland is involved, project proponent is required to comply with the provisions of the Forest (Conservation) Act 1980 and Guidelines issued by Ministry of Environment and Forests, from time to time. Use of forestland for locating townships is not permitted and only minimal requirement of forest land which is required for mining of minerals is considered.
Following aspects are important:
➢ Coal Benefit Analysis
➢ Rights laden forest land
➢ Compensatory Afforestation in
❑ non forest land
❑ denuded forest land Rehabilitation of affected population.
Rehabilitation of population affected by mining operations
Questionnaire seeking preliminary Information relating to environmental impacts of mining operations, lays considerable emphasis on existence of under mentioned features within 10 km radius.
➢ Human Settlements ( with population details )
➢ Agricultural Land ( details of crops)
➢ Water Impoundments and Courses
➢ Fishery
➢ Environmentally sensitive features.
EMP will have to bring out short term and long term effects of mining on human settlements. Apart from the population being ousted and uprooted from their traditional vocations, cultural shock cannot be ignored.
Rehabilitation plan has to consider human aspect of the problem besides dealing with following issues satisfactorily.
➢ provision of plots with spot water supply, drainage and minimal civic amenities etc.
➢ opportunities for self employment by improving skills and providing basic tools, implements etc.
➢ shifting allowance and facilities to land oustees for building their houses on the plots.
➢ schools, health centre facilities etc.
CONCLUSION
Essential features of a good EMP may be summed up as follows:
i. It should fulfill environmental goals and meet environmental performance standards governing mining operations.
ii. Time gap between first damage and commencement of environmental protection measures should be minimum.
iii. Reclamation should, as far as possible, be concurrent with mining operations. Biological reclamation and not physical reclamation should be the objective. Mining should be treated as interim land use and not the ultimate land use.
iv. Choice of mining technology and mining operations should meet environmental considerations. Project cost which should include environmental protection cost should justify and favour investment decision. Conomics, Technology and Environment should be mutually reinforcing.
v. It should be amenable for periodic monitoring to gauge effectiveness of the measures implemented and permit additional measures to ensure fulfillment of environmental goals and attainment of environmental performance standards.
There is an adage ---“ Where there is a well there is a way “. This is very much relevant to Indian mining industry. No amount of legislation, regulations for protection of the environment would work, unless the mine managers, from grass root level to top echelon, whole heartedly accept their social responsibility – to carry out mining operations without depriving the community their right to breathe fresh air and drink clean water. The success of EMP lies in acceptance of this philosophy.
Coal Production in India.
According to a survey made by the year 2020 India will probably have an annual production rate and annual production growth which will be 4th and 2nd respectively in the world. If we find environmentally safer ways to mine, transport and burn coal it would be the best bet for the next several hundred years.
Coal Mining in India: Mining of Coal is among the most arduous labours that man is called upon to perform. The condition in coal mines are generally extremely difficult, the working places being several hundred meters below the ground surrounded by poisonous and dangerous gases with weak roofs and unstable working areas. The growth of Indian coal industry has achieved very high rate since independence, especially after nationalization and this is accompanied by production of large volumes of hazardous solid, liquid and gaseous material during various mining and related activities, polluting the otherwise clean environment. If these are not properly handled, adequately treated and carefully disposed of, the effect could be disastrous to man kind and detrimental to aquatic and terrestrial flora and fauna.
Environmental disturbances due to coal Mining
In creasing the nation’s output of coal at a faster rate is possible only with giant open cast projects. The O.C. mining results in a constant decline of cultivate or afforested area as it involves the removal of overburden to exploit the underlying valuable coal deposits. Stripping of the overburden from the coal seam is divesting to the environment at the surface area of the digging side. Vegetation is removed, micro flora and micro organism are destroyed, soil, sub-soil and underlying strata are ruptured and displaced, wild like scatter or die, air quality is temporarily degraded, and surface is exposed to meteorological alteration, weather and general topography changes. Thus surface mining process in general disturbs the ecological balance which is a part of our environment. This eco-system is changed due to excavation and deforestation resulting in soil crosion, landslip, land subsidence and flooding etc. Various problems such as water, air, noise pollution and land degradation etc. are also associated with it. Thus potential impacts generated by mining activities includes – (1) Impacts on landscape (2) Impacts on land use (3) Impacts on flora and existing vegetation, (4) Impacts on water quality, (5) Impacts on micro-meteorological parameters (6) Acoustic impacts (7) Un pacts on socio-economical structure of community.
Environmental protection measures in coal industry.
Of late, there has been an increasing awareness for protecting and restoring the mine environment in the coal industry. Every mining project at its conceptual stage now introduces a requisite environmental assessment and management plan (EMP). EMP for every new and old mines will include the impact assessment of mining activities on environment. In addition to this mining industry is regulated by mine development and reclamation act so as to ensure land restoration.
Purpose of assessment
The basic reason for such assessment is to allow an informed public and professionals to make intelligent choices among alternative courses of action. That is, an environmental assessment is intended to present a clear and concise picture of the benefits and costs in terms of natural and cultural assets, as well as social values associated with various alternative course of action. Environmental assessment is a valuable tool in eliminating or mitigating undesirable effects on the environment that arise from contemplated actions.
National Environmental Policy Act and EIS
In January 1970 the National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA) became public law in United States of America. Though they have a number of legislations for controlling pollution of water, air etc. and for different kinds of pollution. e.g. noise pollution hazard etc. in many countries there was no act for protecting the environment in totality. NEPA necessitated the preparation of environmental impact statement (EIS) to ensure that all environmental indices have been considered. Procedurally an environmental impact statement is a detailed written statement that provides discussion of significant environmental impact associated with a proposed mining project and informs decision makers and public of reasonable alternatives that would avoid or minimize adverse impacts or enhance the quality of human environment.
Every coal project implementation in view of environmental protection is regulated by central and state legislation through a series of mandated permits, approvals, notifications and coordination agreements which are based on loosely coordinated family of environmental legislation Acts. The requirement under these Acts are to be followed strictly while preparing frame work of EMP and EIS, potential impact of project development on the natural development is constrained by legislation as illustrated in Fig 1.
6) Economic impact of Mining: Economics of mining, effect on community – before, during and after mining, corporate social responsibility ( CSR)
Corporate social responsibility (CSR):- Managers operate in a complex environment. They are affected by – and to some extend influence – the environment. In their decision making, managers must consider the external environment. Technology provides many benefits but also some problems. Increasingly, firms are considering the impact of managerial actions on the ecological environment. Many business corporations and other organizations are making serious efforts to establish an environment that is beneficial to individuals, business and society.
In past profit maximization was the basic objective of any firm/business organisation, however modern outlook is different. Now a day, a reasonable level of profit is not only compatible with the concept of a socially responsible business organisation but also necessary for the discharge of social obligations and responsibility.
Corporate social responsibility is a concept whereby organizations consider the interests of society by taking responsibility for the impact of their activities on customers, employees, shareholders, communities / society and the environment in all aspects of their operations. CSR requires that organizations seriously consider the impact of their actions on society.
A concept that is newer, but still very similar to social responsibility, is social responsiveness, which in simple terms means “the ability of a corporation to relate its operations and policies to the social environment in ways that are mutually beneficial to the company and to society. Determining the appropriate relationships between various organizations and society is not an easy task. However, there is now a general recognition that the responsibility of business goes beyond profit maximization.
In recent times, the discharge of CSR has assumed great importance. This obligation is seem to extend beyond the statutory obligation to comply with legislation and sees organizations voluntarily taking further steps to improve the quality of life for employees and their families as well as for the local community and society at large.
The scale and notice of the benefits of CSR for an organisation can vary depending on the nature of the enterprise, and are difficult to qualify. CSR can play a role in building customer loyalty based on distinctive ethical values.
Social Accountability (SA8000) is the first international certification on social responsibility. Its main objective is to guarantee worker’s right, in such a way that everyone involved wins; companies, workers, trade unions, govt. It is the first global standard for CSR and is based on both international human rights conventions and satisfying relevant local legislation. It aims to guarantee basic rights of workers involved in the production process.
Requirements of SA 8000:-
• Prohibition of child labour
• “ “ forced labour
• Assurance of health and safety
• Freedom to organize and collective bargaining have to be guaranteed.
• Discrimination not permitted
• Disciplinary practices not permitted
• Max. working hours not to exceed.
• Sufficient remuneration.
Corporate Social responsibility-
a) CSR towards Customers/Consumers: -
• To supply quality goods at reasonable price
• To provide prompt after sales service
• To avoid creation of artificial scarcities
• To hear and redress genuine grievances of the customers.
• To understand customers need and to satisfy them by either improving upon the product or by other means.
b) CSR towards Employee:-
• Fair selection, training and promotion of employees.
• Fair wages and adequate incentives to them.
• Safe and comfortable working conditions.
• Workers participation in management.
• Labour welfare scheme.
• Installation of an efficient grievance handling system.
c) C S R towards Govt.
• Complying with al govt. regulations and legal requirements.
• Paying taxes honestly.
• Executing govt. contracts.
• Working as a willing partner with govt. in pursuit of public welfare.
d) CSR towards shareholders.
• Managing the business profitably.
• Ensuring fair and regular return on capital employed.
• Consolidating the financial position.
• Building image and reputation in the market.
e) CSR towards community and environment:
• To prevent environmental pollution and to preserve the ecological balance.
• Assisting in overall development of the locality
• Giving jobs to the local people
• Promotion of small –scale and auxiliary industries.
• Contribute to causes such as promotion of education and literacy in the locality
• To conserve scarce local resources and to develop alternatives.
CSR activities by a major coal company:
• Health and sanitation (health camps like eye camps, family planning etc, awareness programme), periodic homeopathic camps.
• Mobile medical services.
• Awareness programmes like anti-aids, anti-tobacco, anti-alcoholic etc.
• Surrounding habitat assistance programme (SHAPE)
➢ No. of works identified by local bodies in associated with Rural Development Agencies of State Government in and around the mining area.
➢ Quantum of assistance provided by company for such programmes
➢ Literacy drive for employees and women
➢ Distribution of free books
➢ Education- No. of schools/colleges made/run by the company, establishment of libraries.
➢ Drinking water supply to local community
➢ Sports.
• Roads - total length of road constructed in kms and no. of bridges with cost thereof.
• Lighting
• No. of Schools financed/supported independently or jointly with State Govt.
• Scholarship of meritorious students.
• Income generation to physically handicapped persons.
• Banks / Post Offices
• Market Development
• Other Welfare measures
• Self generating earning schemes through structured training programme as well as to facilitates recruitment in different organisations.
• No. of co-operatives being run.
• Monthly monetary compensation to take care of livelihood of medical unfit cases.
• Jobs to dependents in case of death and medical unfit.
• Free supply of LPG ( to employees) for reduction of air pollution.
• Education / training to local people on environmental issues.
Social audit :
Performance of social responsibility of any organisation is evaluated by social audit. Social audit is defined as a commitment to systematic assessment of and reporting on some meaningful, definable domain of the company’s activities that have a social impact.
One may distinguish between the two types of audits. One is required by the government and involves pollution control, product performance requirement and equal employment standards. The other kind of social audit concerns a great variety of voluntary social programmes.
It is rather difficult to determine what areas the social audit should encompass. Often the items include pollution and the hiring, training and promotion of minorities, but there are many other areas such as general electric developed a matrix that facilities the analysis of the expectations of customers, investors, employees, communities and other claimants in the following areas:
• product and technical performance.
• economic performance,
• employment performance
• environment & natural resources
• community welfare & development
• government business relations
• international trade and development.
Another difficulty is determining the amount of money an enterprise spends in selected areas. But cost alone is an inadequate measure. It does not necessarily indicate the results of social involvement. Other problems are the collection of data and their presentation in a way that accurately reflects the social involvement of an enterprise. There is no doubt that many difficulties are associated with a social audit, but there is evidence that many companies and other organisation honestly attempt to address themselves to this challenge.
Chapter -7
Material Management for mining sector, ABC analysis, Inventory Management.
Materials Management for Mining Sector
Introduction:- In Mining Industry, particularly coal industry, which is extraction industry, raw material is not required as in manufacturing companies, stores and spares required in producing coal account for 12 to 35 % of cost per tonne depending on degree of mechanization.
For better return on investment (ROI), the materials should be purchased at the best ultimate value of the rupee and equipment selection should be done in a systematic and scientific manner keeping in view that it is capital expenditure.
Materials management may be thought of as an integrated functioning of the different sections of a company dealing with the supply of materials and other related activities so as to obtain maximum co-ordination and optimum minimum expenditure on materials. It involves controlling the type, amount, location, movement, timings of purchase of various materials etc used in an industrial concern.
Functions under materials management:- Materials management department of any organisation basically undertakes the following:
i) Provisioning materials planning & forecasting
ii) Purchasing
iii) Transportation of materials
iv) Materials handling
v) Receiving and inspection
vi) Store keeping
vii) Disposal
viii) Inventory control
ix) Market research
x) Standardization, variety reduction, codification.
xi) Source development & import substitution
xii) Value analysis.
Components of materials managements:
Material management has two components-
• Purchase Department
• Stores Department
Objectives of materials management:-
a) Objectives of Purchase department-
• Right quality (Profitability):- To purchase materials of correct quality.
• Right quantity (inventory management)- To purchase materials in correct quantity.
• Right time ( lead time)
• Right source- To select right supplier, to deliver at right store and to maintain good supplier’s relation.
• Right price – Delivery at the appropriate rate/ most economic price to meet the demand and maximum efficiency at lowest cost.
b) Activities of Purchase Department
• Asking for tenders for approved requirements with right specifications.
• Evaluations of tenders
• Consideration by a Committee including negotiation.
• Approval of purchase and issue of supply order / RC as the case may be
• Progressing of supplies
• Settlement of bills & claims if any
• Value analysis
• Vendor rating
• Market research.
c) Objectives of Stores departmental
i) To maintain proper and efficient store keeping
ii) To ensure pre-determined service level. The inventory has to be maintained at a reasonable/pre-determined level with minimum stock out.
d) Activities of Stores department
• Receipt of materials after proper inspection
• Settlement of bills of venders.
• Proper storing & issuing.
• To ensure that there is no deterioration of material.
• To be vigilant to ensure that there is no pilferage
• Disposal of unwanted materials.
• Provisioning with help of production
• Periodic stock verification.
• Codification & standarisation.
• Transportation
• Inventory control.
• Carrying out of various types of analysis.
i. Determining minima, maxima & EOQ etc.
ii. Maintaining stock at pre-determined service levels as laid down in terms of .Co’s policy.
iii. Determining surplus for disposal
iv. Lead time analysis.
Integrated materials management:-
It has been observed that the roles of the various department under materials management is conflicting. While the purchase department tries to buy bulk quantities at a time to avail of discounts, the stores deptt has to ensure pre-determined level of inventory without stock out. There will be limitation of fund and thus any item can not be purchased in any quantity as may be desired by the purchase department. Thus the functions of the purchase and store departments are quite conflicting. The management will not like lot of funds to be locked up in the shape of inventory.
In order to co-ordinate all the activities of the materials management, which are quite conflicting, the modern concept is to have an integrated approach and to keep the various functions like stores management, procurement management, inspection etc under one head. This concept is known as integrated materials management.
Advantages:-
i. It helps in better co-ordination with users department.
ii. It exerts strong influence on such activities as standardization, specifications and value analysis systems.
iii. There is complete co-ordination in all functions relating to procurement such as materials planning, procurement, inspection, storing, inventory control etc. Thus there is clear understanding that all activities are only different stages of a total function i.e. procurement of stores with the objective of locking up least capital with minimum stock out.
iv. This setup helps in better co-ordination with suppliers.
v. The accountability of the department is well defined.
Functions of materials management-
Systematic materials planning and budgeting is an important function of materials management since it directly affects the cost per tonne and the working capital.
Materials planning is a method of determining the requirements of raw materials, other consumable stores, spares and components to meet the production demands without interruption within the financial frame work of the company. Accurate sales forecast is essential for proper materials planning. While planning the materials, the following points are to be kept in view:-
• Price trends
• Business cycle
• Import policy
• Credit policy
• Corporate objectives
• Plant capacity utilization
• Lead time
• Inventory control
• Rejection rates
• Delegation of power
Methods of materials planning-
i) Bills of materials: Requirements of various materials is worked out from sales forecast. Bills of materials give the list of materials, unit consumption etc. for a given component.
ii) Past consumption trends: For materials with continuous consumption, this method is very effective. In this the requirement are worked out based on past consumption, past production and expected production. Thus average requirements are worked out and cushion can be provided for safety based on standard deviation from the mean.
After the requirements are worked out, the materials budgets should be prepared. The budget could indicate quantity as well as money / value. It should also take into account the inventories in stores and quantities which are due on order.
ABC analysis: -
ABC analysis & VED analysis are basically the inventory analysis.
Necessity-
As the size of the industry increases, the number of items to be purchased and then to be taken care of also increases. Purchase and control of all items at a time and in bulk much before their use, irrespective of their usage value, price or procurement problems, blocks and involves a lot of money and man hours and is therefore uneconomical.
ABC analysis helps segregating the items from one another and tells how much valued the item is and controlling it to what extent is in the interest of the organisation.
ABC analysis classifies the inventory by consumption value in order to secure best possible control by least controlling. It helps in determining priorities where control is to be exercised. This analysis is carried out on moving items. On carrying out ABC analysis, all the moving items may generally fall in the following groups:
A items : 10 % materials constitute 70 % cost.
B items : 20% “ “ 20% “
C items : 70% “ “ 10% “
Advantages of ABC analysis:-
i. It puts the First thing First. It helps in the best possible control of locked up fund by least amount of controlling.
ii. We can have plenty of low usage items value and time saved can be used for controlling “A” times effectively.
iii. By controlling “A” items, working capital can be reduced in short time.
iv. Progressing of supplies can be done effectively for those items where it is needed.
Inventory management:-
Inventory is a detailed list of those movable items which are necessary to manufacture a product and to maintain the equipment and machinery in good working order. The quantity and the value of every item is also mentioned in the list.
To manage various kinds of inventories, two alternative control procedures can be used:
i) Order Point System:
• This has been the traditional approach to inventory control. In this system, the items are restocked when the inventory levels become low.
• Lot size and reorder point calculations are the more spectacular aspect of inventory management. Once the calculations are complete, the routing commences for checking deliveries and physical count of the amount on hand.
ii) Materials Requirements Planning (MRP):
• MRP is sometimes thought of as an inventory control procedure. It is really more than that.
• It is the technique used to plan and control manufacturing inventories.
• It is a computational technique that converts the mast schedule for end products into a detailed schedule for the raw material and components used in the end products. The detailed schedule identifies the quantities of each raw materials and component items. It also tells when each item must be ordered and delivered so as to make the master schedule for the final products.
In order to ensure timely supply of materials without excessive stock build up, inventory need to be managed and controlled. For managing and controlling the inventory the following important actions are to be taken:-
i. Carrying out ABC analysis, segregating A,B & C items, controlling the inventory of ‘A’ items which constitutes 70% of the consumption.
ii. Ordering EOQ( economic order quantity)
iii. Concluding R.C. and taking supply on “as required basis” for bulk consumption items.
iv. Dependable supplier – Vendor rating to be done.
v. Having more than one source of supply for bulk consumption production items - standardization of sources.
vi. Working out safety stock levels for various classes of store items required for production and maintaining safety stocks accordingly.
vii. Accurate forecasting/material planning.
viii. Computerizing inventories to take quick decisions on controls.
ix. Disposing off dead surplus and obsolete items, liquidation of slow/non moving items.
x. Lead time analysis.
Introduction:-
In principal aim of an EIA study is to ensure that likely environmental changes are taken into consideration at the planning & design phase of the project. Efforts are to be made to anticipate measure and weigh the socio- economic and biophysical changes that may result from a proposed project. It assists decision – makers in considering the proposed projects environmental costs and benefits. In India, a report- called an Environmental Impact statement is prepared at the end of the EIA study. This forms part of the Environmental Management Plan (EMP), which is submitted to the Ministry of Environment and Forests of the Government of India, as part of an application for the environmental clearance of the projects (Trivedi, 2002)
The present approach of EIA adopts the qualification approach in which the parameters affecting the surrounding environment due to opencast mining projects were quantified.
Definition of EIA
There is no universally accepted definition of EIA. Some commonly used definitions are:
EIA is, in its simplest form, a planning tool that is generally regarded as an integral component of sound decision-making. As a planning tool it has both information gathering and decision making component which provides the decision maker with an objective basis for granting or denying approval for a proposed development project.
( Forestetal, 1991)
EIA is a planning tool and its main purpose is to give the environment its due place in the decision making process by clearly evaluating the environmental consequences of a proposed activity before action is taken. (Gilpin, 1995)
Mine closure planning issues:
Historically, when a mineral body was exhausted , production ceased and mines were boarded up and abandoned. Today it is accepted that mine closure requires the return of land to a viable post mining use, such as agriculture. It is not even sufficient to simply physically reclaim mined lands anymore as the socio-economic impacts of the closure must also be assessed and managed.
In this paper, the author has tried to review the mine closure framework necessary for the Indian coal sector with the lesson from the frame work in metal sector. The author has in the previous papers discussed the closure concepts for metal sector. Hence, the basic elements of mine closure concept and planning process have not been discussed here. Only the shift required for the coal sector from the existing mine closure framework is deliberated.
The mine closes for reasons other than exhaustion or depletion of reserves. These include:-
• economic, such as low commodity prices or high costs that may lead a company into voluntary administration or receivership.
• geological, such as an unanticipated decrease in grade or size of the mineral body.
• technical, such as adverse geo-technical conditions or mechanical/equipment failure.
• regulatory, due to safety or environmental breaches.
• policy changes, which occur from time to time, particularly when governments change.
• social or community pressures, particularly from non-government organizations.
• closure of downstream industry or markets
• flooding or inrush
By 2000 A.D. 500 Mm3 of overburden was handled from coal mines only. This had to serious problems in respect of solid waste disposal.
The Ministry of Coal and Mines, Gol (Government of India), has envisaged a large-scale expansion of the coal production from the current figure of 380MT to 1061 MT by the year 2024/25 to meet the projected demand of 126 MT of coal in 2024/25 assuming an annual GDP growth rate of 8%.
A 1999/2000 government estimate puts 26.1% of the Indian Population as living below the poverty line (Manorama Year Book 2005). The per capita availability of forest land of 0.07 ha in India is extremely low to provide for the timber, fuel wood, and fodder needs of the country. Of the 100 M.T. of fly ash currently produced annually, only 20% is utilized for road construction, manufacture of pozzolana cement, and fly ash bricks. By 2024/25 the fly ash production has been estimated at 275MT/year and this would be difficult to dispose.
Belated planning and costing for mine closure after the feasibility study stage will result in re-assumptions and re-calculations.
Coal Mining and Impacts on Environment
Coal is one of the world’s most plentiful energy resources, and its use is likely to quadruple by the year 2020. Coal occurs in a wide range of forms and qualities. There are two broad categories: (a) hard coal, which includes coking coal ( used to produce steel) and other bituminous and anthracite coals used for steam and power generation; and (b) brown coal ( sub-bituminous and lignite), which is used mostly as on-site fuel. Coal has a wide range of moisture (2-40%), suffer(0.2-8%), and ash content (5-40%). These can affect the value of the coal as a fuel and cause environmental problems in its use.
The dept, thickness, and configuration of the coal seams determine the mode of extraction. Shallow, flat coal deposits are mined by surface process, which are generally less costly (per tone of coal) than underground mines of similar capacity. Strip mining is one of the most economical surface processes. Here removal of overburden and coal extraction proceeds in parallel strips along the face of the coal deposit, with the spoil being deposited behind the operation in the previously mined areas. In opencast mining, thick seams (tens of meters) are mined by traditional quarrying techniques. Underground mining is used for deep seams. Underground mining methods vary according to the site conditions, but all involve the removal of seams followed by more or less controlled subsidence of the overlying strata.
Raw coal may be sold as mined or may be processed in a beneficiation/washing, plant to remove noncombustible material (up to 45% reduction in ash content) and inorganic suffer (up to 25% reduction). Coal beneficiation is based on wet physical processes such as gravity separation and flotation. Beneficiation produces two waste streams: fine materials that are discharged as a slurry to a tailings impoundment, and coarse material (typically greater than 0.5mm) that is hauled away as a solid waste.
Beneficiation plants produce large volumes of tailings and solid wastes. Storage and handling of coal generates dust at rates which can be 3Kg /MT of coal mined, with the ambient dust concentration ranging from 10 to 300 (g/m3 ( above the background level) at the mine site (Coal mining & production).
The lignite mines in Rajasthan and Gujarat are in general being planned to go beyond the 6:1 m3/t stripping ratio. Use of such high stripping ratios often result in very large size external OB dumps, which in turn requires extra land for the mine. The recoverable reserves of minerals in India is presented in Table 1. It is evident coal enjoys longer sustenance in comparison to other minerals.
Table 1 : Recoverable reserves of mineral/ore in India (1970 &1995)
Recoverable reserves (mt)
|Mineral/Ore |1970 |195 |
|Iron Ore(hematite) |8244 |10,052 |
|Iron Ore(magnetite) |2025 |3,408 |
|Manganese Ore |108 |167 |
|Bauxite |233 |2,462 |
|Copper Ore |244 |641 |
|Lead & Zinc Ore |107 |176 |
|Dolomite |1152 |4,386 |
|Limestone |7319 |75,678 |
|Chromite |9 |86 |
|Coal1 |9400 |210000 |
Mine closure has assumed a greater relevance of late due to increasing environmental concerns arising out of surface coal mining and its cascading impacts in various down steam operations.
……….the rehabilitation of disturbed lands to a safe, stable and productive post-mining landform, which is suitable and / or acceptable to the community…Allen and Briggs;1999.
…site rehabilitation and restoration to ensure that the closure of a mine will not compromise environmental quality in the future and will limit the extent of any prospective liabilities for both the operator, the government and the community”
…. returning mine sites and affected areas to viable and wherever practicable, self-sustaining ecosystems that are compatible with a healthy environment and with human activity (Mining Association of Canada,1994)
Mine Closure and Land Based Income Generation
Mining is only an intermediate use of the land and a mine has to close once the mine able mineral deposit is exhausted. Closure of a mine means loss of jobs for the community and cessation of all the economic activities connected with the mining operation. Before mining started, the land might have supported agriculture or animal farming. After mining also the land in many cases can be made fit for agriculture, specially where a lot of topsoil is available. A few R&D trails in Neyveli, Ballarpur and Mahanadi Coalfields to convert the mined land to agriculture field show the techno-economic practicability of the idea. Of all the land uses, agriculture is the best in terms of providing employment opportunities to maximum number of beneficiaries.
It is also an imperative job for the mining company to leave the mine in a safe and stable condition eliminating all forms of risk for the community as they finally leave the mine. In the year 2003 AD, the requirement of a mine closure plan has been introduced through the promulgation of an amendment to the Mineral Conservation and Development Rules 1988 under the MMDR Act 1957 for the non coal minerals coming under the purview of the MCDR 1988. For the coal sector , preparation of mine closure plans has not become a legal necessity as yet, but the coal companies on the own are addressing the problem and for new coal projects, the Environmental Management Plan includes a chapter on mine closure (Banerkee S.P.). The steps in the closure sequence are depicted in Fig 1.
THE CLOSURE SEQUENCE
Closure Planning
Closure Objectives
Objectives for coalmine closure may be
• Prevent access to former underground workings
• Remove wanted infrastructure from surface areas
• Ensure remaining infrastructure is “fit for purpose”.
• Develop final landforms that are safe, permanent and compatible with subsequent land use as determined through consultation with stakeholders, including landowners and Government Departments
• Achieve a mine closure process that is in accordance with the existing statute.
• Meet the prerequisite completion criteria developed during the mine closure
• process, and
• To enable the progressive relinquishment of leases and the refund of financial sureties.
The main planning criteria for coalmine rehabilitation can be:
• Consideration of the success and practicalities of previously implemented re-vegetation techniques:
• Issues relating to soil contamination and the burial and/or removal from site of the building debris.
• Increase opportunity for establishment of weed species and erosion of sediment from bare surfaces due to the disturbance of the soils and vegetating
• The management of water and sediment control dams and the practicalities of long-term maintenance of pumps
• The rehabilitation of existing and historically used sediment and water control dams in relation to the decanting of existing water , removal of contaminated material, mixing of sediment and non contaminated material, filling and capping of the areas and establishment of a stable surface.
• Management of existing weed populations, with particular emphasis on the reduction of lantana and pampas grass
• Control of unauthorized access particularly motor bikes and 4WD vehicles and rubbish dumping
• Management of the site rehabilitation while still facilitating access for bushfire fighting.
• Suitable locations for the burial of clean material.
• Removal of residual coal from stockpiles.
• Availability of suitable capping material for disturbed areas such as dams and coal stockpiles
• Availability of seed and brush material to assist with the re-vegetation of the site and
• Reshaping, burial and removal of hardstand area material that includes bitumen, concrete and building rubble
The statute body may control this process by:
• Regular routine inspection through the mine closure process
• Inspections and responses arising from specific complaints or incidents
• Establishment of committees to review performance and
• Holding security bonds that are sufficient to meet the cost of outstanding rehabilitation.
Closure costs are almost as site-specific as geology, but generalizations can be used to indicate the range of possible costs. On the low end of the spectrum, small mines in Romania cost around million to close and rehabilitate. Closure costs for large lignite mines in Germany, on the other end of the scale, run to hundreds of millions of dollars.
Financial assurance mechanism
The present practice of financial assurance levy is of fixed value irrespective of the existing and preferred environment quality in the core zone vis-à-vis the buffer zone. Activity based financial assurance structure needs to be worked which should be site specific.
The closure financial assurance amount has to be arrived based on
• Direct closure costs which is calculated using the conditions that represent maximum closure cost.
• Indirect Closure costs including administrative costs
• Mobilization normally 1 to 5 percent of the direct cost.
• Contingencies comprising of uncertainties and unexpected natural events, 2 to 5% of direct cost
• Engineering & Design to reflect current conditions, 2 to 10 percent of direct costs.
• Profit and overhead costs which are normally not included in direct costs, which is 3 to 14 percent of direct closure cost.
• Closure and management to include inspection and supervision which is 2 to 7% of direct closure costs.
Soft guarantees( e.g. corporate guarantee) can be used where the risk of default is low, the closure plan and cost estimate is independently confirmed ( i.e. the technical risk is low), the closure is of a short term nature and the company has appropriate financial strength to support the guarantee, such as an investment grade rating (Miller 1998), Hard guarantees (e.g. letters of credit, trust funds) can be used where the risk of default is high ; the timing of the closure is imminent; the closure must be continued over the very long term and the company does not have an investment grade rating (Miller 1998).
While many mining development projects contribute to the economic development of an area beyond the mine boundaries, they are often primarily implemented to ensure production. Economic benefit from these activities may therefore accrue only to a small part of the population and create “ island of development “ . When it come to closure many of these facilities collapse and are not sustainable (Kapelus,per. Comm.., 2001). Mine closure planning should be linked in with Local Economic Development Plans. Linkage with the planning frame work of local government, integrated development plans, can ensure that post mining land uses are compatible with surrounding development initiatives. This broader view provides a context against which the investments of the mine in human capital and Infrastructure can meet local/. Regional development needs and create a mechanism for economic growth post closure.
Cut off date for declaring responsibility of abandoned mine rehabilitation in our country has to be fixed in consultation with the stakeholders. The closure plan for the mine as a whole should consist of
• Industrial area rehabilitation alternative/closure plan.
• Mine site rehabilitation alternative closure plan
• Tailings rehabilitation alternative / closure plan
• Special site rehabilitation alternative/ closure plan ( Deloro Mine Site Cleanup Young’s Creek Area Closure Plan, Final Report.)
Closure risk estimate
A risk-based approach to mine closure can be a relevant tool to perceive the potential gray area in the planning process. The model developed by Dr. David Laurance can also be used to produce quantitative estimates of risk by weighting and prioritizing the issues to produce the Closure Risk Factor. The relative importance of the following major mine closure issues at mine site are:
• Environment (RE)
• Safety and health (RSH)
• Community/Public (RC)
• Final land use(RLU)
• Technical (KT)
• Legal/financial
• Other
Rating to done for each of the sub-issues within those broad areas. Using the formula, CRF-((RE+RSH+RC+RLU+RLF+RT), the Closure Risk Factor can be calculated.” This tool can be of high importance to estimate the risk related to mine closure process for the Indian coal mines.
Closure Policy
The policy with respect to the company’s approach towards mine closure needs to be established and documented. A Mine/Facility Closure/Completion Policy sets the high level aspirations and directions that the company sets for mine closure. The policy will typically take commitments about the closure process, stakeholder engagement, environmental minimization of risk, meeting regulatory requirement, social and community aspirations and continuous improvement. Such policy should recognize that it is possible to predict the legacy of a mine at its conception, to include closure as part of mien planning to identify risks and opportunities for reliable financial planning and costing and to determine end land use objectives and principles in consultation with the community; all of these show the need for progressive rehabilitation and to consider the needs of the community affected by closure.
Closure Strategy
The development of the strategy is a process whereby desired closure and post closure options are evaluated and documented, and a preferred option chosen. The Closure strategy process must be documented and cover at a minimum the following:
i) Outcome of the closure and post closure aspects and impacts assessment
ii) Descriptions and evaluations of alternative closure and post closure options.
iii) Selection criteria for closure and post closure options
iv) Description of the preferred closure and post closure options
v) Details associated with any on going research on closure options,.
Development projects are required to submit the complete and comprehensive closure strategy (and associated closure management plan) as part of the final investment approvals process.
The closure strategy must be developed and implemented by a multidisciplinary team. The team members must have appropriate seniority skill levels and experience. Where appropriate, the requisite skills and experience or level advice may be resourced through external consultants. There must be clear allocation of responsibility for the ongoing management of the closure strategy.
Closure standard
The organizations need to develop their own closure standard in line with their business goal.
Closure Assumptions
As closure planning occurs some time before the actual closure decision is made, there is a high degree of uncertainty regarding the specific constraints and circumstances of closure. Therefore, to facilitate effective planning, it is necessary that certain assumptions are made on which the closure management plan can be developed. These assumptions are typically generated during the early stages of planning and must be tested and
-----------------------
Comparing Alternatives in light of Goal Sought.
Which alternatives will give us the best chances of meeting our goals at the lowest cost and highest profit.
Managerial traits
Leadership traits
Numberizing Plans my Making Budgets
Develop such budgets as:
Volume & price of sales
Operating Expenses
Necessary or plants
Expenditure for capital equipment.
Formulating supporting plans.
Such as plan to:
Buy equipment
Buy materials
Hire and train workers. Develop a new product.
Choosing an Alternative
Selecting the course of action we will pursue
Identifying Alternatives
What are the most promising alternatives to accomplishing our objectives?
Considering Planning Premises
In what environment
--internal or external—
will our plans operate?
Setting Objectives or Goals
Where we want to be and what we want to accomplish and when
Being aware of Opportunity
In light of
The market
Competition
What Customers want
Our Strengths
Our weaknesses
Mine Feasibility initial closure Plan
Progressive rehabilitation & Monitoring
Interim updates of closure plan
Strategic review for closure
Final closure Plan
Mine closure decommissioning demolition
Active Care rehabilitation
Passive Care Rehabilitation
Close out report
Close out
After use
Release of site
Communicationon
External environment
• Customer
• Suppliers
• Stockholders
• Government
• Community
• Others.
Message
Use (6)
Decode (5)
Receive (4)
Transmit (3)
Develop idea (1)
Encode (2)
Feedback
Feedback
Transmission of message
Understanding
Decoding
Encoding
Thought
Reception
Noise
Filtered
Blocked
Receiver
very
Distorted
Incorrect
................
................
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