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High volume running at low intensity improves performance without leading to injuryMario Castillo-UrbinaHumboldt State University5/01/16A Literature Review Presented to Krista Landing In Partial Fulfillment of Course RequirementsFor KINS 492, Senior SeminarAbstractRunning can be used as an exercise, recreationally, and competitively. Running has many benefits such as keeping good health, physic, and release stress. Injuries are the main cause of running it can happen from the hip to the foot, and from young to old. High volume running relates to the amount of mileage a person does when training. Injuries can be minor or severe. The purpose of the literature review To examine and explain if high volume running helps increase performance while not being the main contribution to running injuries. Studies have been analyzed in order to generate and develop an outcome. SportDiscus and google scholar were the main sources in which the articles were found. Six hundred and twenty total subjects were used in this study. Eighty percent of them were runners. Tests such as VO2max calibration were used in most of the studies. Programs such as High Volume Training HVT and High Intensity Interval Training HIIT were used in studies to show main results. Logs and time trials were also a source for performance indication. Studies showed mixed results. As volume of running would increase so would the performance (p < 0.001, p < 0.05). Studies also lead to implications of increased intensity also increasing the likelihood of injury (p < 0.001). Results also showed that strength training is a good source to prevent injury.Key words: Running, high volume, Performance, Injuries, intensityIntroductionMany studies have been conducted performance and injuries in running. Running has many benefits such as being part of the daily physical activity standards, keeping good health, performance improvements, and help keeping a good physic (Lavie et al, 2015). Although recent studies indicate that running can cause injuries, which can lead to inactivity for a couple days (Fredrickson & Wolf, 2005). Running can be done for recreational and competitive use. High volume running is a profound amount of miles or minutes in one workout day or run (Reinking, Austin, & Hayes, 2007). High volume running has been used to increase performance specifically for the 5k races and above. High volume running is used as a training method that increases performance to prepare for a competitive season or a personal goal at the conclusion of training (Sleamaker & Browning, 1996). High volume running also is done for the adrenaline rush people like to get when going out for many miles (Weinber & Gould, 2014). High volume running is one source that shows increase in performance, although it has been stated that it also a cause of injuries (Jacobs & Barson, 1986). Injuries range from blisters and pulled muscles, to iliotibial band syndrome and shin splints. Studies have shown that running many miles can hurt the body and increase the likelihood of injuries (Wen, 2007). This is due to the amount of contact the foot is making with the ground or the form of the runner (Hamill, Bates, Sawhill, & Ostering, 1982). Studies imply the more miles a person runs the more the feet and legs are impacting with the ground leading to their injuries (Walter, Hart, McIntosh, & Sutton, 1998). Studies from Jacobs and Walter have neglected any following updates on high volume running; instead the researchers suggest that running at a lower volume would be better for the runner. Studies from the previous years do not necessarily indicate other indicators such as the intensity of the runs or proper cool downs and rolling out after runs aside from the volume of the run.Running being a simple task may oversight anyone to think it will not lead to any injuries. There are simple techniques and forms to allow one to run properly and avoid injuries. Through past and present studies running has become a common misconception of whether or not a person should even take part of (McKeon et al, 2008). Most of the studies show the risks of running high mileage, and suggest alternatives endurance trainings like swimming or bicycling (Jacobs, 1986, Van Gent, 2007 & Walter, 1998). Data SourceThe studies searched were in full text English, and derived from databases such as: SPORTDiscus, Science direct, PubMed, and Google Scholar. Cross-referencing or primary articles were also conducted to further analyze research. Studies included for this review had to be peer reviewed and ranging from 2005 to 2016, Key terms used: running, high volume, performance, injuries, and intensity. Additional information was gathered from systematic reviews, books, and articles outside the 2005 and 2016 range. AuthorYearArticleSubjectsTrainingResultsAstorio, T. A.2008Changes in running performance and maximal oxygen uptake after long term training in elite athletes15 total runners; 8 men; 7 women; mean age: 19.6Running logs, tempo workouts, interval training9 athletes finished test, significant improvements (p<0.05)Daniels, J., Yarbrough, R. A., & Foster, C1987Changes in VO2max and running performance with training12 P.E. Students; 15 REC studentsMean age: 22Running logs; time trials; intervalsNo significant differences in VO2max, performance improvements Esteve-Lano, J., Foster, C., Seiler, S., &Lucia, A.2007Impact of training intensity of distribution on performance in endurance athletes20 total competitive runnersMean age: 27Running logs; zone trainingNo significant differences in VO2max, no significant differences between training zonesFaude, 0., Schnittker, R., Schilte-Zurhausen, R., Müller, F., & Meyer, T.2013High Intensity Interval Training vs. High Volume Running Training during pre-season conditioning88 field playersMean age: 18HIIT program; HVT programHVT higher increased performance than HIITKnobloch, K., Yoon, U., &Vogt, P. M. 2008Acute and overuse injuries correlated to hours of training in master running athletes291 trained runners; 248 male; 41 femaleMean age: 428wk training log; time trialsMany miles run lead to injuries, triathlons decrease the likelihood of injuriesLosnegard, T., Mikkelsen, K., R?nnestad, B. R., Hallén, J., Rud, B., & Raastad, T.2011The effect od heavy strength training on muscle mass and physical performance in elite XC skiers19 total skiers; 11 male and 8 femaleMean age: 21.812 week training log; two strength training a weekCorrelation between running and roller skiing, strength training increased as performance increasedMann, R., Malisoux, L., Mührenb?rger, C., Urhausen, A., Meijer, K., & Theisen, D2015Association of previous injury and speed with running style and stride to stride fluctuations80 total runners; 40 had previous injuriesRunalyzer tested on all subjects; time trialsIncreased running speed lead to increased force and impact on feetNummela, A. T., Paavolainen, L. M., Sharwood, K. A., Lambert, M. I., Noakes T. D., & Rusko, H.K.2006Neuromuscular factors determine 5km running performance and running economy in well trained athletes18 well trained runnersTime trials; MART programMART increased VO2max. Correlation with intensity and performanceShaw, D.2012Intensity (Velocity) Volume (Distance) and duration of running correlates ratings of perceived exertion of adult male45 men; mean age: 22.2Time trials; interval trainingExertion goes up as velocity and duration of run goes up. (Figure 2)St?ren, O., Helgerud, J., Stoa, E. M., & Hoff J. 2008Maximal strength training improves running economy in distance runners17 trained runners; 9 male; 8 femaleMean age: 288 week running log, weight training, time trials, MAS trainingNo changes in VO2max, muscular strength improved running economyMethodsThe subjects in all studies combined consisted of a total of five hundred and one runners, and one hundred and nineteen others, such as soccer players, skiers, and physical education students. The subjects ranged from seventeen to fifty years old. Eighty-six percent of the subjects were male. The subjects in the study being runners mostly derived from Knobloch, Yoon, and Vogt by sending emails to a large running community that consisted of 291 senior runners (2008). Mann et al had 80 total subjects in their study during a RunAlyzer test (2015). Shaw had 40 total subjects in the study seeing their exertion as velocity and duration increased (2012). The largest amount of non-runners came from Finland in a study of 88 soccer players taking part in two training programs (Faude, Schnittker, Schulte-Zurhausen, Muller, & Meyer, 2013). All other studies had no more than 20 subjects. Studies performed a type of test measurements on the subjects. The subjects’ measurements were taken by the standard height and weight. Studies also took the maximal oxygen consumption (VO2 max), heart rate, electromyography (EMG), RunAlyzers, and the Running Economy of the subjects. VO2 max is the amount of oxygen one can intake during aerobic exercise. VO2 max was taken in lab settings or outdoors (Storen, Helegerud, Stoa, & Hoff, 2008) by having the subjects run on a treadmill or a 400-meter track and measuring the gas exchange between oxygen and carbon dioxide being processed. The VO2 max is important to consider seeing performance in running; it would at some points correlate with performance (Daniels, Yarbrough, & Foster, 1978). VO2 max is therefore included in all researchers’ studies. When VO2 max would get measured the heart rate also gets included simultaneously to show amount of effort (Bergh, 1991). The EMG measured the muscles being activated when running. In the Neuromuscular factors research by Nummela et al, the EMG measurement was used to see the activation on the lower extremities as the subjects would run and it will be able to indicate if runners are over exerting the amount of force as intensity increased (2006). RunAlyzers are a pressure-sensitive insole system. It would measure the pressure and time related were used to track the steps taken, along with the force and velocity of the foot strike as the foot would make contact when running and will be able to distinguish any over striding when increasing velocity (Mann et al, 2015). Running Economy is defined as the steady rate velocity measured during a run, the amount of oxygen uptake at a steady rate and is mainly used when runners are focusing on their forms when running. Running economy tends to change when the velocity increases (Douglas & Krahenbuhl, 1980). After measurements, the studies would also have time trials before and after research to distinguish any differenced in performances from the programs. 60% of the studies had time trials by distance or by time. The time trials are good indicators of where the subjects stand in terms of their fitness. The time trials are commonly recorded by distance; in some instances they would be recorded by time. Nummela, Storren, Esteve-Lanao, and Astorio. Nummela’s study had the subjects run a 5km time trial before the specified training test started and then once again after the training (2006). The zone training also consisted of pre and post time trials in the study (Esteve-Lanao, Foster, Seiler, & Lucia, 2007). Storren’s subjects also had a 5km time trial, although unlike Nummela and Esteve, the subjects only had the time trial after the test (2008). Shaw also had a time trial for the subjects, but iunliek all the others, the subjects were informed to run/walk for 12 minutes and see how far they would go (2012). Both time trials were used for their own purposes and measurements but still able to reflect ass a respectable assessment for the studies.Forty percent of the studies had a program set up for the subjects. The running programs would be types of training for a certain amount of weeks. The weeks ranged from 8-21 weeks. The programs involved were, High Volume Training (HVT), High Intensity Interval Training (HIIT), zone training, and Maximum Anaerobic Running Test (MART). Seventy percent of the studies also consisted of running logs. The running logs were used to track what runners are doing in their training throughout the days. Running logs would show how much a runner runs and at what speedHVT consists of 30-60 minutes of slow runs, fartlek running and tempo running. HIIT consisted of two 15 minutes of fast and short interval training. This study was used on 88 soccer players in order to assess aerobic training in the players (Helegerud, 2007). Faude used both types of training to find out if either one of them is better than the others. The training programs lasted three months and a few of the subjects dropped out of the training throughout the study (Faude, Schnittker, Schulte-Zurhausen, Muller, & Meyer, 2013).Zone training was used on well-trained runners for 5 months. Three different zones were incorporated in the type of training. Zone 1 was running at low intensity below the subjects’ ventilator threshold (VT). Zone 2 was running at a moderately high intensity between the subject’s (VT) and the respiratory compensation threshold (RCT). Finally zone 3 is running at high intensity above (RCT). This study was designed to compare the effects of the zones and the performances resulted from them (Esteve-Lanao, Foster, Seiler, & Lucia, 2007). The subjects were split into two groups, one group training only zone 1 and 3. The other group would be training in zone 2 and 3. The MART was used by Nummela,et al with purposes to investigate the importance of force and velocity in a distance performance (2006). The MART consisted of running 150 meters to times and increasing the speed for each one done. Prior to the test, the subjects did the 5km time trial, although for this study they were instructed to have their last lap run faster than the other. The EMG was used in this study, as the runners would be doing sprints and has the muscle activation showing where the foot is making contact and how the force increases as the velocity increased as well. Running economy was also tested in the study to see any changes in forms from the subjects as they increased velocity. Studies stated they had logs planned for runners, although did not show what exactly runners would do in their training. Antorio did a research with distance runners at Cal Sate San Marcos (2008). His method of study was by having the runners keep a daily running log throughout a whole cross-country and track season. The logs entailed the mileage from the runners and made sure they would consistently on track. Men ran between 58-70 miles a week. Women would run 40-48 miles a week. A intriguing description of the logs consisted of tempo long runs 4 days a week and interval running 2 days a week being done at the beginning of the training The reason for the running log was to see the progress of these athletes as they go along the season and see any performance increasing. Similar to Antorio, Logs were also tracked from Knobloch. Logs were made for runners with an average age of 42. Although unlike Antorio, The authors created a survey of their logs and emailed them to the runners. The runners tracked the logs themselves and sent back the results after 6 months of training. The important factor for these logs were to uncover any injuries these runners had as they kept track of their logs. The logs had questionnaires attached keeping track of any injuries arising as they kept running. The logs would then be used in and measured with Fisher’s exact test and chi square testing (Knobloch, Yoon, & Vogt, 2008). Training logs were also kept as studies used another type of training. Storen, Helegerud, Stora, and Hoff researched on whether strength training correlated with running. They had runners do a strength-training program (2008). Although strength training was their main focus, running logs were still a supplementary source for the study. The training logs were tracked for 8 weeks. The logs would contain the amount they run along with what was expected of them in the weight room to find out if a correlation is seen between weightlifting and running. Logs were also used in activities that did not deal with runners as well. Skiers were also used in a study to find a correlation between strength training, skiing, and aerobic running. Logs were made for 12 weeks. The 19 skiers would keep track of their running, weight training, and the skiing workout planned for the day. By incorporating running the researchers would clearly see if it would correlate with skiing and strength training (Stoeggl, Lindinger, & Muller in 2007). ResultsVO2max was used as a measurement in all studies because it is a good source and indicator of how much a person is capable to reserve in performance (Pate, & Kriska, 1984). In order to increase VO2max, max oxygen capacity must be reached by running faster and longer. The reason for this was that VO2max is usually a factor and required for success in aerobic running although it does not fully answer success in the performance (Nummela et al, 2006). In Daniels’ study, there were no significant differences between VO2max and performance (1978). As subjects went through the program, performance kept increasing but VO2max stayed the same after the first couple weeks (p> 0.001). 60% of the peer-reviewed articles also indicated no change in VO2max in their study. In the Cal State San Marcos study, performance increased by the end of the season (p<0.05). The runners had a training log to follow and from observation VO2max did not increase in the study (Astorino, 2008). VO2max not increasing while performance increased showed that high volume running could be done without increasing intensity. In the HVT and HIIT program comparisons showed no differences as they both were well-structured programs. Both programs had an increase performance (p<0.01). At the conclusion of the study, Faude brought up the point that VO2max was not increased due to lack of high volume running at increased intensity (2013). It was also brought up that slower runners showed less signs of improved performance when taken part of the HIIT program. It would be best to start with the HVT program to build up the runner’s base (Helgerud et al, 2007). In the Anaerobic study with the MART also showed no increase in VO2max because the test dealt more with anaerobic training other than aerobic training (Nummela et al, (2006). Zone training, which dealt with high volume training, also had no changes in VO2max. It showed no significant differences between heart rate and VO2max (p>0.05). This is also in the same case as Faude’s Zone training had high volume training at a low intensity or vise versa, but there was still an increase in performance (Esteve-Lanao, Foster, Seiler, &Lucia, 2007). Millet stated that there has not been any further change in VO2max when other factors are included in running such as strength training (2002). Even though neither of the studies were intentionally searching for an increase in VO2max they were able to see that it is not a huge factor to performance increase. The studies showed a correlation of VO2max not increasing if there was only high volume training or high intensity training. Yet the studies were able to show performance increase.Aerobic training was taken place in the Cal State San Marcos study, HVT program, Skiing study, and zone training. Aerobic training dealt with slow runs, long runs, recovery runs, and fartlek runs. High volume training is an example of aerobic running (Astorio, 2008). The aerobic training in the Cal State San Marcos study took place with the distance runners in the program. Study resulted that aerobic training increases performance (p < 0.05). Though only 60% of the subjects were able to complete the whole season and training. From observing the research, the subjects’ aerobic training also consisted of long tempo runs and interval trainings early in the season (2008). The Cal State San Marcos had high volume training along with an excess amount of high intensity runs. Jacobs stated that the more athletes run the more likely they would get injured (1986). Same as a recent research from Walter, declaring male athletes go through injuries because of running many miles (2007). That same year a study was also taken place on the risk factors for running injuries, stating that high volume training causes injury, although it was due with a little help of pacing and terrain (Wen, 2007). Though in Astorio’s study, there was also high intensity training involved, meaning high volume running was not the only indicator of the 40% injuries. In Mann’s study, on speed revolving around injuries showed that velocity increase would also increase force and decrease strike index (p=0.019). Strike index is defined as the pattern measured when running. Mann specified that at a slower running speed, runners have more freedom to make changes in strike pattern (2015). Following back to Astorio’s study and the following statements have to consider the other factors that dealt with the high volume training injuries, such as the intensity while running high volume, preparation prior to running, and treatment for post runs (Van Mechelen, 1993). HVT program also had an increase in performance as aerobic training occurred without any injuries (p < 0.001). It also showed that 85% responded to the HVT program. Only 60% responded to the HIIT program. This was due to the HIIT program only revolving around speed and it restricts the slower players to improve (Helegerud, Engen, Wisloff, &Hoff, 2001). Not many studies have used uncontrolled longitudinal approaches (Chamari et el, 2005), which is what the HVT and HIIT comparisons played out. Both showed increase in performance, although with the responding levels for HVT being higher showed that it might work for a broader group (Helegerud, Engen, Wisloff, & Hoff, 2001). This study showed that both separate groups could increase performance without injuries. Other studies would have the same type of research but have different results due to the mixture of their studies. Taunton et al concluded in the study that training injuries occurred in training amount, intensity, and age (2002). If they were to just focus on one type of training method injury risk could go down. Strength training also played a part to increasing performance (Esteve-Lanao, Foster, Seiler, & Lucia, 2007). The subjects for the skiing tests also had strength training involved in their study. Performance increased due to muscle activation of the fast twitch muscles (Millet, 2002). Hoff and company stated that maximal strength training of the legs affects performance increase in long distance athletes in a positive way. They intend to use high weight with low repetitions for strength enhancement instead of muscle hypertrophy (2007). By working out the fast twitch muscles not used when taking part of high volume running the runners are still increasing the muscle fibers that take part in speed increase. It has been reported that high volume running without any sort of strength training impairs the runners explosiveness and limts their speed potentials (Dudley & Fleck, 1987). The runners are substituting high intensity running for strength training, which allows the runners to increase performance without any risks of injury (Stoeglgl, Lindiger, & Müller, 2007). In Mann’s study with the MART program, the subjects also took part in strength training. It also saw increase in performance.ConclusionThis review intended to display other scholarly articles and arise with results on whether or not high volume training would increase performance without any risks of injury. Results showed many times that performance would increase when high volume training would be included. For studies that had issued an injury claim towards high volume running did not input other factors in the studies, such as intensity of runs. Other researches stated that high volume running might not be the only factor of injury. VO2max did not increase in many of the aerobic training, meaning that velocity increase does not need to be inputted with duration increase in order to increase VO2max as it does not change the increase of performance. Which concludes that high volume at low intensity increases performance without a being a major risk in injury. RecommendationsThere have not been many actual studies done on this particular topic. Which still leads to uncertainty. Studies have also not incorporated the small things before and after running into the training programs. Injuries will occur and proper procedures must be taken place to reduce the likelihood of injury such as warming up and cooling down after runs (van Mechelen, Hlobil, Kemper, Voorn, & Jongh, 1993). Rolling and massaging the body after runs will also decrease injuries (Stephen, Julie, Donna, & Dexter, 2002). Stretching and working on core before and after runs can also be used to reduce injury (Mckeon et al, 2008). Running is a complex exercise and must be done with caution. There are many types of training programs that work for different people. Every person has certain training that works for them, does not mean others are wrong (Yeung, & Yeung, 2001). Figure 1: Literature study results *p < 0.05; #p < 0.001; +p = 0.019 Figure 2: Intensity, volume, and duration of running correlates (Shaw, D. 2012)REFERENCESArrese, A. L., Ostáriz, E. 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