HISTORY OF STUDENT AFFAIRS - Webs



HISTORY OF STUDENT AFFAIRS

The History and Development of

Student Affairs in American Higher Education

Daniel W. Murphy

James Madison University

The History and Development of Student Affairs in American Higher Education

Student Affairs as a helping profession has made a home on college and university campuses around the country, and the world. In America, there is a significant history behind the modern concept of Student Affairs professionals. This essay is an attempt to identify and describe the key events and trends throughout the history of higher education in America that have impacted modern Student Affairs. To accomplish this, it would be impossible to separate trends in student life, the climate of higher education in each time period, and the development of professional expectations. In his text on Student Affairs, Thelin mentioned “knowledge of landmark events and historical precedents is necessary to provide the background for considering the complexities facing higher education today.” (Evans & Reason, 2001)

Early higher education in America developed after the model of colleges and universities throughout Europe. In the beginning, most of the students were men and many of the institutions were grounded in religious ideology. It was the children from middle-class families that were filling the seats at the early American institutions. Roles that would later be associated with Student Affairs were the responsibility of the instructors and administration at the time.

There was always debate over whether the American school systems should continue to precedent set by their European counterparts. Living arrangements are one example of how the two systems varied. In the European schools the tutors lived on campus with the students, and w was a key element of European education. In America, students usually remained at home or took board with local families. Without as much responsibility to be on campus all of the time, the faculty at American colleges moved off campus. It was a trade off though, because tutors were now held more accountable for student discipline than the administrations had been in Europe. The concept of Residence Life and Judicial Affairs offices was born early, but did not take root until much later.

Another opportunity that is familiar to contemporary college students is the idea of getting involved with other students in organized activities. Literary societies were born in this era and set into motion the idea of modern fraternities and sororities. Other than the being involved in these societies, the majority of extracurricular functions were limited to going to church. It was the job of tutors to keep students occupied with their studies.

As the new America was developing, so were the colleges and universities. The cost of attending college continued to increase, widening the gap between families that could afford to send their children to university and those families that could not. The opportunity for education became more elitist and religion continued to dominate the curriculum on American campuses. Groups of students began forming religious societies, to resemble the literary societies that were already established. Music ensembles and sports clubs also began to develop around the country. Participating in clubs and organizations would become a trend of the future.

Student discipline became more of a concern than ever before. The problems with student conduct grew beyond the responsibility of just the tutors. It was becoming a campus-wide problem. Some schools, including the University of Virginia, created a student government that was put in place to address conduct issues. At other institutions, where a student government did not work out as well, men were hired to supervise the campus – the modern day equivalent of Campus Police/Security. The tutors were becoming a disliked entity by the students. They served as watchdogs for the university and many had moved on campus to become the first Hall Directors in American higher education.

At this time, there was an equal mix of public and private schools throughout America. This was about to change with the introduction of some legislation put into place by the federal government. The Morrill Land Grant Acts of 1862 provided funds for the creation of schools devoted to agriculture and the mechanical arts. These schools were provided with funding and land on which to build. With the expanse of higher education, a boom in the college-aged population was on the horizon.

Prior to the Civil War was when the college population began to become more diverse. Women and minorities were just starting to have the opportunity to attend school. Some institutions were created specifically for each of these two populations. All-women colleges and Historically Black Colleges and Universities provided students with a comfortable environment in which to learn. At predominately white institutions, the issue of integration was slowly making its way to consciousness.

Race relations were taking on a new role in the nation. Along with many other economic and cultural factors, the Civil War erupted across the American landscape. The Civil War changed the face of America, and the period of time between the Civil War and World War I demonstrated a significant growth in American higher education as well. Changes took place within the administration and faculty.

The administration began to distance their new roles from the role of a professor. They were becoming more specialized. While the current form of Student Affairs was not yet in place, the foundation was being built. New positions were being created around the university so that these new professional positions could focus on specific areas within the academy. Advancements in curriculum reform and communication led the way for advancements in the professional university setting.

One of these advancements was the idea of academic freedom. The universities were quickly stepping away from religious doctrine and faculty was exploring controversial topics. The American Association of University Professors was created in 1915 to fight for the protections of university faculty. The idea of tenure was born out of this organization. Tenure gave faculty the right to research their topics of choice, publish that research, and teach whatever they wanted. This paragraph has great implications for Academic Affairs, but the idea of protected research and teaching is a topic that affects both Academic Affairs and modern day Student Affairs. Student Affairs professionals are not awarded these same freedoms and this is a topic of concern for many.

The shift in the faculty and administration was not the only change to take place between the Civil War and World War I. There was also a shift in thinking by the students that were attending college. College was no longer being seen as a privilege. Students became more concerned with having fun and enjoying themselves than receiving an education. An individual would not fit in if they excelled in the classroom. This was an era where activities outside of the classroom were a priority over classroom learning.

Athletic clubs developed into teams that would compete against each other. A national league was created to set rules and provide direction for collegiate athletes around the country. With the creation of national standards, coaches were hired and support personnel were asked to help these athletes succeed. Some contemporary school systems have elaborate Athletic Departments that compete nationally, and globally, providing entertainment for millions. Some schools have smaller departments where Student Affairs professionals play an intricate role in student support.

By now, the literary societies of before had turned into social greek-lettered organizations and had a presence at campuses around the country. Students of color, who were attending school now in larger numbers, created a greek system of their own. Historically black fraternities and sororities provided students with a system of support that they could not easily find on predominantly white campuses. Over time, these organizations would take on a more significant role in increasing awareness of diversity and multiculturalism in the college communities.

In the 1920s, the social environment on campuses continued to be the main priority of students. More women were attending college than ever before and that was providing university communities with new challenges. Most of the structures that were in place had been created through the administrations experience with male students. The social nature of campuses continued into the next decade. Then the Great Depression hit the country.

All of a sudden, it became more difficult for students to attend college. Only the wealthiest students could stay and receive continued education. The climate on campuses changed almost over night. The mood became a lot more serious, as funding was difficult. Students turned to each other for support and extracurricular activities continued to flourish. The 1930s were only the beginning of a tumultuous time for America.

During this time, the role of Student Affairs professionals was shifting. Career placement was emerging as a significant focus of their work. (Evans, Forney, & DiBrito, 1998) It was hard for anyone to get a job, let alone students just out of university. This would carry on through the 1950s, when the training of counselors and the creation of career centers on campuses became more important. (Zunker, 2006)

The next three decades would be full of civil unrest and a heightened awareness to social issues around the world. America was at war again and Americans had strong opinions. Men were giving up the opportunity for education to fight for their country. When the war was over, many of the soldiers were without work. The Servicemen’s Readjustment Act of 1944 (commonly referred to as the G.I. Bill) was passed which made it easier for soldiers to go back to school. Members of the military raced back to college. These non-traditional students created a very new campus culture. They were interested in different things than traditional students and many of them had families. The challenge was for administrators and faculty to find ways to support these students.

The Civil War brought freedom to many human beings that had been kept as slaves. Even with this new freedom, progress was slow. In the 1950s and 1960s, there was a lot of attention paid to the Civil Rights Movement. In 1954, segregation was outlawed, and many schools were forced to integrate. Some schools integrated more easily than others. Professionals had the additional burden of supporting new students and educating others. Martin Luther King was a significant figure of the Civil Rights Movement. He fought for equality for all and was a very educated man. He would speak about of the importance of education and tolerance. His efforts helped with the creation of the Higher Education Act of 1965. The Act forbid schools that were government funded from discriminating based on race, color, religion, national origin, or sex. Another trademark of this era included the introduction of Affirmative Action to higher education. This Executive Order was passed down from political leaders and forced institutions to create hiring practices open to all individuals. It would not be until the early 1990s that Affirmative Action would take center stage in higher education admissions policies.

Although there was a lot of change in country and around the world, there were significant advancements in Student Affairs in American higher education. As a result of the career guidance concerns of the times, schools began meeting to discuss the best practices to use with students. (Evans, Forney, & DiBrito, 1998) In 1937, the Student Personnel Point of View was created to help establish Student Affairs as a legitimate profession and set some expectations for individuals working in student services. The report also previewed concepts of student development by saying that “educators must guide the ‘whole student’ to reach his or her full potential and contribute to society’s betterment.” (Evans, Forney, & DiBrito, 1998)

The Student Personnel Point of View was later expanded in 1949. The professionals at the time thought that it was important to incorporate some of the ideologies from pre-depression American higher education. This revision included a return to “the development of students and [recognizing] their ‘individual differences in backgrounds, abilities, and goals.’” (Evans, Forney, & DiBrito, 1998) Another reason behind this gathering of people was to discuss the distribution of services available on campus and how Student Affairs offices would be designed. (Evans & Reason, 2001) Both of these documents focused on the importance of using research and theory in Student Affairs practices.

The serious mood on college campuses continued throughout the 1960s and 1970s. Students began to think of their time in college as an opportunity to bring about social change in the world. Protests became a standard on college campuses, and it was usually the Student Affairs professionals who had the responsibility of responding to these groups. Drugs and alcohol emerged as a concern on many college campuses. Fraternities and sororities came under investigation for reports of hazing new members, a tradition that extended back to the earliest American colleges.

The Women’s movement was making its presence known on campuses around the country. The students began to talk about issues such as sexuality, birth control, and politics. These topics had never been discussed so openly in public and were uncomfortable to many of those outside of higher education. This is the era when higher education received the reputation as the “Liberal” side of society.

The 1960s were also a time where student development theories really began to come to the forefront of Student Affairs. One very notable concept that would impact Student Affairs into the next century came from Nevitt Sanford. Sanford presented the idea that “a college should be a developmental community in which the student encounters both challenge and support.” (Evans, Forney, & DiBrito, 1998) Professionals began to discuss the balance between learning opportunities in the campus environment and providing services to students. Other people began to have that discussion as well, and the next decade brought about the creation of national professional organizations dedicated solely to Student Affairs administrators.

During this time, Arthur Chickering also emerged with some theories of student development that had significant impact on the entire campus community. Faculty members used many of Chickering’s theories to change how they engaged students in the classroom. It was the Student Affairs professionals who became intimately attached to Chickering’s teachings. His theory would become a foundational theory on which the profession of Student Affairs would be studied for years. It had direct impact on how university professionals provided services to the students.

The Tomorrow’s Higher Education (T.H.E.) Project, sponsored by the American College Personnel Association, made some recommendations to the Student Affairs community in the early 1970s. Up until this point, Student Affairs had focused primarily on out of the classroom experience. The T.H.E. Project recommended bridging the gap between Academic Affairs and Student Affairs. There should be a new “emphasis on the academic, improving teach and learning experiences…conducting outcomes assessments, and developing new sets of competencies.” (Evans, Forney, & DiBrito, 1998)

The 1970s would also bring about more legislation with implications for Student Affairs professionals and college communities around the country. Title IX was enacted to protect discrimination based on gender. This had a profound effect on collegiate athletics. Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act addressed the needs and concerns of students with disabilities. This helped make a college education possible for even more students than ever before. Many schools now offer an Office of Disability Services to support students in need. In most instances, this office can be found under the Student Affairs umbrella.

Access to education was a consistent theme for colleges and universities around the country. Students from lower income families were beginning to attend college in large numbers. Campuses were no longer just for the upper class. The emergence of Financial Aid offices created an additional challenge for Student Affairs professionals. Professional were now responsible for helping students find financial resources to help support them in addition to services available on campus.

During the 1980s, students became much more interested in knowing what the institution was doing. The administration and staff were now more accountable than ever before. Along with this, the students also knew that they could find support and assistance outside of the university. Offices around campus also felt the financial crunch and were forced to look outside of the university for funding and support. Along with added scrutiny, it was becoming more difficult for Student Affairs professional to engage students on campus. This is a challenge that contemporary Student Affairs professionals can also relate to.

One response to that challenge was the creation of the Council for the Advancement of Standards in Higher Education. Although the council was formed prior to the 80s, it was in 1986 that they published the CAS Standards. The CAS Standards became a widely accepted set of practices for each area of Student Affairs. The standards were instituted as the minimum criteria that each program should strive to achieve. (cas.edu, viewed on March 7, 2006)

The 1980s and 1990s brought about advances in technology that directly impacted colleges and universities. Students were becoming more technological savvy (a trend that would carry over into the twenty-first century) and they had higher expectations of the schools. The students were also becoming more engaged in popular culture and became disinterested in studying. The focus of an education was to get good grades, not on the retention of information.

The institutions also became more interested in focusing their attention on diverse student populations. Student Affairs professionals now spent a great deal of time focusing on minority student retention and multicultural programming. Cooperation and collaboration between faculty and staff was critical to the success of this campus-wide effort.

In response to the decreasing focus on the retention of information, Student Affairs shifted their focus in the mid-90s to student learning. This reaction was introduced by national leaders in Student Affair that saw an importance in supporting student learning as the ultimate mission of the institution. More than ever before were professionals called on to “base their work on an empirically grounded and tested knowledge base.” (Evans & Reason, 2001)

Many of these trends continue to be the concern of contemporary Student Affairs professionals. There are pieces of modern Student Affairs dating back to the 1800s, and a review of Student Affairs literature indicates that not much has actually been changed since the first half of the twentieth century. (Evans & Reason, 2001) Over time the focus of the professional work has shifted. At one point, Student Affairs professionals were viewed as having the same responsibility as parents. That responsibility has diminished and an emphasis on challenge and support has emerged. Using research and a theoretical base to create intentional programming and support services is an expectation of Student Affairs professionals today.

At the turn of the century a report was completed that looked at trends of the Student Affairs profession. The aim of the project was to identify future trends in higher education. Since the study was published, some of the projections have already made an appearance on campuses around the country. The eight focuses of Student Affairs professionals of today and in the future include improving access and educational success for diverse students, responding to the rising cost of higher education, learning and teaching, technology, the changing nature of work in higher education, collaboration and partnerships, accountability, and the changing government roles relative to higher education. (Evans & Reason, 2001)

A look at the program from any national convention held on higher education will document multiple opportunities to talk about and learn best practices in areas of diversity and assessment. Multicultural Student Services and Assessment offices are making their way into Student Affairs departments around the country. In the highly volatile political climate that exists today, Student Affairs professional have the added responsibility of providing students with the support that they need while balancing their political views. The current environment will continue to put more pressure on Student Affairs professionals to engage in the political battle over funding for higher education and for increased financial aid.

In response to tighter funding, departments within Student Affairs are looking to each other for help when it comes to offering services and programming. Collaboration within Student Affairs helps the entire campus community by releasing some of the strain on any one office to supply programming. These shared resources can be money, but they can also be time, people power, or space. All of which are never in abundance on a college campus. The idea of working with other departments expands beyond just the Division of Student Affairs.

Working collaboratively with Academic Affairs has been a main priority of Student Affairs professionals since the early 1970s. By joining other offices in the university community, the probability of student success and retention increases. Students are looking for a seamless educational experience. If the two major divisions of the university can work together, they benefit each other while satisfying the ultimate consumer – the student.

As political tensions heat up, there is greater accountability for Student Affairs professionals than ever before. The people that are paying the bills want to know that the programs they are supporting are working. Whether it is the representatives of a state government or pressure from students and their families, the expectation on Student Affairs professionals is to produce results. It is also an important job to balance public opinion and programs that are essential to the university. The concept of academic freedom and tenure that were discussed earlier play right into this dilemma. Faculty members have protections that Student Affairs professionals do not. A Student Affairs professional can not just program whatever they feel is necessary. They must program in response to the needs of the given population. This can achieve scrutiny from local groups, parents, students, and national leaders. Being politically savvy and aware of the surrounding environment can have a significant impact on any professional.

Nationally, there is a trend towards more testing and more accountability. In the near future, it will be the responsibility of Student Affairs professionals to demonstrate their role in higher education and to educate society on the impact of higher education. Student Affairs professionals, more than any other constituency, maintain the most consistent focus on student-centered learning and development. (Evans & Reason, 2001)

In the world of American higher education, there are institutions around the country that will always be viewed as leaders in the academic world. Other institutions always look to these institutions as the testing ground for new programs, new initiatives, and program reform. With the addition of national list serves and published journals, it is now easier for Student Affairs professionals to communicate with each other around the country. While larger, more prominent, schools remain leaders in higher education policy, the ability to communicate has created a truly open marketplace of ideas. Assessment and research can be shared easily with thousands of professionals at the click of a button. The topic of a lot of current research is best practices for each area of Student Affairs. This allows some of the smaller institutions to have a hand in impacting the culture of Student Affairs around the world.

Works Cited:

Class notes taken in AHRD670: Higher Education in America. Fall 2004. Instructed by Dr. Al Menard at James Madison University.

Council for the Achievement of Standards in Higher Education. cas.edu. Information retrieved on March 7, 2006.

Evans, N. J., Forney, D.S. & Guido-DiBrito, F. (1998). Student development in college: Theory, research, and practice. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.

Evans, N. J. & Reason, R.D. (2001) Guiding principles: A review and analysis of student affairs philosophical statements. Journal of College Student Development. Vol. 42 (4). Pps 359-377.

Zunker, V.G. (2006) Career counseling: A holistic approach. (7th Edition). Belmont, CA: Thompson Brooks/Cole.

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