Kimberly Tarr



Kimberly Tarr

November 8, 2007

MIAP Internship

Format Paper

Too much general background on color processes…not enough specific, technical information on the process and format. Some sections could be rewritten to improve clarity, especially in the beginning of the paper.

“Give Us Those Nice Bright Colors”:

An Examination of 16mm Kodachrome™ Film

Overview

Introduced on July 5, 1923, 16mm monochromatic, reversal film was the first stock specifically designed with the amateur filmmaker in mind.[1] Less than half the size of standard film format, the 16mm camera was intended to be less cumbersome, less expensive, and more portable. With Kodak’s introduction of the Cine-Kodak Motion Picture Camera and the Kodascope projector the following year, filmmaking suddenly became accessible to the mainstream.[2] Although, at its inception it was designed as a tool for amateurs, the 16mm film stock proliferated in the educational, news, industrial and documentary arenas, due to its portability.

In 1935, Eastman Kodak introduced 16mm Kodachrome film. One year later, Kodachrome became available in both 35mm slide and 8mm moving picture film. Although filmmakers and scientists had been experimenting with a variety of additives (dyes and metallic salts) to color film in the early 1900s, the introduction of the “dye coupler ” system, exemplified in Kodachrome, marked a landmark step forward in color photography. Over the span of its production, from 1935-2006, the stock became known—and loved—by amateur filmmakers, home movie-makers, and documentarians, for its stable, vivid, and vibrant color.

A Colorful History: Kodachrome’s Predecessors, Competitors, and Successors

Since the mid-late nineteenth century photographers have experimented with myriad procedures and chemical compounds to ‘color’ film. The first series of “artificial” techniques relied on adding dyes to each frame of a moving picture after the film was developed. Applying the dye with a small brush, a process known as hand coloring, was common in the early 1900s but was soon superseded by the advent of stenciling, as hand coloring was incredibly laborious and costly to produce just one colored release print. The French film company Pathé invented a way to “mechanize” the stencil process and, in 1905, introduced Pathécolor.[3] In search of more cost-effective alternatives, stenciling gave way to the “unnatural” techniques of tinting and its complementary process, toning, which cast color on specific scenes or entire silent 35mm nitrate film. Leo Enticknap describes the difference between the two: “Crudely, toning colors the black and tinting the white.”[4] With the advent of optical sound, tinting and toning were abandoned because the color dye altered the density of the emulsion and the way in which sound was amplified. Kodak’s response to this complication was the introduction of Sonochrome Sound Print film, a stock that was pre-colored and available in 17 different tints but was a “commercial disaster.”[5]

The desire to capture natural color led to new chemical developments in the laboratory, resulting in a variety of film stocks and developing processes. Scientists learned that adding or subtracting various wavelengths of light would color photographs. An additive system transmits separate red, green and blue (RGB) light sources to produce specific shades, whereas a subtractive system reflects light through filters to remove the red, green and blue light.[6] “From 1894 through 1961, more than 100 additive and subtractive color processes were developed for the motion-picture industry.”[7] The earliest manifestations of color photography were additive systems, which worked with existing monochromatic film stock.

Kinemacolor, first demonstrated publicly in 1908, and Dufaycolor, were two of the more well-known of the additive color processes.[8] Ultimately, both options were not viewed as economical and eventually phased out: Kinemacolor required a non-standard camera and projector and Dufaycolor required a costly, 4-bath developing process. Another system of additive color – known as the lenticular process – used stripes of RGB filters to cover the lens. One example is Kodacolor, which was produced by Eastman Kodak for 16mm cameras from 1928-37. Because the lenticular processes required special cameras and projectors, the development translated to higher costs for both exhibitors and film producers.

Evolving from its initial two-strip process, Technicolor emerged in 1932 as the first three-color subtractive dye-transfer system. Taking into consideration the lessons learned from the additive color systems, Technicolor sought to standardize the technology in an attempt to secure its viability:

The Technicolor camera combined the principle of mechanical, additive color with the technique upon which tripack color coupler processes would later depend: exposing each color record individually.[9]

Technicolor cameras held three separate rolls of 35mm monochrome film stock, to record the subtractive negative colors (cyan, magenta, and yellow) as three RGB positives produced from three negatives; these negatives were then bleached and the silver halide was replaced with the proper formulation of color. A fourth film then needed to be made by compiling the three films. Incredibly stable, the format required a large, specialized camera.

“Becky Sharp,” released in 1935, was the first feature film to be produced in Technicolor and demonstrated the power that color could add to a narrative film. But even with sharp, high-quality prints, Technicolor lacked the long-term staying power. Costs were astronomical, as it was essential for studios to purchase three times as much film stock, rent the specialized cameras, invest in lighting design, and make expensive prints. One critical feature of Technicolor, which also contributed to its demise was, as Enticknap describes, the “package” system, in which studios were obligated to hire consultants who often exerted uncompromising creative control over projects.[10]

The Birth of Kodachrome

Eastman Kodak introduced 16mm Kodachrome film stock in April 1935.[11] Leopold Mannes and Leopold Godowsky, musicians by trade and filmmakers by hobby, pioneered the “dye coupler” or “chromogenic” process.[12] Building off of the ideas of scientist Rudolph Fischer, “God and Man” (as the two Leos are often referred) experimented with the photographic chemistry in sinks and bath tubs.[13],[14] Their in-home developments soon drew the attention of Eastman Kodak’s Director of Research, C.E. Kenneth Mees, who began providing them with supplies.[15] In 1930, Kodak hired them and they relocated their laboratory to Rochester, NY. Mannes and Godowsky pioneered a way to ensure that the sensitizing dyes and couplers (color-forming chemicals) did not wander from layer to layer, the chief set-back for the pioneer Fischer.[16] When Kodachrome was first introduced in 1935, couplers were not used in each layer but integrated in the three separate developers, a process that Zakia and Stroebel describe as “quite complicated.”[17] Three light-sensitive layers, which each contain separate black-and-white emulsions with different color sensitivities comprise the Kodachrome stock.[18] Situated in superimposed layers, the top layer is sensitive to blue light, middle sensitive to green, and the bottom layer is sensitive to red. Fading marred Kodachrome’s first three years on the market, but adjustments made to the coupler-development process in 1938 ensured lasting color stability.[19]

The 16mm Kodachrome stock was reversal (direct positive) and can be identified by black around the perforations with white (or light colored) markings. Two types of stock exist: the original Kodachrome (marked “Kodachrome Safety”) and “Eastman Rev Color Safety Film.”[20] The soundtracks on the two stocks differ, as the former has a yellow or brown (sulfite) soundtrack and the latter has a grey/silver soundtrack.

Following the dye-coupler discovery, the creation of “masked coupler emulsions” was the next wave of technology to impact the world of color moving image photography.[21] In 1950, Eastman Color emerged as a less expensive alternative to Kodachrome and Technicolor. It did not require specialized equipment and, as opposed to Kodachrome (which was reversal), was camera negative, which meant that prints could be mass-produced from the negative. Unfortunately, however, Eastman Color was quite prone to color loss and had a short life span (3-6 years) in its early years. Subsequently, a lower fade version was released (in 1977). This is misleading. It might help to re-read the section on dye fading in Enticknap (194-5)

What separates Kodachrome from the rest of the color film stocks that emerged in this era? “Sharp,” “crisp,” and “stable” are common adjectives used when the authors surveyed describe Kodachrome film. Toni Treadwell and Bill Brodsky boldly state: “Simply put, Kodachrome is the most outstanding film Kodak ever invented and for many years their best kept secret.”[22] It has been noted, however, that Kodachrome’s tendency to oversaturate yellows and reds, and undersaturate blues, created a “golden, nostalgic-feeling color tone.” [23] The innovative technology makes it a landmark invention in the history of film.

Main User Groups & Environments

Popular with amateur filmmakers due to the modest cost and manageable size of the cameras, aspiring auteurs used 16mm film to make a variety of moving pictures within the non-professional realm. As previously noted, Kodachrome was a reversal stock, which meant that the camera original film was developed into a positive. Because its chief competitor, Technicolor, required the use of very large and cumbersome cameras, the professional realm experimented with the use of Kodachrome in the 1940s. The significant cost of mass-production and the sacrifice of image quality ultimately swayed the professional sector away from Kodachrome.[24] Thus, Technicolor remained the mainstay for mainstream Hollywood features that could pay for the multiple dye-transfer processes.

Cameras and Projectors

16mm Kodachrome film can be projected on standard 16mm projectors. “The cameras and projectors were portable, lightweight, and easy to operate.”[25] Eastman Kodak’s first 16mm camera, the hand-cranked Cine-Kodak was made from die-cast aluminum and measured 8 ½'' × 8'' × 4 5/8'' and held a maximum 100 feet of film.[26] The Cine-Kodak was first marketed and sold in a package, which included camera, tripod, projector, screen, and splicer for $325.[27] As popular as 16mm would become, it’s important to note that it was not cheap: according to the Federal Reserve Bank of Minneapolis’ inflation calculator, the cost would be $3,920.91, when adjusted to 2007 dollars. Market competitors in the U.S., Bell & Howell, Vitascope, Keystone, DeVry, and Kemco, all released 16mm cameras of varying quality in the late 1920s and early 1930s. In Europe, the German company Niezoldi & Kramer Gmbh was the first to produce a 16mm camera, but other countries soon followed suit, including Ensign (England), Agfa, Siemens, and Zeiss (Germany), and Bolex-Paillard, (Switzerland).[28] During World War II the most common cameras were the Bell & Howell 16mm Filmo, the B&H 16mm magazine camera, and the 16mm Kodak Cine Special movie camera.[29]

Typical and Noteworthy Content

The format was predominantly used for amateur films; genre-wise, the majority of 16mm Kodachrome films were travelogue/expedition, home movie, industrial, and military. Philanthropists and adventurists, Francis and Helen Line, filmed extensively in 16mm Kodachrome over the course of their travels during the 1930s and 1940s.[30] The phenomenal success of 16mm film prompted Kodak to establish processing laboratories in major cities across the country, and even on some ocean liners, which meant that “affluent movie makers did not have to wait for their European trip to be over before getting their film processed.”[31]

In 1944, a unique group of Hollywood professionals was selected for a special project of the U.S. Army's Signal Corps. Their assignment was to capture army combat, following troops from Paris through Normandy and Berlin. Although the special film production unit – tagged "Stevens's Irregulars" – shot on 35mm black-and-white newsreel stock, legendary film director (and Lieutenant Colonel) George Stevens shot army combat photography with his personal 16mm camera and Kodachrome film. It’s interesting to note that, fifty years later, Stevens’ son compiled a documentary with his father’s color-stable footage: “George Stevens: D-Day To Berlin.” According to Adrian Wood’s research on World War II color photography, 16mm was the most common format, and eighty percent was Kodachrome.[32]

To capture the vibrancy of distinctive corners of the world, 16mm Kodachrome was used to shoot expeditionary films commonly in the years following World War II. “The combination of sound and color technologies represented a whole new cinematic palette for aestheticizing, commodifying and consuming African landscapes.”[33] Safari filmmakers aimed to capture the contrasts between African life and life in the U.S. and found Kodachrome’s sharp, high-contrast film to be a perfect fit, opening a “rainbow of aesthetic opportunities.” [34]

Kodachrome Today

Countless hours of fine-grain, high-contrast color images have been captured on Kodachrome film over the course of the last 70 years. Due to its color stability, the images have endured for years with minimal fading. On May 9, 2005, in celebration of Super 8 film’s 40th anniversary, Kodak introduced a new Super 8 product – Kodak Ektachrome 64T Color Reversal Film 7280. The announcement appears to be Kodak’s conscientious attempt to mask the fact one of its most revered products was being discontinued (due to “marketplace dynamics”): 8mm Kodachrome film. “Sales of Kodachrome 16mm films will continue, unaffected by this announcement,” reported the official press release.[35] A small, dedicated group lamented the death of Super 8 Kodachrome, organizing petitions, and voicing dissent on message boards and blogs. But, to a society that now relies heavily on digital photography, these cries fell on deaf ears.[36]

Just over one year later, Kodak announced the death of Kodachrome: on June 6, 2006, their official press release reported that “we [Kodak] have exited the Kodachrome motion picture portfolio, and have announced the end dates to Kodak processing for those product lines -- giving customers at least six months lead time in which to submit their film to Kodak for processing.” [37] A letter from a Kodak UK reported that "Due to declining demand in Europe, Kodak Ltd will no longer be able to supply Kodachrome 16mm 100ft (Catalogue No. 5053327).”[38] Brodsky and Treadwell advise Kodachrome enthusiasts to freeze any remaining supply to maintain color reliability. Ektachrome 100D 7285 Color Reversal Film has been suggested as an alternative to Kodachrome.

How does Ektachrome differ from Kodachrome?

Bibliography

“40th Anniversary of Super 8 film.” Kodak Press Release May 19, 2005.

, Accessed

November 5, 2007.

Kodak issued this press release to introduce a new color reversal film stock and

outline the future of Super 8 and 16mm Kodachrome film. Economic factors are

cited as the reason for Super 8’s discontinuation. The “Q&A” section describes

the specific rationale for Kodak’s maintaining the 16mm product. The press release, a primary document, is very useful in understanding the company’s public stance on their product line.

Association of Moving Image (AMIA). “Black and White vs. Color.” The Home Film

Preservation Guide. , Accessed September 14,

2007.

In its discussion of black-and-white versus color film, the Guide notes that early

Kodachrome stock (1935-1938) was susceptible to fading. Also, it provides a

brief history of unnatural and natural color processes.

Bankston, Douglas. “The Color-Space Conundrum.” American Cinematographer 86

No. 1 (January 2005): 88-90, 92, 94, 96, 98-100, 102-10.

This fairly technical article details the evolution of color photography for motion

picture film, from the cinematographer’s perspective.

Brodsky, Bob and Toni Treadway. “Kodachrome, the Venerable, Late-lamented

Beauty.” Little Film (online). , Accessed November 1, 2007.

Renowned small gauge enthusiasts, Brodsky and Treadwell’s site maintains information on the status of Kodachrome film and discusses a number of factors which have led them to consider it as one of the most stable color film stocks.

Enticknap, Leo. Moving Image Technology. London: Wallflower, 2005.

Enticknap’s chapter, “Colour,” proved indispensable in parsing together the

history of color moving images. He traces the evolution from hand painting

through toning and tinting and up to the current practices of the 1990s. The

information on Kodachrome, specifically as it relates to the economic and

technological arenas, was incredibly useful.

Hope, Thomas W. “Photographing a War: World War II.” SMPTE Motion Imaging

Journal 116 no. 7/8 (July-Aug 2007): 287-95.

Discussing photography and the U.S. Army in the context of World War II, Hope

highlights the work of one army combat photography unit that used 16mm Kodachrome, known as “Stevens’ Irregulars.”

Horenstein, Henry. Color Photograph: A Working Manual. Boston: Little, Brown and

Company, 1995: 11-16.

Dedicated entirely to the art and science of color photography, this book’s

introduction laid a helpful foundation in understanding the basics of the coupler-

dye process.

Ivester, Paul. “Guide to Identifying Color Movie Film Stocks.” Paul’s 16mm Film

Collecting Pages (website). , Accessed October 4, 2007.

This site contains a wealth of information on 16mm formats, but of particular

note is the physical descriptions of 16mm Kodachrome.

Kattelle, Alan D. “The Evolution of Amateur Motion Picture Equipment 1895-1965.”

Journal of Film and Video 38:3-4 (Summer-Fall 1986): 47-57.

This article outlines the history of film equipment and how the adaptations in film

gauge and camera design increased the number of amateur photographers.

The invention of Kodachrome is described with biographical information on the

inventors.

Kaufman, Debra. “WWII Combat in Color.” American Cinematographer 84 no. 2 26

(Fall 2003): 28-31.

This article provides background on the production of “The Perilous Fight:

American’s World War II in Color.” The author highlights the use of 16mm Kodachrome film.

“Kodachrome 16mm RIP.” (website).

, Accessed

November 3, 2007.

Although it was difficult to locate information on Kodak’s site about the current availability of 16mm Kodachrome, it was not until this Kodak UK letter was found that confirm that Kodak no longer produces 16mm Kodachrome.

Kodak, “History of Kodak: Milestones 1930-1959.” Kodak online

, Accessed

October 4, 2007.

This overview of Kodak’s history notes the emergence of Kodachrome in the

amateur film market and provides the dates of these developments.

Kodak, “Kodak announces end dates for Kodachrome motion picture film processing.”

Kodak (online) , Accessed November 2, 2007.

The subject of the press release pretty much sums it up: this is Kodak’s official

statement on the end to Kodachrome processing.

National Film Preservation Board. Film Preservation Guide. San Francisco: National

Film Preservation Board, 2004.

Section 2.4 outlines the basics of color film and notes the color stability of

Kodachrome stock.

Nyström, Jan-Eric. “History of sub-35 mm Film Formats & Cameras.” Welcome to Ani-

mato! (2003-2005). < >, (Accessed September 20,

2007).

This website, which contains information on animation, special effects, and film,

contains a broad overview of the evolution of film formats and cameras. Great

images are included, as well, of 16mm cameras.

Read, Paul. “Unnatural Colors” Presentation. Given on September 18, 2007 at George

Eastman House in Rochester, NY.

Read’s PowerPoint presentation reviewed the history of tinting and toning,

providing a wealth of inforatmion on early color processed.

Spencer, Morgan “Kodak, don’t take my Kodachrome!” New York Times. 31 May 2005

Discussing the demise of Super 8 Kodachrome, Spencer outlines what enthusiasts cite as the beauty of the medium. He also includes information on the public’s response to Kodak’s discontinuation.

Staples, Amy J. “Safari Adventure: Forgotten Cinematic Journeys in Africa.”

Film History 18:4 (2006): 392-411.

In her discussion of safari films, Staples discusses the post-World War II

proliferation of the genre. She cites the emergence of color film – particularly

Kodachrome – as instrumental, as the vibrancy of color helped capture the

African landscape.

Zakia, Richard D. and Stroebel, Leslie. Focal Encyclopedia of Photography. St. Louis,

MO: Focal Press, 1993.

This encyclopedia served as a fantastic reference for understanding the history

and science of natural color processes

-----------------------

[1] Alan Katelle, “The Evolution of Amateur Motion Picture Equipment 1895-1965.” p. 55.

[2] Kodak, “Chronology of MP Films – 1889 to 1939.” (Accessed September 20, 2007)

[3] Leo Enticknap, Moving Image Technology, p. 76.

[4] Ibid, p. 77.

[5] Paul Read, “Unnatural Colors” Presentation. Given on September 18, 2007 at George Eastman House in Rochester, NY.

[6] Henry Horenstein, Color Photograph: A Working Manual, p. 12.

[7] Douglas Bankston,“The Color-Space Conundrum.” American Cinematographer, p. 98.

[8] Enticknap, p. 80.

[9] Ibid, p. 86.

[10] Ibid, p. 89.

[11] Katelle, p. 52.

[12] Enticknap, p. 90.

[13] Katelle, p. 54.

[14] In 1912, Rudolph Fischer applied for a patent for dye-coupling development, the integral tripack: “Three positives may be obtained in one operation by the use of three superposed emulsion layers sensitized for the particular colors, and in which the substances necessary for the formation of the colors are incorporated.” Zakia & Stroebel, p. 141.

[15] Ibid, p. 141.

[16] According to archive film producer Adrian Wood, a three-strip color system was created by the Soviets in 1935/36. This discovery, which has not been documented elsewhere in the annals of history, was made at a Soviet film archive in the late-1980s while Wood was researching the production of a new film (Kaufman, p. 28).

[17] Zakia and Stroebel, p. 141.

[18] Horenstein, p. 11.

[19] “Film Specifics: Stocks and Soundtracks.” Film Forever (website).

[20] Ivester, Paul. “Guide to Identifying Color Movie Film Stocks.”

[21] Enticknap, p. 92.

[22] Brodsky & Treadwell, “Kodachrome: The Venerable, Late-Lamented Beauty.”

[23] David Ryan, Review of “George Stevens: D-Day to Berlin”, April 20th, 2005.

[24] Enticknap, p. 95.

[25] National Film Preservation Board, Film Preservation Guide, p. 7.

[26] Katelle, p. 51.

[27] (Accessed November 6, 2007).

[28] Katelle, pg. 54.

[29] Hope, p. 89.

[30] Kaufman, p. 29.

[31] Katelle, p. 54.

[32] Kaufman, p. 29.

[33] Staples, p. 400.

[34] Ibid, p. 401.

[35] Kodak Press Release “40th Anniversary of Super 8 film,” May 5, 2005.

[36] Morgan, Spencer. “Kodak, don’t take my Kodachrome!” New York Times. May 31, 2005.

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