1_12_2017_19_9_7 ... - All Documents | The World Bank



-457200425450A REPROSPECTIVE ANALYSIS OF THE ROLE OF ISOLATED AND MINI GRIDS IN POWER SYSTEM DEVELOPMENT00A REPROSPECTIVE ANALYSIS OF THE ROLE OF ISOLATED AND MINI GRIDS IN POWER SYSTEM DEVELOPMENTNovember 2017 | Conference EditionESMAP MissionThe Energy Sector Management Assistance Program (ESMAP) is a global knowledge and technical assistance program administered by the World Bank. It provides analytical and advisory services to low- and middle-income countries to increase their know-how and institutional capacity to achieve environmentally sustainable energy solutions for poverty reduction and economic growth. ESMAP is funded by Australia, Austria, Denmark, the European Commission, Finland, France, Germany, Iceland, Italy, Japan, Lithuania, Luxemburg, the Netherlands, Norway, The Rockefeller Foundation, Sweden, Switzerland, and the United Kingdom, as well as the World Bank.Copyright ? November 2017The International Bank for Reconstructionand Development / THE WORLD BANK GROUP1818 H Street, NW | Washington DC 20433 | USAWritten by: Castalia Cover Photo: ? Sunita Chikkatur Dubey. Permission required for reuseEnergy Sector Management Assistance Program (ESMAP) reports are published to communicate the results of ESMAP’s work to the development community. Some sources cited in this report may be informal documents not readily available.The findings, interpretations, and conclusions expressed in this report are entirely those of the author(s) and should not be attributed in any manner to the World Bank, or its affiliated organizations, or to members of its board of executive directors for the countries they represent, or to ESMAP. The World Bank and ESMAP do not guarantee the accuracy of the data included in this publication and accept no responsibility whatsoever for any consequence of their use. The boundaries, colors, denominations, and other information shown on any map in this volume do not imply on the part of the World Bank Group any judgment on the legal status of any territory or the endorsement of acceptance of such boundaries.The text of this publication may be reproduced in whole or in part and in any form for educational or nonprofit uses, without special permission provided acknowledgement of the source is made. Requests for permission to reproduce portions for resale or commercial purposes should be sent to the ESMAP Manager at the address below. ESMAP encourages dissemination of its work and normally gives permission promptly. The ESMAP Manager would appreciate receiving a copy of the publication that uses this publication for its source sent in care of the address above. All images remain the sole property of their source and may not be used for any purpose without written permission from the source.ACKNOWLEDGEMENTSThis study was enriched by email exchanges and personal interaction with key professionals in the energy field, from academia, the public and the private sector. We would like to sincerely thank Mr. Jon Exel (The World Bank) for the opportunity to conduct this work. His guidance was essential throughout. A number of excellent reviews were received from: Mr. Dan Waddle (NRECA), Mr. Chris Greacen (Independent Consultant), Mrs. Liliana Vivanco (The World Bank), Professor Mark O'Malley (University College Dublin), Mr. Michael A. Toman (The World Bank), Mr. James Knuckles (Independent Consultant), Dr. Constantinos Taliotis (Kungliga Tekniska h?gskolan), Ms. Gabriela Pe?a Balderrama (Kungliga Tekniska h?gskolan & Universidad Mayor de San Simón) and Mr. Ioannis Pappis (Kungliga Tekniska h?gskolan). This study would not have been possible without their generous and insightful cooperation. None of these individuals, should be held responsible for any erroneous facts or interpretations. Any remaining errors are solely the responsibility of the authors.GLOSSARYAC: Alternating CurrentMV: Medium VoltageARECA: Alaska Rural Electric Cooperative AssociationMW: Mega WattAVEC: Alaska Village Electric CooperativeNRECA: National Rural Electric Cooperative AssociationBOOT: Built – Own – Operate – TransferPGCIL: Power Grid Corporation of India LimitedBPA: Bonneville Power AdministrationPPA: Purchase Power AgreementCEB: Central Electricity BoardREA: Rural Electrification AdministrationCo-op: CooperativeRVEP: Remote Village Electrification ProgramDC: Direct CurrentSA: Systemas Aislados (Island Systems in Bolivia)EDC: Electricité Du Cambodge (Electricity of Cambodia)SDG: Sustainable Development GoalENDE: Empresa Nacional de Electricidad (National Electricity Company in Bolivia)SEB: State Electricity BoardsGW: Giga WattSIN: Sistema Interconectado National (National Interconnected System in Bolivia)HV: High VoltageSPD: Small Power DistributorsIEA: International Energy AgencyTVA: Tennessee Valley AuthoritykW: kilo WattMV: Medium VoltagekWh: kilo-watt-hourMW: Mega WattLV: Low VoltageNRECA: National Rural Electric Cooperative AssociationKEY TERMINOLOGYCentralized generation: Refers to the large-scale generation of electricity at centralized facilities, located usually away from end-users and connected to a network of high-voltage transmission lines ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "URL" : "", "abstract" : "This page describes the large-scale generation of electricity at centralized facilities, the role it plays in the U.S. electric power grid, and its impacts on the environment.", "accessed" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2017", "6", "16" ] ] }, "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "US EPA", "given" : "", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "id" : "ITEM-1", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2017" ] ] }, "title" : "Centralized Generation of Electricity and its Impacts on the Environment", "type" : "webpage" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(US EPA 2017a)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(US EPA 2017a)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(US EPA 2017a)" }, "properties" : { "noteIndex" : 0 }, "schema" : "" }(US EPA 2017a). Distributed generation: Refers to a variety of technologies that generate and distribute electricity at or near where it will be used. It may serve selected loads in the vicinity or it may be part of a greater system (regional and/or national grid)ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "URL" : "", "abstract" : "When connected to the electric utility\u2019s lower voltage distribution lines, distributed generation can help support delivery of clean, reliable power to additional customers and reduce electricity losses along transmission and distribution lines.", "accessed" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2017", "6", "16" ] ] }, "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "US EPA", "given" : "", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "id" : "ITEM-1", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2017" ] ] }, "title" : "Distributed Generation of Electricity and its Environmental Impacts", "type" : "webpage" }, "uris" : [ "" ] }, { "id" : "ITEM-2", "itemData" : { "DOI" : "10.1016/j.enpol.2003.10.004", "ISSN" : "03014215", "abstract" : "This paper starts from the observation that there is a renewed interest in small-scale electricity generation. The authors start with a survey of existing small-scale generation technologies and then move on with a discussion of the major benefits and issues of small-scale electricity generation. Different technologies are evaluated in terms of their possible contribution to the listed benefits and issues. Small-scale generation is also commonly called distributed generation, embedded generation or decentralised generation. In a final section, an attempt is made to define the latter concepts more precisely. It appears that there is no consensus on a precise definition as the concept encompasses many technologies and applications.", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Pepermans", "given" : "G.", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Driesen", "given" : "J.", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Haeseldonckx", "given" : "D.", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Belmans", "given" : "R.", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "D\u2019haeseleer", "given" : "W.", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "Energy Policy", "id" : "ITEM-2", "issue" : "6", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2005" ] ] }, "page" : "787-798", "title" : "Distributed generation: definition, benefits and issues", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "33" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(US EPA 2017b; Pepermans et al. 2005)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(US EPA 2017b; Pepermans et al. 2005)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(US EPA 2017b; Pepermans et al. 2005)" }, "properties" : { "noteIndex" : 0 }, "schema" : "" }(US EPA 2017b; Pepermans et al. 2005).On-grid electricity systems: Systems (either centralized or distributed) that are connected to the main national power grid ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "DOI" : "10.1596/978-1-4648 -0690-2", "ISBN" : "9781464802003", "abstract" : "The first SE4All Global Tracking Framework (GTF 2013) es-tablished a consensus-based methodology and identified concrete indicators for tracking global progress toward the three SE4All objectives. One is to ensure universal ac-cess to modern energy services. The second is to double the global rate of improvement in energy efficiency. And the third is to double the share of renewable energy in the global energy mix. GTF 2013 also presented a data plat-form drawing on national data records for more than 180 countries, which together account for more than 95 per-cent of the global population. And it documented the his-torical evolution of selected indicators over 1990\u20132010, establishing a baseline for charting progress. GTF 2015 presents an update on how fast the world has been moving toward the goal of sustainable energy for all. This second edition of the SE4All Global Tracking Framework (GTF 2015) provides an update on how fast the world has been moving toward the three objectives. Based on the latest data, it reports progress on selected indicators over the two-year tracking period 2010\u201312 and determines whether move-ment has been fast enough to meet the 2030 goals. Overall progress over the tracking period falls substantially short of what is required to attain the SE4All objectives by 2030. Across all dimensions of sustainable energy for all \u2014 whether access, efficiency, or renewables \u2014 the rate of progress during the 2010\u201312 tracking period falls sub-stantially short of the rate that would be needed to ensure that the three objectives are met by 2030 (figure 1). Nev-ertheless, the 2010\u201312 tracking period does present some encouraging acceleration in progress relative to what was observed in prior decades. Efforts must be redoubled to get back on track; particularly in countries with large access deficits and high energy consumption whose rate of progress carries substantial weight in the global aggregate.", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "IEA", "given" : "", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "The World Bank", "given" : "", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "id" : "ITEM-1", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2015" ] ] }, "title" : "Progress Toward Sustainable Energy 2015: Global Tracking Framework Report", "type" : "book" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(IEA and The World Bank 2015)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(IEA and The World Bank 2015)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(IEA and The World Bank 2015)" }, "properties" : { "noteIndex" : 0 }, "schema" : "" }(IEA and The World Bank 2015).Off-grid electricity systems: Systems that are not tied to the national grid, operate autonomously on island mode, and can satisfy electricity demand through local power generation and distribution ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "abstract" : "The International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA) is an intergovernmental organisation that supports countries in their transition to a sustainable energy future, and serves as the principal platform for international cooperation, a centre of excellence, and a repository of policy, technology, resource and financial knowledge on renewable energy. IRENA promotes the widespread adoption and sustainable use of all forms of renewable energy, including bioenergy, geothermal, hydropower, ocean, solar and wind energy, in the pursuit of sustainable development, energy access, energy security and low-carbon economic growth and prosperity. Acknowledgements This working paper is the result of the collective input from IRENA staff members working on different aspects of off-grid renewable energy systems. The final report has benefited from valuable comments provided by external reviewers", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "IRENA", "given" : "", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "id" : "ITEM-1", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2015" ] ] }, "number-of-pages" : "36", "title" : "OFF-GRID RENEWABLE ENERGY SYSTEMS: STATUS AND METHODOLOGICAL ISSUES", "type" : "report" }, "uris" : [ "" ] }, { "id" : "ITEM-2", "itemData" : { "DOI" : "10.1016/j.rser.2015.12.338", "ISBN" : "1364-0321", "ISSN" : "18790690", "abstract" : "Access to electric power supply has always had a significant role in promoting improvements in all the society sectors, nevertheless nowadays 1.3 billion of people still do not have electricity access. Moreover, most of them live in rural areas of developing countries which are often isolated, scattered populated and characterized by poor infrastructure and services. In this situation, the growing consideration towards the target of universal access to energy has emphasized the role of rural electrification, and off-grid small-scale generation represents one of the most appropriate options. As a consequence, the scientific literature has devoted attention to this topic with a large number of papers. In this frame, the present analysis focuses on off-grid systems for rural electrification and provides a general framework to this topic and an analytical review of the literature. The work is based on the review of more than 350 papers mainly published from 2000 to 2014 within selected journals, and it is organized in two sections. In the first one we describe the role of small-scale generation systems throughout the process of electrification, the main features of rural areas and their typical energy uses, and we propose a new comprehensive taxonomy for off-grid systems for rural electrification. In the second one we develop an extensive review of the selected literature according to the proposed classification and to five main research areas: Technology: layout and components; Models and methods for simulation and sizing; Techno-economic feasibility analyses and sustainability analyses; Case studies analyses; Policy analyses. The work results in a comprehensive review which organizes and capitalizes the main fundamentals of the addressed topic and provides elements to get acquainted with the literature.", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Mandelli", "given" : "Stefano", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Barbieri", "given" : "Jacopo", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Mereu", "given" : "Riccardo", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Colombo", "given" : "Emanuela", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews", "id" : "ITEM-2", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2016" ] ] }, "page" : "1621-1646", "title" : "Off-grid systems for rural electrification in developing countries: Definitions, classification and a comprehensive literature review", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "58" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(IRENA 2015; Mandelli et al. 2016)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(IRENA 2015; Mandelli et al. 2016)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(IRENA 2015; Mandelli et al. 2016)" }, "properties" : { "noteIndex" : 0 }, "schema" : "" }(IRENA 2015; Mandelli et al. 2016).Under this perspective and for the purposes of this paper we define the following:Mini-Grids: Isolated power generation-distribution systems that are used to provide electricity to local communities (power output ranging from kilowatts to multiple megawatts) covering domestic, commercial and/or industrial demand. Mini-grids can exist in one of three states:Isolated (off-grid): The mini-grid, consisting of one or more generators, serves a local population and is not connected to a larger grid system.Grid-Connected (or on-grid): The mini-grid has its own generation facility, serves local needs but is also connected to a large grid. It can feed excess energy into the grid or can take energy from the grid when needed.Integrated: A mini-grid that previously operated in state 1 or 2 but which has now become integrated into the grid system both technically and operationally. It may or may not continue to have operational generation facilities. TABLE OF CONTENTS TOC \o "1-3" \h \z \u Acknowledgements PAGEREF _Toc497404455 \h iGlossary PAGEREF _Toc497404456 \h iiiKey terminology PAGEREF _Toc497404457 \h ivTable of Contents PAGEREF _Toc497404458 \h vIntroduction PAGEREF _Toc497404459 \h 1Historical approach to power systems development PAGEREF _Toc497404460 \h 2Country case studies PAGEREF _Toc497404461 \h 6USA PAGEREF _Toc497404462 \h 6a.Historical context PAGEREF _Toc497404463 \h 6b.Reflections PAGEREF _Toc497404464 \h 13UK PAGEREF _Toc497404465 \h 15a.Historical context PAGEREF _Toc497404466 \h 15b.Reflections PAGEREF _Toc497404467 \h 18Sweden PAGEREF _Toc497404468 \h 20a.Historical context PAGEREF _Toc497404469 \h 20b.Reflections PAGEREF _Toc497404470 \h 22China PAGEREF _Toc497404471 \h 23a.Historical context PAGEREF _Toc497404472 \h 23b.Reflections PAGEREF _Toc497404473 \h 25Case briefs PAGEREF _Toc497404474 \h 26Ireland PAGEREF _Toc497404475 \h 26India PAGEREF _Toc497404476 \h 26Bolivia PAGEREF _Toc497404477 \h 30Cambodia PAGEREF _Toc497404478 \h 33Discussion and Conclusions PAGEREF _Toc497404479 \h 35References PAGEREF _Toc497404480 \h 37INTRODUCTIONIt is generally accepted that modern energy services, and especially electricity, are a critical ingredient for economic growth, social progress, and prosperity ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "UN", "given" : "", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "id" : "ITEM-1", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2002" ] ] }, "number-of-pages" : "176", "publisher-place" : "Johannesburg", "title" : "Report of the World Summit on Sustainable Development", "type" : "report" }, "uris" : [ "" ] }, { "id" : "ITEM-2", "itemData" : { "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Modi", "given" : "Vijay", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "McDade", "given" : "Susan", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Lallement", "given" : "Dominique", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Saghir", "given" : "Jamal", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "id" : "ITEM-2", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2006" ] ] }, "number-of-pages" : "116", "publisher-place" : "New York", "title" : "Energy and the Millennium Development Goals", "type" : "report" }, "uris" : [ "" ] }, { "id" : "ITEM-3", "itemData" : { "DOI" : "10.1016/j.enpol.2009.01.021", "abstract" : "a b s t r a c t We develop a spatial electricity planning model to guide grid expansion in countries with low pre-existing electricity coverage. The model can be used to rapidly estimate connection costs and compare different regions and communities. Inputs that are modeled include electricity demand, costs, and geographic characteristics. The spatial nature of the model permits accurate representation of the existing electricity network and population distribution, which form the basis for future expansion decisions. The methodology and model assumptions are illustrated using country-specific data from Kenya. Results show that under most geographic conditions, extension of the national grid is less costly than off-grid options. Based on realistic penetration rates for Kenya, we estimate an average connection cost of $1900 per household, with lower-cost connection opportunities around major cities and in denser rural regions. In areas with an adequate pre-existing medium-voltage backbone, we estimate that over 30% of households could be connected for less than $1000 per connection through infilling. The penetration rate, an exogenous factor chosen by electricity planners, is found to have a large effect on household connection costs, often outweighing socio-economic and spatial factors such as inter-household distance, per-household demand, and proximity to the national grid.", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Parshall", "given" : "Lily", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Pillai", "given" : "Dana", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Mohan", "given" : "Shashank", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Sanoh", "given" : "Aly", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Modi", "given" : "Vijay", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "id" : "ITEM-3", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "0" ] ] }, "title" : "National electricity planning in settings with low pre-existing grid coverage: Development of a spatial model and case study of Kenya", "type" : "article-journal" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(UN 2002; Modi et al. 2006; Parshall et al. 2017)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(UN 2002; Modi et al. 2006; Parshall et al. 2017)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(UN 2002; Modi et al. 2006; Parshall et al. 2017)" }, "properties" : { "noteIndex" : 0 }, "schema" : "" }(UN 2002; Modi et al. 2006; Parshall et al. 2017). Taking into account the existing deficit of access to electricity services and coupling it with population projections, it is estimated that the population to be electrified by 2030 will surpass 2.5 billion people if universal access is to be achieved ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "DOI" : "10.1596/978-1-4648 -0690-2", "ISBN" : "9781464802003", "abstract" : "The first SE4All Global Tracking Framework (GTF 2013) es-tablished a consensus-based methodology and identified concrete indicators for tracking global progress toward the three SE4All objectives. One is to ensure universal ac-cess to modern energy services. The second is to double the global rate of improvement in energy efficiency. And the third is to double the share of renewable energy in the global energy mix. GTF 2013 also presented a data plat-form drawing on national data records for more than 180 countries, which together account for more than 95 per-cent of the global population. And it documented the his-torical evolution of selected indicators over 1990\u20132010, establishing a baseline for charting progress. GTF 2015 presents an update on how fast the world has been moving toward the goal of sustainable energy for all. This second edition of the SE4All Global Tracking Framework (GTF 2015) provides an update on how fast the world has been moving toward the three objectives. Based on the latest data, it reports progress on selected indicators over the two-year tracking period 2010\u201312 and determines whether move-ment has been fast enough to meet the 2030 goals. Overall progress over the tracking period falls substantially short of what is required to attain the SE4All objectives by 2030. Across all dimensions of sustainable energy for all \u2014 whether access, efficiency, or renewables \u2014 the rate of progress during the 2010\u201312 tracking period falls sub-stantially short of the rate that would be needed to ensure that the three objectives are met by 2030 (figure 1). Nev-ertheless, the 2010\u201312 tracking period does present some encouraging acceleration in progress relative to what was observed in prior decades. Efforts must be redoubled to get back on track; particularly in countries with large access deficits and high energy consumption whose rate of progress carries substantial weight in the global aggregate.", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "IEA", "given" : "", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "The World Bank", "given" : "", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "id" : "ITEM-1", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2015" ] ] }, "title" : "Progress Toward Sustainable Energy 2015: Global Tracking Framework Report", "type" : "book" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(IEA and The World Bank 2015)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(IEA and The World Bank 2015)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(IEA and The World Bank 2015)" }, "properties" : { "noteIndex" : 0 }, "schema" : "" }(IEA and The World Bank 2015). Achieving universal electrification (SDG 7) is thus an enormous task demanding appropriate technical, financial, social and regulatory support. The World Bank’s State of Energy Access Report (SEAR) provides a full context of these challenges as well as opportunities for addressing them. Various models and analyses show that both centralized and distributed power systems will be needed to achieve universal electricity access in a cost-effective ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Mentis", "given" : "Dimitrios", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "id" : "ITEM-1", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2017" ] ] }, "title" : "Spatially explicit electrification modelling insights Applications, benefits, limitations and an open tool for geospatial electrification modelling", "type" : "article-journal" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(Mentis 2017)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(Mentis 2017)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(Mentis 2017)" }, "properties" : { "noteIndex" : 0 }, "schema" : "" }(Mentis 2017) and sustainable manner ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "DOI" : "10.1016/j.rser.2013.08.044", "ISBN" : "1364-0321", "ISSN" : "13640321", "abstract" : "The present paper introduces the results of a spatial-economic analysis that identifies the least cost rural electrification options that can bring the persistent energy poverty to an end in Sub Saharan Africa. The rationale behind the analysis is that the applicable energy technologies have gone through fundamental changes and these have profound effects on the competitiveness of the various options. The least cost distributed generation options are calculated for each geographical location for mini hydro, off grid PV and diesel generators options and it is compared to the electricity grid extension. The methodology presented in this manuscript organises the scarcely available energy-related local and regional geo-information into comprehensible maps. The set of tools presented and the results based on those analyses can support decision and policy makers to plan for the least-cost rural electrification options while also adapting to the most effective way to reduce energy poverty. This can help in the national rural electrification plans by delineating which communities cannot be reached by existing grid without excessive extension costs and gives the alternative distributed generation option. \u00a9 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Szab\u00f3", "given" : "S.", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "B\u00f3dis", "given" : "K.", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Huld", "given" : "T.", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Moner-Girona", "given" : "M.", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews", "id" : "ITEM-1", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2013" ] ] }, "page" : "500-509", "publisher" : "Elsevier", "title" : "Sustainable energy planning: Leapfrogging the energy poverty gap in Africa", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "28" }, "uris" : [ "" ] }, { "id" : "ITEM-2", "itemData" : { "DOI" : "10.1088/1748-9326/6/3/034002", "ISBN" : "1748-9326", "ISSN" : "1748-9326", "abstract" : "Three rural electrification options are analysed showing the cost optimal conditions for a sustainable energy development applying renewable energy sources in Africa. A spatial electricity cost model has been designed to point out whether diesel generators, photovoltaic systems or extension of the grid are the least-cost option in off-grid areas. The resulting mapping application offers support to decide in which regions the communities could be electrified either within the grid or in an isolated mini-grid. Donor programs and National Rural Electrification Agencies (or equivalent governmental departments) could use this type of delineation for their program boundaries and then could use the local optimization tools adapted to the prevailing parameters.", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Szab\u00f3", "given" : "S", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "B\u00f3dis", "given" : "K", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Huld", "given" : "T", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Moner-Girona", "given" : "M", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "Environmental Research Letters", "id" : "ITEM-2", "issue" : "3", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2011" ] ] }, "page" : "034002", "title" : "Energy solutions in rural Africa: mapping electrification costs of distributed solar and diesel generation versus grid extension", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "6" }, "uris" : [ "" ] }, { "id" : "ITEM-3", "itemData" : { "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Mentis", "given" : "Dimitrios", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "id" : "ITEM-3", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2017" ] ] }, "title" : "Spatially explicit electrification modelling insights Applications, benefits, limitations and an open tool for geospatial electrification modelling", "type" : "article-journal" }, "uris" : [ "" ] }, { "id" : "ITEM-4", "itemData" : { "DOI" : "10.1016/j.rser.2015.12.338", "ISBN" : "1364-0321", "ISSN" : "18790690", "abstract" : "Access to electric power supply has always had a significant role in promoting improvements in all the society sectors, nevertheless nowadays 1.3 billion of people still do not have electricity access. Moreover, most of them live in rural areas of developing countries which are often isolated, scattered populated and characterized by poor infrastructure and services. In this situation, the growing consideration towards the target of universal access to energy has emphasized the role of rural electrification, and off-grid small-scale generation represents one of the most appropriate options. As a consequence, the scientific literature has devoted attention to this topic with a large number of papers. In this frame, the present analysis focuses on off-grid systems for rural electrification and provides a general framework to this topic and an analytical review of the literature. The work is based on the review of more than 350 papers mainly published from 2000 to 2014 within selected journals, and it is organized in two sections. In the first one we describe the role of small-scale generation systems throughout the process of electrification, the main features of rural areas and their typical energy uses, and we propose a new comprehensive taxonomy for off-grid systems for rural electrification. In the second one we develop an extensive review of the selected literature according to the proposed classification and to five main research areas: Technology: layout and components; Models and methods for simulation and sizing; Techno-economic feasibility analyses and sustainability analyses; Case studies analyses; Policy analyses. The work results in a comprehensive review which organizes and capitalizes the main fundamentals of the addressed topic and provides elements to get acquainted with the literature.", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Mandelli", "given" : "Stefano", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Barbieri", "given" : "Jacopo", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Mereu", "given" : "Riccardo", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Colombo", "given" : "Emanuela", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews", "id" : "ITEM-4", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2016" ] ] }, "page" : "1621-1646", "title" : "Off-grid systems for rural electrification in developing countries: Definitions, classification and a comprehensive literature review", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "58" }, "uris" : [ "" ] }, { "id" : "ITEM-5", "itemData" : { "DOI" : "10.1016/j.esd.2015.12.005", "ISSN" : "09730826", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Levin", "given" : "Todd", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Thomas", "given" : "Valerie M.", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "Energy for Sustainable Development", "id" : "ITEM-5", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2016", "4" ] ] }, "page" : "97-107", "title" : "Can developing countries leapfrog the centralized electrification paradigm?", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "31" }, "uris" : [ "" ] }, { "id" : "ITEM-6", "itemData" : { "DOI" : "10.1088/1748-9326/8/2/024015", "ISSN" : "1748-9326", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Pachauri", "given" : "Shonali", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Ruijven", "given" : "Bas J", "non-dropping-particle" : "van", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Nagai", "given" : "Yu", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Riahi", "given" : "Keywan", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Vuuren", "given" : "Detlef P", "non-dropping-particle" : "van", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Brew-Hammond", "given" : "Abeeku", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Nakicenovic", "given" : "Nebojsa", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "Environmental Research Letters", "id" : "ITEM-6", "issue" : "2", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2013", "6", "1" ] ] }, "page" : "024015", "publisher" : "IOP Publishing", "title" : "Pathways to achieve universal household access to modern energy by 2030", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "8" }, "uris" : [ "" ] }, { "id" : "ITEM-7", "itemData" : { "ISBN" : "9781107005198", "abstract" : "This report provides a high-level assessment of the progress to date, past policies and programs, and future scenarios related to modern energy access developed within the framework of the Global Energy Assessment (GEA). Providing universal access to modern energy for all is a goal increasingly discussed in international and national policy settings. Developing solutions to this challenge is one of the chief aims of policy makers, and for this reason this report attempts to synthesize a multitude of strategic insights that have resulted from the GEA analysis of this issue. The overarching objective of the report is to provide guidance on how to facilitate the achievement of universal access to clean-combusting cooking fuels and stoves, and rural electrification by 2030. Focus is given to assessing the situation at global and regional levels, as well as to the types of policies and measures that will be needed to ensure a successful household transition to modern energy in the next decades. Of particular note are the assessment of key success factors for enhancing access at a regional level, and estimation of investments required and impacts of achieving a 2030 universal modern energy access target. This report is complemented by two interactive, web-based analytical tools, which have been developed in support of this study: (1) the IIASA Energy Access Tool (Energy-ENACT), which permits the assessment of alternative future policy scenarios, including an estimation of investment needs and impacts at the global and regional scales; and (2) the GEA Scenario Database, which documents the full suite of GEA pathways in great detail, allowing the user to explore the consequences of different supply and demand-side technology choices for the feasibility and costs of reaching multiple energy objectives at both the global and regional levels.", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Pachauri", "given" : "Shonali", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Rao", "given" : "Narasimha", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Nagai", "given" : "Yu", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Riahi", "given" : "Keywan", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "Unido", "id" : "ITEM-7", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2012" ] ] }, "number-of-pages" : "60", "title" : "Access to modern energy: Assessment and outlook for developing and emerging regions", "type" : "book" }, "uris" : [ "" ] }, { "id" : "ITEM-8", "itemData" : { "DOI" : "10.1088/1748-9326/aa5b0d", "ISSN" : "1748-9326", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Rao", "given" : "Narasimha D", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Pachauri", "given" : "Shonali", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "Environmental Research Letters", "id" : "ITEM-8", "issue" : "2", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2017", "2", "1" ] ] }, "page" : "025011", "publisher" : "IOP Publishing", "title" : "Energy access and living standards: some observations on recent trends", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "12" }, "uris" : [ "" ] }, { "id" : "ITEM-9", "itemData" : { "DOI" : "10.1007/978-90-481-9594-7", "ISBN" : "978-90-481-9593-0", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Zerriffi", "given" : "Hisham", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "id" : "ITEM-9", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2011" ] ] }, "publisher" : "Springer", "publisher-place" : "Vancouver, BC, Canada", "title" : "Rural Electrification Strategies for Distributed Generation", "type" : "book" }, "uris" : [ "" ] }, { "id" : "ITEM-10", "itemData" : { "abstract" : "The International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA) is an intergovernmental organisation that supports countries in their transition to a sustainable energy future, and serves as the principal platform for international cooperation, a centre of excellence, and a repository of policy, technology, resource and financial knowledge on renewable energy. IRENA promotes the widespread adoption and sustainable use of all forms of renewable energy, including bioenergy, geothermal, hydropower, ocean, solar and wind energy, in the pursuit of sustainable development, energy access, energy security and low-carbon economic growth and prosperity. Acknowledgements This working paper is the result of the collective input from IRENA staff members working on different aspects of off-grid renewable energy systems. The final report has benefited from valuable comments provided by external reviewers", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "IRENA", "given" : "", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "id" : "ITEM-10", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2015" ] ] }, "number-of-pages" : "36", "title" : "OFF-GRID RENEWABLE ENERGY SYSTEMS: STATUS AND METHODOLOGICAL ISSUES", "type" : "report" }, "uris" : [ "" ] }, { "id" : "ITEM-11", "itemData" : { "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "IEA", "given" : "", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "id" : "ITEM-11", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2017" ] ] }, "number-of-pages" : "144", "publisher-place" : "Paris", "title" : "Energy Access Outlook 2017: From Poverty to Prosperity", "type" : "report" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(Szab\u00f3 et al. 2013, 2011; Mentis 2017; Mandelli et al. 2016; Levin and Thomas 2016; Pachauri et al. 2013a, 2012; Rao and Pachauri 2017; Zerriffi 2011; IRENA 2015; IEA 2017)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(Szab\u00f3 et al. 2013, 2011; Mentis 2017; Mandelli et al. 2016; Levin and Thomas 2016; Pachauri et al. 2013a, 2012; Rao and Pachauri 2017; Zerriffi 2011; IRENA 2015; IEA 2017)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(Szab\u00f3 et al. 2013, 2011; Mentis 2017; Mandelli et al. 2016; Levin and Thomas 2016; Pachauri et al. 2013a, 2012; Rao and Pachauri 2017; Zerriffi 2011; IRENA 2015; IEA 2017)" }, "properties" : { "noteIndex" : 0 }, "schema" : "" }(Szabó et al. 2013, 2011; Mentis 2017; Mandelli et al. 2016; Levin and Thomas 2016; Pachauri et al. 2013a, 2012; Rao and Pachauri 2017; Zerriffi 2011; IRENA 2015; IEA 2017). The IEA estimates that roughly half of the electricity consumed by newly electrified population in 2030 will be delivered by off-grid technologies ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "DOI" : "10.1787/weo-2011-en", "ISBN" : "9789264124134", "ISSN" : "00135127", "PMID" : "15615965", "abstract" : "(sand95)", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "OECD", "given" : "", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "IEA", "given" : "", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "", "id" : "ITEM-1", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2011" ] ] }, "page" : "577", "title" : "World Energy Outlook 2011", "type" : "article-journal" }, "uris" : [ "" ] }, { "id" : "ITEM-2", "itemData" : { "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "IEA", "given" : "", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "id" : "ITEM-2", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2017" ] ] }, "number-of-pages" : "144", "publisher-place" : "Paris", "title" : "Energy Access Outlook 2017: From Poverty to Prosperity", "type" : "report" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(OECD and IEA 2011; IEA 2017)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(OECD and IEA 2011; IEA 2017)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(OECD and IEA 2011)" }, "properties" : { "noteIndex" : 0 }, "schema" : "" }(OECD and IEA 2011; IEA 2017). This will involve both new technologies (e.g. small scale renewables) as well as new actors (e.g. start-up entrepreneurs, community groups, etc.). To date, much focus on electrification has been on large centralized power systems ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Mostert", "given" : "Wolfgang", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "id" : "ITEM-1", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2008" ] ] }, "number-of-pages" : "178", "title" : "Review of Experiences with Rural Electrification Agencies Lessons for Africa", "type" : "report" }, "uris" : [ "" ] }, { "id" : "ITEM-2", "itemData" : { "DOI" : "10.1016/j.esd.2015.12.001", "ISBN" : "0973-0826", "ISSN" : "09730826", "abstract" : "Africa is a resource-rich continent but lacks the required power infrastructure. Efforts such as the United Nations Sustainable Energy for All and U.S. President Obama's Power Africa initiatives aim to facilitate much needed investment. However, no systematic national and regional investment outlook is available to analysts. This paper examines indicative scenarios of power plant investments based on potential for electricity trade. OSeMOSYS, a cost-optimization tool for long-term energy planning, is used to develop least cost system configurations. The electricity supply systems of forty-seven countries are modelled individually and linked via trade links to form TEMBA (The Electricity Model Base for Africa). A scenario comparison up to 2040 shows that an enhanced grid network can alter Africa's generation mix and reduce electricity generation cost. The insights have important investment, trade and policy implications, as specific projects can be identified as of major significance, and thus receive political support and funding.", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Taliotis", "given" : "Constantinos", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Shivakumar", "given" : "Abhishek", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Ramos", "given" : "Eunice", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Howells", "given" : "Mark", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Mentis", "given" : "Dimitris", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Sridharan", "given" : "Vignesh", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Broad", "given" : "Oliver", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Mofor", "given" : "Linus", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "Energy for Sustainable Development", "id" : "ITEM-2", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2016" ] ] }, "page" : "50-66", "publisher" : "International Energy Initiative", "title" : "An indicative analysis of investment opportunities in the African electricity supply sector - Using TEMBA (The Electricity Model Base for Africa)", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "31" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(Mostert 2008; Taliotis et al. 2016)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(Mostert 2008; Taliotis et al. 2016)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(Mostert 2008; Taliotis et al. 2016)" }, "properties" : { "noteIndex" : 0 }, "schema" : "" }(Mostert 2008; Taliotis et al. 2016), while off-grid configurations tend to play a small, but rapidly emerging market segment. In the context of a technologically and institutionally dominant grid system, the supporting frameworks will have to be modified or created from scratch to facilitate the development of decentralized systems. Most importantly, these frameworks will have to regulate the interplay between on- and off-grid solutions in the development of national electricity systems.However, centralized grid systems have not always been the dominant form of generation and transmission of electricity. In fact, small isolated systems (mini-grids) were the initiating “spark” of electricity uptake some 130 years ago, and have played a pivotal role in the early development of most “modern” power systems. Few and disperse initially, their development was coupled with, and amplified by, the co-evolution of supply, demand, technology and policy. Gradually and as electricity systems became more complex, physical expansion and interconnection came as a natural consequence, leading to power systems as we know them today.This report provides the first historic overview of power system development focused on its evolution from distributed systems to centralized grid systems. It tracks the early development of power systems in several (now) middle- and high-income economies to inform the current drive to deploy new systems and achieve universal access to electricity services. We find that history can provide certain insights to a set of questions faced by today’s energy policy makers. Our review is non-comprehensive, but will hopefully provide fodder for future, more detailed historical research, and shed some light on the complex and fascinating role of mini- or isolated grids in power system development globally. HISTORICAL APPROACH TO POWER SYSTEMS DEVELOPMENTThe development of power systems began in several regions of the world in the second half of the 19th century, marking the start of a new era, characterized by disruptive innovation, rapid development and opportunity. Today, electric power systems constitute a fundamental pillar of modern societies and electricity is increasingly recognized as a crucial prerequisite for the achievement of socio-economic prosperity ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "UN", "given" : "", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "id" : "ITEM-1", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2002" ] ] }, "number-of-pages" : "176", "publisher-place" : "Johannesburg", "title" : "Report of the World Summit on Sustainable Development", "type" : "report" }, "uris" : [ "" ] }, { "id" : "ITEM-2", "itemData" : { "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Modi", "given" : "Vijay", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "McDade", "given" : "Susan", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Lallement", "given" : "Dominique", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Saghir", "given" : "Jamal", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "id" : "ITEM-2", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2006" ] ] }, "number-of-pages" : "116", "publisher-place" : "New York", "title" : "Energy and the Millennium Development Goals", "type" : "report" }, "uris" : [ "" ] }, { "id" : "ITEM-3", "itemData" : { "DOI" : "10.1596/ 978-1-4648-1084-8", "ISBN" : "978-1-4648-1084-8", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "International Energy Agency (IEA) and the World Bank", "given" : "", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "id" : "ITEM-3", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2017" ] ] }, "number-of-pages" : "208", "publisher" : "The World Bank", "publisher-place" : "Washington DC", "title" : "Sustainable Energy for All 2017\u2014Progress toward Sustainable Energy", "type" : "book" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(UN 2002; Modi et al. 2006; International Energy Agency (IEA) and the World Bank 2017)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(UN 2002; Modi et al. 2006; International Energy Agency (IEA) and the World Bank 2017)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(UN 2002; Modi et al. 2006; International Energy Agency (IEA) and the World Bank 2017)" }, "properties" : { "noteIndex" : 0 }, "schema" : "" }(UN 2002; Modi et al. 2006; International Energy Agency (IEA) and the World Bank 2017). The development of power systems was affected by multiple factors, some systemically endogenous, such as technical advancements, innovation, entrepreneurial drive and decisions, and some exogenous, such as economic principles, legislative constraints and support, institutional structures, historical contingencies and geographical aspects ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "ISBN" : "0801846145", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Hughes", "given" : "T P", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "Networks of Power - Electrification in Western Society, 1880-1930", "id" : "ITEM-1", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "1983" ] ] }, "page" : "1-17", "title" : "Introduction", "type" : "article", "volume" : "2" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(Hughes 1983)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(Hughes 1983)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(Hughes 1983)" }, "properties" : { "noteIndex" : 0 }, "schema" : "" }(Hughes 1983). While numerous paths have been followed over the years there was a common igniting point; small isolated power systems and mini-grids. Historically, areas with robust socioeconomic activity were the early adopters. Urban centers and productive facilities could foresee considerable improvements in their operations through the adoption of electricity. The first modern electric utility (the Pearl Street Station in Manhattan) was a thermal power plant fired by coal and initially served electricity for lamp lighting to about 80 customers via a DC distribution system ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "ISBN" : "0801846145", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Hughes", "given" : "T P", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "Networks of Power - Electrification in Western Society, 1880-1930", "id" : "ITEM-1", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "1983" ] ] }, "page" : "1-17", "title" : "Introduction", "type" : "article", "volume" : "2" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(Hughes 1983)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(Hughes 1983)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(Hughes 1983)" }, "properties" : { "noteIndex" : 0 }, "schema" : "" }(Hughes 1983). It was thus, by definition, an isolated mini-grid. From Pearl St. in New York City (1882) and Chicago in the US to London and Berlin in Europe, and Kimberly in South Africa, small generation units with limited distribution capacity started to emerge and operate autonomously in cities. Other similar systems emerged to provide electricity to industrial loads (e.g. in Sweden) or to serve particular populations (e.g. rural agricultural producers in the U.S.). Various factors supported the early deployment of decentralized electricity systems in areas of high demand density (urban areas and industrial facilities) or low cost supply (such as hydro sites). First, 19th and early 20th century’s technology did not allow for larger systems covering significant distances. Generation units were small and transmission capability limited. DC systems and early low voltage AC systems had physical limits that kept distribution local. Second, electricity demand was initially limited to a few services, such as public lighting. Third, as electric power systems were (and still remain) capital intensive, the maximization of electricity output, sales and thus returns has always been a key element of cost recovery. This was particularly evident through efforts to improve the load factor and the economic performance of these early electric power systems. As technologies improved, demand increased and the policy and regulatory regimes stabilized, larger generators could be built (taking advantage of economies of scale) and electricity could be transmitted over longer distances. These factors resulted in the emergence of centralized utilities (either privately or publicly owned). Typically, mini-grids either became integrated with one another forming the nucleus of a larger centralized system or were absorbed by a larger grid system as it expanded. An example of this can be seen visually by comparing maps over time of the evolution of the power system in the U.S. state of Pennsylvania (Figure 1). By 1900 there was a limited set of transmission lines already established linking major population centers. Over time, the network grew, different lines were connected to one another while smaller lines were built out to more and more communities. However, that process was not always a smooth one. For example, lack of technical coordination often resulted in the isolated mini-grids using different frequencies (e.g. Bolivia). This made their integration in a central grid challenging. Or, competing business and institutional interests, as isolated systems began to overlap, resulted in unfair competition and in significant stranded assets (e.g. UK). However, in time, the increasing variety of sources, loads and control nodes created the extensive and complex grid network as known today. Over the next pages we will try to uncover key elements of power system evolution in various countries, while examining the role and main struggles of early mini-grids in supporting country (or sub-national) power system development and aspirations.Figure 1. Development of electric power system in Pennsylvania (PP&L) between 1900 and 1930. The initially local mini-grid systems started getting interconnected as a means of coping with the growing, variable demand and achieving better economic performance ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "DOI" : "10.1177/030631289019001010", "ISBN" : "0262521377", "ISSN" : "03096300", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Hughes", "given" : "T.P.", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "The political economy of science, technology, and innovation", "id" : "ITEM-1", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "1987" ] ] }, "page" : "51\u201382", "title" : "The evolution of large technological systems", "type" : "article-journal" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(Hughes 1987)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(Hughes 1987)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(Hughes 1987)" }, "properties" : { "noteIndex" : 14 }, "schema" : "" }(Hughes 1987).4175760102870009556751111250096446713589000417585814414500CASE STUDIES DESCRIPTIONThis box presents a brief description of the case studies used to inform this paper.Case studies:USA: The USA saw the invention of the commercial incandescent light bulb in 1879, and installation of the first system for the distribution of electricity in 1882. Following that, private companies drove technological innovation and electricity access in the country. The electrification process started in urban areas and then expanded to rural areas, supported by the establishment of the Rural Electrification Agency in 1935. UK: Many of the early demonstrations and discoveries fundamental to the development of later electricity systems were made in the UK starting in the early 1700s. The first public experimental electrical supply was in 1881. By 1915 more than 600 isolated power systems operated across the country. Following that the UK government focused its efforts in providing efforts for the standardization and integration of the grids in a single national grid. Starting from 1947 the whole grid system was nationalized till full electrification.Sweden: In Sweden, starting from the late 19th century, electricity production for industrial customers drove the development of the electrical system. Several productive industries developed their own generating capacity. With a strong governmental support, these isolated power systems expanded throughout the country in order to serve the growing industrial and municipal electricity demand.China: China had its first small electrification projects at the end of the 19th century. However, electricity supply in China till 1949 was limited to a few urban areas. Electrification started progressing from 1949 when the People’s Republic of China was founded and accelerated rapidly after the market reforms of 1979. Through a top-down effort the country managed to provide access to electricity to more than 900 million people within 50 years, often through decentralized mini-grids. By 2012 China had achieved universal access to electricity.Case briefs:Ireland: Starting in the 1880s, the country saw a first phase of electrification driven by the private sector, followed in the 1920s by a centralized governmental effort for electrification. In Ireland, electrification was completed in the early 1980s, with some of the country’s smaller islands supplied with mini-grids.India: Soon after independence in 1947, India’s power system was organized in the form of five regional grids, which operated in isolated mode until 1989. Those regional grids became fully interconnected between 1991-2014. Despite considerable improvements in centralization of the power grid in the country, a significant part of the population remained for years (and in some cases still remains) without access to electricity. Off-grid solutions have emerged to fill this gap and successfully speed up electrification efforts in the country. Bolivia: Poor regulation in the electricity supply sector in the early days of electrification in Bolivia resulted in isolated systems developed under different frequencies and voltages, up to the establishment of the National Electricity Company in 1962 which set regulations for electricity provision. As of 2015, 44% of rural settlements still did not have access to electricity. Off-grid systems currently provide approximately 8% of the total generating capacity in the country.Cambodia: In Cambodia, the state reconstruction of the national power system started in the early 1990s. In rural areas in the country’s borders with Vietnam, Laos and Thailand electricity was supplied with off-grid systems through the private initiative of local entrepreneurs. Starting from the Electricity Act of 2002, the isolated mini-grids were exposed to a new set of regulations, which successfully integrated larger private mini-grids into the centralized system. That allowed mini-grid operators to divert their business models to the retail/distribution side without losing the commercial value of their assets.CASE STUDIES DESCRIPTIONThis box presents a brief description of the case studies used to inform this paper.Case studies:USA: The USA saw the invention of the commercial incandescent light bulb in 1879, and installation of the first system for the distribution of electricity in 1882. Following that, private companies drove technological innovation and electricity access in the country. The electrification process started in urban areas and then expanded to rural areas, supported by the establishment of the Rural Electrification Agency in 1935. UK: Many of the early demonstrations and discoveries fundamental to the development of later electricity systems were made in the UK starting in the early 1700s. The first public experimental electrical supply was in 1881. By 1915 more than 600 isolated power systems operated across the country. Following that the UK government focused its efforts in providing efforts for the standardization and integration of the grids in a single national grid. Starting from 1947 the whole grid system was nationalized till full electrification.Sweden: In Sweden, starting from the late 19th century, electricity production for industrial customers drove the development of the electrical system. Several productive industries developed their own generating capacity. With a strong governmental support, these isolated power systems expanded throughout the country in order to serve the growing industrial and municipal electricity demand.China: China had its first small electrification projects at the end of the 19th century. However, electricity supply in China till 1949 was limited to a few urban areas. Electrification started progressing from 1949 when the People’s Republic of China was founded and accelerated rapidly after the market reforms of 1979. Through a top-down effort the country managed to provide access to electricity to more than 900 million people within 50 years, often through decentralized mini-grids. By 2012 China had achieved universal access to electricity.Case briefs:Ireland: Starting in the 1880s, the country saw a first phase of electrification driven by the private sector, followed in the 1920s by a centralized governmental effort for electrification. In Ireland, electrification was completed in the early 1980s, with some of the country’s smaller islands supplied with mini-grids.India: Soon after independence in 1947, India’s power system was organized in the form of five regional grids, which operated in isolated mode until 1989. Those regional grids became fully interconnected between 1991-2014. Despite considerable improvements in centralization of the power grid in the country, a significant part of the population remained for years (and in some cases still remains) without access to electricity. Off-grid solutions have emerged to fill this gap and successfully speed up electrification efforts in the country. Bolivia: Poor regulation in the electricity supply sector in the early days of electrification in Bolivia resulted in isolated systems developed under different frequencies and voltages, up to the establishment of the National Electricity Company in 1962 which set regulations for electricity provision. As of 2015, 44% of rural settlements still did not have access to electricity. Off-grid systems currently provide approximately 8% of the total generating capacity in the country.Cambodia: In Cambodia, the state reconstruction of the national power system started in the early 1990s. In rural areas in the country’s borders with Vietnam, Laos and Thailand electricity was supplied with off-grid systems through the private initiative of local entrepreneurs. Starting from the Electricity Act of 2002, the isolated mini-grids were exposed to a new set of regulations, which successfully integrated larger private mini-grids into the centralized system. That allowed mini-grid operators to divert their business models to the retail/distribution side without losing the commercial value of their assets.Country case studiesUSAHistorical contextThe massive electric utility industry in the USA was driven by Edison’s invention of the first commercial incandescent light bulb in 1879. Soon after, in 1882, Edison started operating the first system for distribution of electricity. It consisted of a generating station (the Pearl Street Station in the heart of New York City) and a low-voltage direct-current (DC) distribution network over an area of approximately half square kilometer ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "ISBN" : "3642955975", "abstract" : "This volume contains a selection of papers on research and development, industrial change and economic policy. It discusses the now emerging problems generated or reinforced by research and development policies in industry and governments both at scientific and policy levels. The general aims are to present an overview of present research on R & D investments and their impact on industrial and regional restructuring in advanced economies and to specify some of the most important potentials of further theoretical and empirical research. The focus of these discussions is on patterns of innovation activities and their relation to industrial and public policy, diffusion of technology as a temporal, spatial and organisational problem, technology transfer and consequences of technological change for policy making at the regional and industrial levels. 1. From the Industrial Age to the Knowledge Economy -- I. Industrial Organization in the Knowledge Economy -- a) Intelligent Factor Inputs -- 2. Productivity in Manufacturing and the Division of Mental Labor -- 3. What Have We Learned in the Path from Go\u0308del and Turing to Artificial Intelligence? -- b) Knowledge Development and Diffusion -- 4. Knowledge, Nodes and Networks: An Analytical Perspective -- 5. Innovation, Diffusion and Regions -- 6. Technological and Institutional Innovations in the Service Sector -- 7. Research and Development, Corporate Organisation and Industrial Location: Prospects for Regional Development -- 8. Diffusion of Technological Change and Economic Growth -- II. Technological and Economic Interactions: Some Empirical Studies -- a) Long Cycles of Technological Transition -- 9. The Barrier-Breakthrough Model of Innovation and the Life Cycle Model of Industrial Evolution as Applied to the U.S. Electrical Industry -- 10. The Evolution of High Technology in the Boston Region 1920-1980 -- 11. Innovation, R and D, and Firm Growth in Robotics: Japan and the United States -- 12. Spatial Diffusion of Information Technology in Sweden -- 13. Innovative Behaviour of Industrial Firms: Results from a Dutch Empirical Study -- 14. Innovating Behaviour of Swiss Industry -- Findings and Policy Conclusions -- c) R & D and Property Rights -- 15. Infrastructure for Technological Change: Intellectual Property Rights -- III. The Political Economy of Structural Change -- a) Interdependencies between Industrial and Regional Structural Change in the USA -- 16. High-Technology Location and Worker Mobility in the U\u2026", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Andersson", "given" : "A\u030ake E.", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Batten", "given" : "David F.", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Karlsson", "given" : "Charlie.", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "id" : "ITEM-1", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "1989" ] ] }, "number-of-pages" : "310", "publisher" : "Springer Berlin Heidelberg", "title" : "Knowledge and Industrial Organization", "type" : "book" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(Andersson, Batten, and Karlsson 1989)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(Andersson, Batten, and Karlsson 1989)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(Andersson, Batten, and Karlsson 1989)" }, "properties" : { "noteIndex" : 0 }, "schema" : "" }(Andersson, Batten, and Karlsson 1989). Similar systems were then deployed throughout the USA, employing generation units large enough to only power municipal lighting (though DC was eventually supplanted by AC). Early utilities then followed Edison’s lead also by focusing on dense urban areas where demand by multiple customers (residential, municipal and commercial) could be met within a limited geographic area. Technological innovation soon allowed for larger systems to be deployed in terms of generation capacity, transmission distance and loads served. Edison’s three-wire system (1883) and the introduction of storage batteries notably improved the system’s technical and economic efficiency ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "ISBN" : "0801846145", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Hughes", "given" : "T P", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "Networks of Power - Electrification in Western Society, 1880-1930", "id" : "ITEM-1", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "1983" ] ] }, "page" : "1-17", "title" : "Introduction", "type" : "article", "volume" : "2" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(Hughes 1983)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(Hughes 1983)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(Hughes 1983)" }, "properties" : { "noteIndex" : 0 }, "schema" : "" }(Hughes 1983). Inventions such as the ones of Sprague with large motors and his multiple unit-system (1895) and Diehl (1884) of a variable-speed DC motor improved components of that central system ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "ISBN" : "0801846145", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Hughes", "given" : "T P", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "Networks of Power - Electrification in Western Society, 1880-1930", "id" : "ITEM-1", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "1983" ] ] }, "page" : "1-17", "title" : "Introduction", "type" : "article", "volume" : "2" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(Hughes 1983)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(Hughes 1983)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(Hughes 1983)" }, "properties" : { "noteIndex" : 0 }, "schema" : "" }(Hughes 1983). The commercial development of the alternating current (AC) technology by Westinghouse and Tesla in 1886, fundamentally changed the power distribution network and provided electricity at high voltage and low current. This facilitated the use of distant hydro (see Niagara Falls, NY in 1895) or mine mouth generation for regional power systems and led to a major increase of distant connections. In addition, the introduction of Tesla’s polyphase motor and transmission system (1890) reduced transmission costs and expanded the capacity (and thus future market share) of AC over DC (Hughes, 1983). These technological innovations were accompanied by a set of institutional changes. Nascent utilities had to find ways of balancing revenue and expenditures by establishing appropriate rates and charges. Power system planning techniques were developed and by the time bigger power systems were emerging in the USA, system planning and forecasting techniques were already an integral part of business. Such tools aimed to provide an overview of the system as a coherent whole to guide business strategy and investment. As discussed below, policy and regulatory development also had to evolve in order to deal with the implications of electricity as both a technology and business. For example, the slow pace of rural electrification led to national level efforts to extend electricity’s benefits to all Americans.Over these early decades the advent of electricity was evident in most of the big urban centers (Figure 2), with several isolated generation units striving to serve a continuously growing demand. The industrial and commercial loads of the daytime were supplanted in the evening by that of theatres, hotels and restaurants. As those loads and that of residential customers tapered off, the demand of bakeries, dairies, cleaning services, and other night-time businesses reached a peak ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "URL" : "", "accessed" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2017", "6", "16" ] ] }, "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Cunningham", "given" : "Joseph J.", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "id" : "ITEM-1", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2014" ] ] }, "title" : "New York Power | Murphy Institute Blog", "type" : "webpage" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(Cunningham 2014)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(Cunningham 2014)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(Cunningham 2014)" }, "properties" : { "noteIndex" : 0 }, "schema" : "" }(Cunningham 2014). As the demand for electricity grew, new load had to be first anticipated in timely fashion and then adequately accommodated, requiring additional generation or wider distribution or both. However, the value of electrification was soon much more widely appreciated and smaller municipalities also began developing their own systems (as they were not always considered as financially attractive markets to the emerging utilities). By 1912 there were 1,562 municipally owned power plants over the country, a number that grew to 2,581 by 1922 ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Slattery", "given" : "Harry", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "editor" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "F.", "given" : "Sherman Mittell", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "id" : "ITEM-1", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "1940" ] ] }, "publisher" : "National Home Library Foundation", "publisher-place" : "Washington, DC", "title" : "Rural America lights up", "type" : "book" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(Slattery 1940)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(Slattery 1940)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(Slattery 1940)" }, "properties" : { "noteIndex" : 0 }, "schema" : "" }(Slattery 1940). These locally operated systems were an important component of early electrification in the USA.Figure 2. This figure illustrates the areas having access to electricity in the US by the year 1925. Notably, urban centers in the Mid-West and Western coast adopted electricity services faster than rural settings. That is due to the vibrant socio-economic environment in these areas, which promoted technological and business innovation in the electricity sector ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "abstract" : "Record of the filing of Copyright deposits under the act of Manth 4, 1090.Class F - Maps. By Luke J. McCarthy.", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "International Magazine Co.", "given" : "", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "id" : "ITEM-1", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "1925" ] ] }, "publisher-place" : "119 West 40th St. New York", "title" : "The location of places served with electricity", "type" : "report" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(International Magazine Co. 1925)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(International Magazine Co. 1925)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(International Magazine Co. 1925)" }, "properties" : { "noteIndex" : 0 }, "schema" : "" }(International Magazine Co. 1925).It is evident that over the first thirty years of its development, the electric power industry in the USA was primarily focused on the provision of electricity to urban rather than rural America. Figure 3 shows large parts of the country disconnected from the existing electric power systems and relying on local generation in a limited number of cases. In 1923 only 2.6% of farm homes in rural areas were electrified compared to 42% of residences in cities and towns ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Slattery", "given" : "Harry", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "editor" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "F.", "given" : "Sherman Mittell", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "id" : "ITEM-1", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "1940" ] ] }, "publisher" : "National Home Library Foundation", "publisher-place" : "Washington, DC", "title" : "Rural America lights up", "type" : "book" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(Slattery 1940)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(Slattery 1940)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(Slattery 1940)" }, "properties" : { "noteIndex" : 0 }, "schema" : "" }(Slattery 1940). Rural electrification was justifiably not appealing for private utilities, which could see high financial hurdles in the construction of an extended distribution network to remote, sparsely populated areas with low levels of electrical demand. Figure 3. Early interconnections and grid development in the US in 1927, prior to the establishment of REA. Most parts of rural America are not connected to the grid and electricity (where available) comes primarily from small isolated systems running on coal, diesel or hydroADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "abstract" : "Record of the filing of Copyright deposits under the act of Manth 4, 1090.Class F - Maps. By Luke J. McCarthy.", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "International Magazine Co.", "given" : "", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "id" : "ITEM-1", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "1925" ] ] }, "publisher-place" : "119 West 40th St. New York", "title" : "The location of places served with electricity", "type" : "report" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(International Magazine Co. 1925)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(International Magazine Co. 1925)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(International Magazine Co. 1925)" }, "properties" : { "noteIndex" : 0 }, "schema" : "" }(International Magazine Co. 1925). Social pressure in accordance with political will to boost economic activity (the ‘New Deal’ program), triggered electrification efforts. It resulted in the establishment of the Rural Electrification Administration (REA) in May 1935 (first by Executive Order of the President and then made more permanent through an Act of Congress) ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Slattery", "given" : "Harry", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "editor" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "F.", "given" : "Sherman Mittell", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "id" : "ITEM-1", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "1940" ] ] }, "publisher" : "National Home Library Foundation", "publisher-place" : "Washington, DC", "title" : "Rural America lights up", "type" : "book" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(Slattery 1940)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(Slattery 1940)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(Slattery 1940)" }, "properties" : { "noteIndex" : 0 }, "schema" : "" }(Slattery 1940). REA’s initial aim was to use a loan system to financially support states, corporations, individuals, municipalities, and co-operatives in order to construct and operate power plants, transmission and distribution lines and bring electricity to people unserved by the centralized network ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Slattery", "given" : "Harry", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "editor" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "F.", "given" : "Sherman Mittell", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "id" : "ITEM-1", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "1940" ] ] }, "publisher" : "National Home Library Foundation", "publisher-place" : "Washington, DC", "title" : "Rural America lights up", "type" : "book" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(Slattery 1940)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(Slattery 1940)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(Slattery 1940)" }, "properties" : { "noteIndex" : 0 }, "schema" : "" }(Slattery 1940). The REA also began to take on the more technical tasks of designing and planning for rural electrification as the mandate to serve large areas at reasonable tariffs was an engineering challenge as well as a financial one ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Slattery", "given" : "Harry", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "editor" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "F.", "given" : "Sherman Mittell", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "id" : "ITEM-1", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "1940" ] ] }, "publisher" : "National Home Library Foundation", "publisher-place" : "Washington, DC", "title" : "Rural America lights up", "type" : "book" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(Slattery 1940)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(Slattery 1940)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(Slattery 1940)" }, "properties" : { "noteIndex" : 0 }, "schema" : "" }(Slattery 1940).One of the more important features of the REA program was that it provided training to engineering and construction firms, in order to engage the private sector to participate in infrastructure development. Initial private sector involvement quickly waned and turned into opposition while on the other hand, several farm organizations and public power entities strongly supported the effort and tried to avail themselves of the REA's financial programs ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Slattery", "given" : "Harry", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "editor" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "F.", "given" : "Sherman Mittell", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "id" : "ITEM-1", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "1940" ] ] }, "publisher" : "National Home Library Foundation", "publisher-place" : "Washington, DC", "title" : "Rural America lights up", "type" : "book" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(Slattery 1940)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(Slattery 1940)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(Slattery 1940)" }, "properties" : { "noteIndex" : 0 }, "schema" : "" }(Slattery 1940). While some existed prior to the REA, the financial and technical support of the REA arguably incentivized the development and rapid growth of several non-profit cooperatives, which actively supported electrification efforts in rural areas of the USA.Cooperative staff was hired and participated in the construction phase, but the majority of construction was performed by contractors who were trained in rural electrification design and standards. Together they dug the holes, set the poles and strung the wires by hand, supplying their small homemade electrical systems with a couple lights for each house and barn, plus a few small motors or other minimal use appliances ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "URL" : "", "accessed" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2017", "6", "16" ] ] }, "id" : "ITEM-1", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "0" ] ] }, "title" : "In the Beginning \u2013 Golden State Power Cooperative", "type" : "webpage" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(\u201cIn the Beginning \u2013 Golden State Power Cooperative\u201d 2017)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(\u201cIn the Beginning \u2013 Golden State Power Cooperative\u201d 2017)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(\u201cIn the Beginning \u2013 Golden State Power Cooperative\u201d 2017)" }, "properties" : { "noteIndex" : 0 }, "schema" : "" }(“In the Beginning – Golden State Power Cooperative” 2017). Within 5 years and having spent 321 million USD, REA electrified approximately 1.7 million farms, more than in the previous fifty years since 1882 ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Slattery", "given" : "Harry", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "editor" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "F.", "given" : "Sherman Mittell", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "id" : "ITEM-1", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "1940" ] ] }, "publisher" : "National Home Library Foundation", "publisher-place" : "Washington, DC", "title" : "Rural America lights up", "type" : "book" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(Slattery 1940)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(Slattery 1940)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(Slattery 1940)" }, "properties" : { "noteIndex" : 0 }, "schema" : "" }(Slattery 1940). This movement transformed rural America with electricity co-operatives and mini grid systems serving as facilitators for electrification. A few selected examples that illustrate the transition follow.Illinois (Chicago)Electricity arrived in Chicago in 1878 with arc-lights lighting up big public spaces and streets around the city ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "ISBN" : "0226670759", "abstract" : "Describes consumers' shifting habits of fuel consumption, tracing how use of wood led to burning coal and coal gas, to the arrival, to the arrival of the arc lamp, and then the coming of electricity. Shows that the city government and utility brokers faced two problems: how to generate a cheap supply of electricity, and how to sell electrical energy to people who were already enjoying gas services. The solutions were found by Samuel Insull, president of Commonwealth Edison Company, who put electrical technology on a sound economic footing. Part I: The energy revolution in the city, 1880-1898. Introduction: The search for better lighting, 1848-1880. The city that coal built ; The gaslight era ; The origins of the electrical revolution -- The battle of the lighting systems, 1880-1893. The fight for the central business district ; The introduction of the arc lamp ; The coming of the Edison system ; The crisis of urban politics, 1880-1893. The corruption of government-business relations ; The consolidation of corporate power -- The rise of Samuel Insull, 1893-1898. The culture of technology ; The perils of progress ; The economics of \"natural\" monopoly ; The gospel of consumption -- Part II: Metropolitan webs of power, 1898-1914. The \"massing of production,\" 1898-1908. Building a sales campaign ; Building the load ; Building a political consensus -- The electric city, 1902-1912. Electricity comes to the neighborhood ; Electricity comes to the urban fringe ; Electricity comes into the home -- The suburban matrix of energy, 1902-1914. Electricity comes to main street ; Metropolitan connections ; Regional networks ; A regional community of energy consumers -- Part III: The integration of a region, 1914-1932. The energy crisis and the birth of the machine age, 1914-1919. \"This is war\" ; \"Mechanization takes command\" ; \"Diversify, fertilize, motorize, specialize\" ; \"A gold-plated anarchist\" -- The emergence of an energy-intensive society, 1919-1928. \"How long should a wife live?\" ; \"Where will you rear your children?\" ; \"How you gonna keep 'em down on the farm?\" -- A ubiquitous world of energy.", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Platt", "given" : "Harold L.", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "id" : "ITEM-1", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "1991" ] ] }, "number-of-pages" : "381", "publisher" : "University of Chicago Press", "title" : "The electric city : energy and the growth of the Chicago area, 1880-1930", "type" : "book" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(Platt 1991)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(Platt 1991)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(Platt 1991)" }, "properties" : { "noteIndex" : 0 }, "schema" : "" }(Platt 1991). Even though adopted with lackluster enthusiasm in the early years, electricity proved to be one of the influential factors in the city’s rapid industrialization in the early 1900s. Chicago grew to become a metropolis in the process, a railroad crossroad, with significant stockyards, factories and a rapidly growing population ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "ISBN" : "0801846145", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Hughes", "given" : "T P", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "Networks of Power - Electrification in Western Society, 1880-1930", "id" : "ITEM-1", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "1983" ] ] }, "page" : "1-17", "title" : "Introduction", "type" : "article", "volume" : "2" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(Hughes 1983)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(Hughes 1983)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(Hughes 1983)" }, "properties" : { "noteIndex" : 0 }, "schema" : "" }(Hughes 1983). In 1892, there were more than twenty small electric-lighting utilities in the city producing electricity mostly by small reciprocating engines. One of them was Chicago Edison, one of the numerous Edison franchisees around the country. The company had a generating capacity of approximately 2.8 MW and served approximately 5,000 customers in a city of more than one million ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Schewe", "given" : "Philip F.", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "Electrical Book", "id" : "ITEM-1", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2005" ] ] }, "page" : "64-89", "title" : "Most electrified city", "type" : "article-journal" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(Schewe 2005)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(Schewe 2005)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(Schewe 2005)" }, "properties" : { "noteIndex" : 0 }, "schema" : "" }(Schewe 2005). Samuel Insull took over the presidency of the company in 1892, and within a few years managed to transform considerably the electricity landscape in MidWest US ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "ISBN" : "1587982439", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "McDonald", "given" : "Forrest.", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "id" : "ITEM-1", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2004" ] ] }, "number-of-pages" : "350", "publisher" : "Beard Books", "title" : "Insull", "type" : "book" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(McDonald 2004)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(McDonald 2004)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(McDonald 2004)" }, "properties" : { "noteIndex" : 0 }, "schema" : "" }(McDonald 2004). Insull’s visionary character made him among the first to foresee and actualize an all-embracing, interconnected electric power system over Chicago. Using his business, managerial and political skills, he managed to overcome competition by acquiring one by one all the small individual power systems in the city. Initially, these plants would operate alongside with the larger Chicago Edison units (Adam’s Street station first, Harrison and Fisk Street stations later on). This however, caused inefficiency as they were able to serve only a small surrounding area ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "ISBN" : "0801846145", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Hughes", "given" : "T P", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "Networks of Power - Electrification in Western Society, 1880-1930", "id" : "ITEM-1", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "1983" ] ] }, "page" : "1-17", "title" : "Introduction", "type" : "article", "volume" : "2" }, "uris" : [ "" ] }, { "id" : "ITEM-2", "itemData" : { "ISBN" : "1587982439", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "McDonald", "given" : "Forrest.", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "id" : "ITEM-2", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2004" ] ] }, "number-of-pages" : "350", "publisher" : "Beard Books", "title" : "Insull", "type" : "book" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(Hughes 1983; McDonald 2004)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(Hughes 1983; McDonald 2004)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(Hughes 1983; McDonald 2004)" }, "properties" : { "noteIndex" : 0 }, "schema" : "" }(Hughes 1983; McDonald 2004). Insull surmised that economies of scale were the solution to overcome the financial hurdles standing before a more centralized system. Over time, the small inefficient units were transformed into substations with the use of rotary converters. Turbogenerators replaced the obsolete, un-scalable reciprocating engines and big AC generating power stations became predominant (Fisk Street Station, world’s first modern turbogenerator, 1902). Mass production of these machines led to low electricity prices. On the one hand, this further reduced Insull’s competition, and on the other hand brought new subscriptions (from 5,000 in 1892 to 200,000 in 1910) ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "ISBN" : "1587982439", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "McDonald", "given" : "Forrest.", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "id" : "ITEM-1", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2004" ] ] }, "number-of-pages" : "350", "publisher" : "Beard Books", "title" : "Insull", "type" : "book" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(McDonald 2004)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(McDonald 2004)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(McDonald 2004)" }, "properties" : { "noteIndex" : 0 }, "schema" : "" }(McDonald 2004). By 1910 the power network in Chicago was one of the most advanced systems in the world (Hughes, 1983). After Chicago’s unification into one system, the absorption by large distribution networks of smaller isolated grids in the vicinity expanded rapidly within 80-120 kilometers from the city (see Lake County, for example in Figure 4) ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "ISBN" : "1587982439", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "McDonald", "given" : "Forrest.", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "id" : "ITEM-1", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2004" ] ] }, "number-of-pages" : "350", "publisher" : "Beard Books", "title" : "Insull", "type" : "book" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(McDonald 2004)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(McDonald 2004)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(McDonald 2004)" }, "properties" : { "noteIndex" : 0 }, "schema" : "" }(McDonald 2004). Insull would acquire isolated utilities in nearby towns, convert the small power plants into substations and send transmission lines from the centralized power plants. By 1923, more than two hundred rural communities had been interconnected over an area of 16,000 square kilometers ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "ISBN" : "0801846145", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Hughes", "given" : "T P", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "Networks of Power - Electrification in Western Society, 1880-1930", "id" : "ITEM-1", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "1983" ] ] }, "page" : "1-17", "title" : "Introduction", "type" : "article", "volume" : "2" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(Hughes 1983)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(Hughes 1983)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(Hughes 1983)" }, "properties" : { "noteIndex" : 0 }, "schema" : "" }(Hughes 1983). Figure 4. Insull’s power system expansion plan near Chicago in 1906, where isolated utilities in nearby towns were acquired, and had their the small power plants slowly converted into substations, modified accordingly so as to receive power from the large centralized power plants ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "North Shore Electric Company (Gish Elton)", "given" : "", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "Electrical World", "id" : "ITEM-1", "issue" : "8", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "1906" ] ] }, "page" : "406-406", "title" : "The District Supply System of the North Shore Electric Company, Near Chicago", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "47" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(North Shore Electric Company (Gish Elton) 1906)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(North Shore Electric Company (Gish Elton) 1906)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(North Shore Electric Company (Gish Elton) 1906)" }, "properties" : { "noteIndex" : 16 }, "schema" : "" }(North Shore Electric Company (Gish Elton) 1906).The expansion of Insull’s grid system provides a notable lesson. The core of the system started in areas of growing economic activity, thus high demand density and then with the absorption of small systems by a larger competitor. This then expanded outward with multiple systems in more rural areas (but near the city) eventually being taken over. The usable asset (the distribution network) would remain but their generation would be replaced by transformers that could step-down the voltage from the larger system. However, this growth pattern did have limits and much of the rural Midwest that was not adjacent to a major city would only be electrified later (largely through farmer cooperatives and REA support).CaliforniaSimilarly, urban electrification was the starting point of electrification in California. The main cities were electrified at the end of the 19th century. They used steam power plants fueled either by expensive Australian coal or by oil from the newly discovered oil fields ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "DOI" : "10.1109/44.16811", "ISSN" : "02780097", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Williams", "given" : "James C.", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "IEEE Technology and Society Magazine", "id" : "ITEM-1", "issue" : "4", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "1988" ] ] }, "page" : "13-19, 29", "title" : "Otherwise a mere clod: California rural electrification", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "7" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(Williams 1988)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(Williams 1988)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(Williams 1988)" }, "properties" : { "noteIndex" : 0 }, "schema" : "" }(Williams 1988). Meanwhile in the countryside, hydropower was successfully harnessed by local crafts (sawmills, agro processing), mining and industry for their purposes (washing out ore, moving belts and gears etc.). The abundance of rainfall, steep slopes and rushing streams in eastern California in accordance with advancements in electric power technology and entrepreneurial vision showed the way out of the energy crisis in the state ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "ISBN" : "0801846145", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Hughes", "given" : "T P", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "Networks of Power - Electrification in Western Society, 1880-1930", "id" : "ITEM-1", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "1983" ] ] }, "page" : "1-17", "title" : "Introduction", "type" : "article", "volume" : "2" }, "uris" : [ "" ] }, { "id" : "ITEM-2", "itemData" : { "DOI" : "10.1109/44.16811", "ISSN" : "02780097", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Williams", "given" : "James C.", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "IEEE Technology and Society Magazine", "id" : "ITEM-2", "issue" : "4", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "1988" ] ] }, "page" : "13-19, 29", "title" : "Otherwise a mere clod: California rural electrification", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "7" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(Hughes 1983; Williams 1988)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(Hughes 1983; Williams 1988)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(Hughes 1983; Williams 1988)" }, "properties" : { "noteIndex" : 0 }, "schema" : "" }(Hughes 1983; Williams 1988).Small hydropower plants started to emerge especially in the Sierras to the north and west of Sacramento, with limited transmission reaching nearby mines, farm communities and towns. The previously isolated Folsom (American river, 1888), Colgate (Yuba river, 1898), and Nevada City (1895) hydroelectric power plants were connected through what was, at the time, the world?s longest transmission line (140 miles) stretching from Colgate to Oakland on San Francisco Bay (1901). This defined the change of power systems in the area ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "ISBN" : "0801846145", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Hughes", "given" : "T P", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "Networks of Power - Electrification in Western Society, 1880-1930", "id" : "ITEM-1", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "1983" ] ] }, "page" : "1-17", "title" : "Introduction", "type" : "article", "volume" : "2" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(Hughes 1983)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(Hughes 1983)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(Hughes 1983)" }, "properties" : { "noteIndex" : 0 }, "schema" : "" }(Hughes 1983). The increasing electricity demand in the cities (Sacramento, San Francisco, Los Angeles), the establishment of a long-distance transmission system and improvements in water turbine technology led to a rapid expansion of hydropower capacity and point-to-point transmission. California became the birthplace of long point-to-point transmission of hydropower power as can be seen in Figure 5. By 1914 several hydropower plants were interconnected with formerly isolated steam plants under an integrated system serving 1.3 million people over an area of 96,000 square kilometers ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "ISBN" : "0801846145", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Hughes", "given" : "T P", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "Networks of Power - Electrification in Western Society, 1880-1930", "id" : "ITEM-1", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "1983" ] ] }, "page" : "1-17", "title" : "Introduction", "type" : "article", "volume" : "2" }, "uris" : [ "" ] }, { "id" : "ITEM-2", "itemData" : { "DOI" : "10.1109/44.16811", "ISSN" : "02780097", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Williams", "given" : "James C.", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "IEEE Technology and Society Magazine", "id" : "ITEM-2", "issue" : "4", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "1988" ] ] }, "page" : "13-19, 29", "title" : "Otherwise a mere clod: California rural electrification", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "7" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(Hughes 1983; Williams 1988)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(Hughes 1983; Williams 1988)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(Hughes 1983; Williams 1988)" }, "properties" : { "noteIndex" : 0 }, "schema" : "" }(Hughes 1983; Williams 1988).Figure 5. Interconnection of first hydropower plants & long distance transmission in California in 1904 ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "URL" : "", "accessed" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2017", "10", "17" ] ] }, "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Locke, Fred (Gish", "given" : "Elton N.)", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "Infinity Press", "id" : "ITEM-1", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "1988" ] ] }, "page" : "132", "title" : "From the book \"Multipart Porcelain Insulators\"", "type" : "webpage" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(Locke, Fred (Gish 1988)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(Locke, Fred (Gish 1988)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(Locke, Fred (Gish 1988)" }, "properties" : { "noteIndex" : 18 }, "schema" : "" }(Locke, Fred (Gish 1988). The generation plants (shown as red dots) were previously isolated individual systems that then became the backbone of a new integrated system serving more distant urban centers.AlaskaIn Alaska, initial electrification efforts started in the early 1890s, supporting economic activities (mining, local merchants) around the major cities. In 1893, Willis Torp, a local merchant, introduced a water mill at the banks of Gold Creek river, which coupled with an electrical generator could serve small nearby loads ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "URL" : "", "accessed" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2017", "6", "16" ] ] }, "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "AELP", "given" : "", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "Alaska Electric Light and Power Company", "id" : "ITEM-1", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2013" ] ] }, "title" : "An exciting beginning", "type" : "webpage" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(AELP 2013)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(AELP 2013)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(AELP 2013)" }, "properties" : { "noteIndex" : 0 }, "schema" : "" }(AELP 2013). Three years later the city was equipped with a coal fired power plant in an attempt to provide reliable service during the winter months when the Gold Creek plant was running low. Over the following years several hydropower plants were set into operation (e.g. Sheep Creek, Nugget Creek, Salmon Creek, Eklutna plants) ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "abstract" : "The Old Eklutna Power Plant, built in 1928-9 for hydroelectric power production, originally included a series of engineering facilities: a storage dam, a diversion dam, a tunnel and penstock, and the power house. The water source for plant opera-tion was Eklutna Lake, a natural lake fed largely by melting snow and glaciers, and the Eklutna River whose head waters are from the lake. The Storage Dam and the Diversion Dam. At the northwest end of Eklutna Lake a storage dam was constructed to provide year-round water flow to the power house, some nine miles away. This original earthen dam collapsed before the plant began operation, temporary restraining structures were used-until 1941 when a concrete-reinforced dam was completed. About seven miles-downstream a diversion dam was built on-the Eklutna River. This concrete arch dam is 61 fee't high and 98 feet long on the crest. The crown of the base is eight feet thick and the top is five feet thick. Its spillway crest was designed to pass 6,000 cubic feet of water per second. It is not nominated, nor is: The Tunnel and Penstock. At the northern abutment of the diversion dam a tunnel was built to channel the water to the power house. The tunnel is 1,900 feet long, seven feet wide, eight feet high, and has a drop of 16.2 feet along its length. It was cut out of bedrock, with only the last seventy feet being concrete lined, and is protected by a trash rack covering about 100 square feet. At its terminus, a con-crete-reinforced valve house protected the 54-inch butterfly valve used to cut off water flow for turbine repair. The penstock, a,54-inch steel pipe, meets the tunnel approximately 870 feet_ from, the power house. Necessary water pressure was reached as the water was forced from the tunnel into the much smaller penstock.", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "United States Department of the Interior - National Park Service", "given" : "", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "id" : "ITEM-1", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "1980" ] ] }, "number-of-pages" : "6", "title" : "National register of historic places inventory", "type" : "report" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(United States Department of the Interior - National Park Service 1980)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(United States Department of the Interior - National Park Service 1980)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(United States Department of the Interior - National Park Service 1980)" }, "properties" : { "noteIndex" : 0 }, "schema" : "" }(United States Department of the Interior - National Park Service 1980). By 1908 there were at least 30 hydropower installations in southeast Alaska, with an estimated capacity of 11.5 MW, powering mining, canning and sawmill businesses ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Hollinger", "given" : "Kristy", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "id" : "ITEM-1", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2002" ] ] }, "number-of-pages" : "66", "title" : "The Early Electrification of Anchorage", "type" : "report" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(Hollinger 2002)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(Hollinger 2002)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(Hollinger 2002)" }, "properties" : { "noteIndex" : 0 }, "schema" : "" }(Hollinger 2002). Steam power plants were also introduced in the main urban centers (Juneau, Anchorage). However, residential consumption in Alaska remained low. In the run up to and during World War II (WWII) (1939-1945), the Alaskan power system developed due to military activity in the area, which led to infrastructure development on the one hand, and a rapid population (thus demand) growth, on the other. The development of the power system however was not an easy task. Operation, maintenance and/or expansion of the local power plants was often under stress due to security reasons, scarcity of raw materials or challenging environmental conditions ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "ARECA", "given" : "", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "id" : "ITEM-1", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "1994" ] ] }, "number-of-pages" : "24", "publisher-place" : "Anchorage", "title" : "Northern Lights: A brief history of Alaska's electric Cooperatives", "type" : "report" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(ARECA 1994)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(ARECA 1994)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(ARECA 1994)" }, "properties" : { "noteIndex" : 0 }, "schema" : "" }(ARECA 1994). For example, in 1941 a section of the transmission departing from the Eklutna power plant had to be relocated under military order ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Hollinger", "given" : "Kristy", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "id" : "ITEM-1", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2002" ] ] }, "number-of-pages" : "66", "title" : "The Early Electrification of Anchorage", "type" : "report" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(Hollinger 2002)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(Hollinger 2002)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(Hollinger 2002)" }, "properties" : { "noteIndex" : 19 }, "schema" : "" }(Hollinger 2002). The electrification wave in rural Alaska was however a function of the REA program started in the late 1930s. As in the Midwest and other areas of the continental USA, rural electrification came largely in the form of non-profit consumer-owned electric cooperatives (coops). Coops, as previously described, helped in building small power stations, erecting power lines and progressively electrifying unserved areas ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "ARECA", "given" : "", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "id" : "ITEM-1", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "1994" ] ] }, "number-of-pages" : "24", "publisher-place" : "Anchorage", "title" : "Northern Lights: A brief history of Alaska's electric Cooperatives", "type" : "report" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(ARECA 1994)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(ARECA 1994)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(ARECA 1994)" }, "properties" : { "noteIndex" : 0 }, "schema" : "" }(ARECA 1994).In the post-WWII years until the 1960s, the electric cooperatives worked hard towards building the facilities that would provide reliable and affordable electricity services to a growing population ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "ARECA", "given" : "", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "id" : "ITEM-1", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "1994" ] ] }, "number-of-pages" : "24", "publisher-place" : "Anchorage", "title" : "Northern Lights: A brief history of Alaska's electric Cooperatives", "type" : "report" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(ARECA 1994)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(ARECA 1994)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(ARECA 1994)" }, "properties" : { "noteIndex" : 0 }, "schema" : "" }(ARECA 1994). Many would form associations in order to share knowledge and enhance rural electrification (e.g. Alaska Rural Electric Cooperative Association - ARECA).Yet, an estimated 206 communities still did not have access to electricity by the mid-1960s ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "ARECA", "given" : "", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "id" : "ITEM-1", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "1994" ] ] }, "number-of-pages" : "24", "publisher-place" : "Anchorage", "title" : "Northern Lights: A brief history of Alaska's electric Cooperatives", "type" : "report" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(ARECA 1994)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(ARECA 1994)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(ARECA 1994)" }, "properties" : { "noteIndex" : 0 }, "schema" : "" }(ARECA 1994). The construction of the Trans-Alaska pipeline (1973) based on the oil discoveries (1957) in the area, further increased the population and the energy needs. These factors, combined with the rising oil prices in 1970s, compelled the state to construct several hydroelectric and thermal (natural gas or coal) power plants in order to meet rising demand at lower electricity prices than oil-fired generation could provide ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "ARECA", "given" : "", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "id" : "ITEM-1", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "1994" ] ] }, "number-of-pages" : "24", "publisher-place" : "Anchorage", "title" : "Northern Lights: A brief history of Alaska's electric Cooperatives", "type" : "report" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(ARECA 1994)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(ARECA 1994)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(ARECA 1994)" }, "properties" : { "noteIndex" : 0 }, "schema" : "" }(ARECA 1994). Currently, Alaska is divided in 11 energy regions ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "abstract" : "This publication is mostly about electricity in Alaska: how it's generated, how much fuel is used to produce it, how fuel sources have shifted over time, and how prices vary. An inside foldout map shows how individual communities throughout the state generate electricity. But besides looking in detail at electricity, it also reports more broadly on energy in Alaska. It includes our estimates of all the types of energy produced and consumed in Alaska, and summarizes changes over time in the prices and amounts of energy Alaskans use. The information is from analyses we prepared for the Alaska Energy Authority (see back page). We've used the best and most recent data, but there's a two-year time lag before some types of data are available, and in other cases we made estimates, based on limited information. About 57% of the electricity Alaskans use is generated by natural gas, another 22% by hydropower, 15% by diesel, and 6% by coal. Wind still produces a very small part of electricity statewide, but use of wind power is growing rapidly. Figure 1 previews the more detailed foldout map, showing how some communities around Alaska generate electricity. Many places use more than one power source. Here we first highlight some findings and then provide more detail inside. \u2022 Utilities around Alaska used about 1.7 million barrels of diesel, 40 bil-lion cubic feet of natural gas, and 410 thousand tons of coal to produce electricity in 2010 (Figure 1). But converting energy sources to electricity is a very inefficient process. In 2008, Alaska's electrical sector consumed about three times as much energy as it produced in electricity (Figure 4). \u2022 Six times as much electricity was produced in Alaska in 2010 as in 1970, with an increasing share from natural gas and hydropower and a declin-ing share from coal. Wind power was also introduced (Figure 2). \u2022 Use of electricity from hydropower increased more than 10% per capita in Alaska since 1975, even as the population more than tripled. A number of large and small hydroelectric projects were constructed over the past sev-eral decades, largely subsidized by federal and state money. \u2022 More than two dozen utilities will be using wind to generate part of their electricity by the end of 2012, up from 7 in 2008. A number of other com-munities plan to add wind systems. Most of the existing wind power is on Kodiak Island and in small communities in western Alaska (inside map). \u2022 Alaska produces about five times more energy than \u2026", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Villalobos Melendez", "given" : "Alejandra", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "id" : "ITEM-1", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2012" ] ] }, "publisher-place" : "Anchorage", "title" : "Energizing Alaska: Electricity Around the State", "type" : "report" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(Villalobos Melendez 2012)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(Villalobos Melendez 2012)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(Villalobos Melendez 2012)" }, "properties" : { "noteIndex" : 0 }, "schema" : "" }(Villalobos Melendez 2012) but the majority (?) of Alaskan residents are served by what are known as the six “Railbelt” utilities (U.S Energy Information Administration 2016; Fay, Villalobos Meléndez, and Converse 2012). Still, due to the unstable climate conditions and logistical challenges many remote communities are electrified by mini grids (see Figure 6). An example, are the 58 rural communities operated under the Alaska Village Electric Cooperative (AVEC) that are getting electricity mainly from diesel (or hybrid diesel/wind) generators ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "abstract" : "To our AVEC membership: 2015 was another banner year for AVEC, with Bethel having been a member community for the entire preceding year. As a result, we sold almost 113 million kWh, 15% more than in 2014 and 52% more than our pre-Bethel high of 74 million kWh. The cost of fuel purchased in 2015 was almost a dollar a gallon lower than in 2014, reflecting the world downtown in oil prices. Wind turbines contributed four percent of overall generation and have saved $8,000,000 in fuel since 2006. The addition of Bethel has resulted in significant changes to the financial statements that made it very difficult to compare 2014 to 2013. 2015 will be similarly complicated because it will include a full year of Bethel operations as compared with eight months in 2014. In 2016, we will finally have two full years with Bethel so we can do more precise financial comparisons. Total revenue in 2015 was $58,642,290. Revenue was only 9% ahead of 2014 because of the lower cost of oil. Expenses totaled $55,862,243, resulting in an operating margin or profit of $2,780,047. Operating margins will be allocated to the membership during 2016. Earnings on our cash investments as well as patronage capital from affiliated organizations re-sulted in total margins of $3,951,497 for the year. Our improved cash position resulted in the Board of Directors approving a refund of $1,650,000 of patronage capital to the membership, which was distributed in December 2015.", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "AVEC", "given" : "", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "id" : "ITEM-1", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2015" ] ] }, "number-of-pages" : "8", "title" : "Alaska Village Electric Cooperative Annual Report", "type" : "report" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(AVEC 2015)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(AVEC 2015)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(AVEC 2015)" }, "properties" : { "noteIndex" : 0 }, "schema" : "" }(AVEC 2015). Figure 6. Map of current power system status (on – off grid) in Alaska ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "URL" : "", "accessed" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2017", "10", "24" ] ] }, "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "U.S. Energy Information Administration (EIA)", "given" : "", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "id" : "ITEM-1", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "0" ] ] }, "title" : "U.S. Energy Mapping System", "type" : "webpage" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(U.S. Energy Information Administration (EIA) 2017)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(U.S. Energy Information Administration (EIA) 2017)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(U.S. Energy Information Administration (EIA) 2017)" }, "properties" : { "noteIndex" : 20 }, "schema" : "" }(U.S. Energy Information Administration (EIA) 2017). Approximately 10,900 people in 58 villages rely on mini-grids to cover their daily energy needs ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "abstract" : "To our AVEC membership: 2015 was another banner year for AVEC, with Bethel having been a member community for the entire preceding year. As a result, we sold almost 113 million kWh, 15% more than in 2014 and 52% more than our pre-Bethel high of 74 million kWh. The cost of fuel purchased in 2015 was almost a dollar a gallon lower than in 2014, reflecting the world downtown in oil prices. Wind turbines contributed four percent of overall generation and have saved $8,000,000 in fuel since 2006. The addition of Bethel has resulted in significant changes to the financial statements that made it very difficult to compare 2014 to 2013. 2015 will be similarly complicated because it will include a full year of Bethel operations as compared with eight months in 2014. In 2016, we will finally have two full years with Bethel so we can do more precise financial comparisons. Total revenue in 2015 was $58,642,290. Revenue was only 9% ahead of 2014 because of the lower cost of oil. Expenses totaled $55,862,243, resulting in an operating margin or profit of $2,780,047. Operating margins will be allocated to the membership during 2016. Earnings on our cash investments as well as patronage capital from affiliated organizations re-sulted in total margins of $3,951,497 for the year. Our improved cash position resulted in the Board of Directors approving a refund of $1,650,000 of patronage capital to the membership, which was distributed in December 2015.", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "AVEC", "given" : "", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "id" : "ITEM-1", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2015" ] ] }, "number-of-pages" : "8", "title" : "Alaska Village Electric Cooperative Annual Report", "type" : "report" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(AVEC 2015)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(AVEC 2015)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(AVEC 2015)" }, "properties" : { "noteIndex" : 20 }, "schema" : "" }(AVEC 2015).The Alaskan case illustrates, in part, the diversity of multiple successful electrification pathways. The progression from islanded operations to extensive national grids is significantly more challenging if not prohibitive when population densities are low, distances are vast, communities are isolated topographically (e.g. on islands) and either meteorological or topographical features make transmission hard (e.g. harsh winter weather or mountains). Under such conditions (for which parallels may exist in currently unelectrified areas in developing countries), the emphasis might be more on technological and institutional advances that can make smaller scale systems more efficient, reliable and cost-effective. ReflectionsRegional systems in the USA developed as a natural approach to efficiently serving growing demands, tying urban demand centers to distant generating sources, locating plants where land or fuel was cheaper, and optimizing economies of scale. In addition, their development was highly interconnected – shaped by existing legislation, financing mechanisms, ownership and politics in each area. Together these led to the transition of utilities from small lighting companies and generation units to support productive activities, to what is called a universal system ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "ISBN" : "0801846145", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Hughes", "given" : "T P", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "Networks of Power - Electrification in Western Society, 1880-1930", "id" : "ITEM-1", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "1983" ] ] }, "page" : "1-17", "title" : "Introduction", "type" : "article", "volume" : "2" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(Hughes 1983)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(Hughes 1983)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(Hughes 1983)" }, "properties" : { "noteIndex" : 0 }, "schema" : "" }(Hughes 1983). The brief historical review reveals some salient insights:The rapid industrialization of the country with its consequent socio-economic shifts, created a demand for new, low-cost energy forms and self-sufficiency.The electric power sector was rapidly seen by many as a new business opportunity. It thus, attracted a lot of entrepreneurial and investment activity. And, in turn appeared to reinforce the country’s economy. In addition, the competitive environment in the electric industry promoted technological innovation leading to new technical systems that were quickly adopted by utilities.The earliest power systems, regardless of type or size, were designed to be successful in terms of economics as well as engineering, contributing to their profitability and competitiveness. The systems were often (or eventually) built based on available resources and specificities of the locality. Early deployment of isolated stations and urban mini grids (and later peri-urban systems) was primarily driven by an evident, growing demand for electricity. While this is true for rural areas as well, system expansion was also a function of an explicit social welfare policy aimed to bridge the gap between urban and rural settings. Private power companies, would not or could not serve all of the population and provide power at large scales. The gap was filled with small municipal public systems, rural cooperatives, large federally owned power generation corporations (e.g. TVA and BPA) and supported through public and non-profit entities (e.g. REA, NRECA).Local participation – and ownership – appears to be an attribute of many public or cooperative efforts, particularly in smaller communities and rural areas. Rural communities were eager to get access to electricity and in most of the cases the local population was actively involved in the process. Community engagement and political commitment through financial and regulatory support, were crucial parameters of success. Interconnection of neighboring mini grids followed as a measure of coping with load variation and increasing the systems’ flexibility whereas growing generating capacities (per unit) proved to be an effective way to lower costs through economies of scale. The end goal was to increase market share and maximize profitability.Centralized grid versus mini-grid electrification was a lengthy process that depended upon technological advances, geographic factors (e.g. Alaska), resource availability (e.g. hydropower), socio-demographics (e.g. demand density) and policy. With the exception of resources and geography, the other factors shifted and changed over time with accompanying changes in how electricity demand was met (both technically and institutionally).UKHistorical contextMany of the early demonstrations and discoveries fundamental to the development of later electricity systems were made in the UK starting in the early 1700s. Francis Hawksbee’s early static electricity demonstration in London’s Royal Academy (1705), Davy Humphry’s battery in London’s Royal Institutions (1808), Michael Faraday’s electromagnetism discoveries in 1820s and Joseph Swan’s experiments with the incandescent lamp (1850-60s), are landmarks in the history of electricity. Yet the development of “modern” power systems in England was long and knotty, characterized by vested interests, political interference and numerous debates about public vs private power.The first public electrical supply experiment occurred in 1881, when the streets of Godalming were lit using hydro power and a dynamo-electric generator (Strange, 1979). Other cities followed next. It was common for individual companies or people to install their own supply to their factory or (large) home. Often the generator (dynamo) was driven by steam, supplying direct current for lighting ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "ISBN" : "9781848872257", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Weightman", "given" : "Gavin", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "id" : "ITEM-1", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2011" ] ] }, "publisher" : "Atlantic Books", "publisher-place" : "London", "title" : "Children of Light, How Electricity Changed Britain Forever", "type" : "book" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(Weightman 2011)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(Weightman 2011)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(Weightman 2011)" }, "properties" : { "noteIndex" : 0 }, "schema" : "" }(Weightman 2011). It was clear that electric lighting was competitive to gas lighting, and likely to overtake it in popularity. By 1900, London had proportionally more privately owned generators than any other big city ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "ISBN" : "0801846145", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Hughes", "given" : "T P", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "Networks of Power - Electrification in Western Society, 1880-1930", "id" : "ITEM-1", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "1983" ] ] }, "page" : "1-17", "title" : "Introduction", "type" : "article", "volume" : "2" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(Hughes 1983)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(Hughes 1983)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(Hughes 1983)" }, "properties" : { "noteIndex" : 0 }, "schema" : "" }(Hughes 1983). The development of a bigger supply system to cope with the growing demand was seen by some as a necessary next step. The first such plant, at Holborn Viaduct - London, opened in April 1882 with capacity of approximately 200 kW. It was vital that the cost of electric lighting be as close as possible to that of gas lights to be competitive. In this stage of development, it is reported that the price was more important than the quality of service ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "ISBN" : "9781848872257", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Weightman", "given" : "Gavin", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "id" : "ITEM-1", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2011" ] ] }, "publisher" : "Atlantic Books", "publisher-place" : "London", "title" : "Children of Light, How Electricity Changed Britain Forever", "type" : "book" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(Weightman 2011)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(Weightman 2011)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(Weightman 2011)" }, "properties" : { "noteIndex" : 0 }, "schema" : "" }(Weightman 2011). The Holborn plant needed to expand to leverage economies of scale and for that it needed permission from the Board of Trade to dig up public roads and lay its distribution lines underground. In England, these forms of public supply were set up either by private companies created for this purpose or by local authorities. Both needed statutory authority to put cables and pylons on private land and to lay cables in streets.This created debates over power infrastructure development and environmental disruption in London. Plans and counter proposals were prepared by or presented to local authorities. They included forecasts of benefits or of dire consequences arising from plant construction and/or from private investment therein. The debate about public vs private power reflected local authority concerns about monopoly abuses of property on the one hand vs having the public bear the potential costs of an untried, first of a kind technology on the other ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "ISBN" : "0801846145", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Hughes", "given" : "T P", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "Networks of Power - Electrification in Western Society, 1880-1930", "id" : "ITEM-1", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "1983" ] ] }, "page" : "1-17", "title" : "Introduction", "type" : "article", "volume" : "2" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(Hughes 1983)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(Hughes 1983)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(Hughes 1983)" }, "properties" : { "noteIndex" : 0 }, "schema" : "" }(Hughes 1983). The favored regulatory solution was to grant limited franchises for small service areas to avoid costly duplication of distribution. This solution protected both private and public investment concerns to some extent, and reinforced the jurisdictional power of the local authorities. Interestingly, the building of public utilities and municipal cooperatives were also encouraged. This was undertaken in the firm belief that public enterprises would compete with private companies. The first national electricity regulation came through The Electric Lighting Act of 1882 (amended 1888). That permitted private companies to build and operate electricity generation and distribution infrastructures for 21 years ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "ISBN" : "9781848872257", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Weightman", "given" : "Gavin", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "id" : "ITEM-1", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2011" ] ] }, "publisher" : "Atlantic Books", "publisher-place" : "London", "title" : "Children of Light, How Electricity Changed Britain Forever", "type" : "book" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(Weightman 2011)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(Weightman 2011)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(Weightman 2011)" }, "properties" : { "noteIndex" : 0 }, "schema" : "" }(Weightman 2011). The theory was to have private investors assume the risk of ‘first of a kind’ technology, with the provision that after a number of years the municipal authorities had the right to buy the companies for the price of the equipment as scrap ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "ISBN" : "0801846145", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Hughes", "given" : "T P", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "Networks of Power - Electrification in Western Society, 1880-1930", "id" : "ITEM-1", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "1983" ] ] }, "page" : "1-17", "title" : "Introduction", "type" : "article", "volume" : "2" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(Hughes 1983)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(Hughes 1983)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(Hughes 1983)" }, "properties" : { "noteIndex" : 0 }, "schema" : "" }(Hughes 1983). This is an earliest application of “build, own, operate transfer” (BOOT) as a regulatory tool for managing the risks and benefits of new technologies.The Act, however, not only reduced private sector interest in the business but also led many early electricity companies to bankruptcy. While electricity companies proliferated in other parts of the world (New York, Chicago, Berlin etc.) Holborn station closed down in 1886 ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "ISBN" : "9781848872257", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Weightman", "given" : "Gavin", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "id" : "ITEM-1", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2011" ] ] }, "publisher" : "Atlantic Books", "publisher-place" : "London", "title" : "Children of Light, How Electricity Changed Britain Forever", "type" : "book" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(Weightman 2011)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(Weightman 2011)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(Weightman 2011)" }, "properties" : { "noteIndex" : 0 }, "schema" : "" }(Weightman 2011). The experience of the Holborn plant highlights the planning difficulties of early electricity companies in England. While a company was making plans for expansion of service, the local authorities meanwhile were making rival plans to either constrain or compete with this company. They were also making plans for economic development not always congruent with those of the electricity company. Securing licenses for expanding systems was an ongoing effort, proposals for which required more than a modicum of planning.Despite legal and financial complexities, one company managed to flourish due to a loophole in the 1882 Act. Grosvenor Gallery’s small AC generator started operating in 1883 lighting up a few arc-lamps in the exhibition room. This attracted a lot of attention and interest from nearby shopkeepers on New Band Street in London’s West End ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "ISBN" : "9781848872257", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Weightman", "given" : "Gavin", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "id" : "ITEM-1", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2011" ] ] }, "publisher" : "Atlantic Books", "publisher-place" : "London", "title" : "Children of Light, How Electricity Changed Britain Forever", "type" : "book" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(Weightman 2011)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(Weightman 2011)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(Weightman 2011)" }, "properties" : { "noteIndex" : 0 }, "schema" : "" }(Weightman 2011). Wires started hovering over rooftops (bypassing the Act’s restrictions when laying underground lines), connecting more and more end users. The increasing demand required additional capacity and despite the failure of an initial expansion in 1885, the power station was ultimately transformed by an ambitious young engineer, Sebastian Ferranti. Inspired by Insull’s success in Chicago, Ferranti envisioned an interconnected, centrally powered system in London. A site at Deptford was then selected for the construction of the biggest at that time power station in the world. The plant was designed to run with two coal-fired generators with 30 MW of total capacity ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "URL" : "", "accessed" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2017", "6", "16" ] ] }, "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "South Western Electricity Historical Society", "given" : "", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "id" : "ITEM-1", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2003" ] ] }, "title" : "Ferranti\u2019s Deptford Power Station", "type" : "webpage" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(South Western Electricity Historical Society 2003)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(South Western Electricity Historical Society 2003)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(South Western Electricity Historical Society 2003)" }, "properties" : { "noteIndex" : 0 }, "schema" : "" }(South Western Electricity Historical Society 2003). A 10 kV line ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "ISBN" : "0719023696", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Wilson", "given" : "J. F. (John Francis)", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "id" : "ITEM-1", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "1991" ] ] }, "number-of-pages" : "164", "publisher" : "Manchester University Press", "title" : "Ferranti and the emergence of the British electrical industry, 1864-1930.", "type" : "book" }, "uris" : [ "" ] }, { "id" : "ITEM-2", "itemData" : { "ISBN" : "0863410014", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Black", "given" : "Robert M. (Robert Monro)", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Science Museum (Great Britain)", "given" : "", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "id" : "ITEM-2", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "1983" ] ] }, "number-of-pages" : "290", "publisher" : "P. Peregrinus in association with the Science Museum, London", "title" : "The history of electric wires and cables", "type" : "book" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(Wilson 1991; Black and Science Museum (Great Britain) 1983)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(Wilson 1991; Black and Science Museum (Great Britain) 1983)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(Wilson 1991; Black and Science Museum (Great Britain) 1983)" }, "properties" : { "noteIndex" : 0 }, "schema" : "" }(Wilson 1991; Black and Science Museum (Great Britain) 1983) would transfer electricity to the Grosvenor Gallery’s station, which had transformed into a substation in order to distribute electricity to the nearby users. The Deptford plant was granted a license to generate electricity in 1887, but for a much more limited area for distribution than Ferranti aspired. Therefore, a far scaled-down version of the original plan was eventually commissioned. The plant started operation in 1889, running on a small generator of 938 kW ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "URL" : "", "accessed" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2017", "6", "16" ] ] }, "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "South Western Electricity Historical Society", "given" : "", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "id" : "ITEM-1", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2003" ] ] }, "title" : "Ferranti\u2019s Deptford Power Station", "type" : "webpage" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(South Western Electricity Historical Society 2003)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(South Western Electricity Historical Society 2003)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(South Western Electricity Historical Society 2003)" }, "properties" : { "noteIndex" : 0 }, "schema" : "" }(South Western Electricity Historical Society 2003), however a fire in 1890 interrupted its operation. It should be noted that questions of safety and environmental protection, sometimes seen as recent concerns, were at the time already important issues in the infancy of the industry. It was fears for public safety that led to limiting the size at Deptford putting an end to Ferranti’s auspicious plans. Development of universal or regional systems was discouraged outright by public sentiment or licensed in a limited fashion. Electricity supply subsequently remained local for nearly half a century, with mini-grid isolated systems operated by councils or small private companies ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "ISBN" : "9781848872257", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Weightman", "given" : "Gavin", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "id" : "ITEM-1", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2011" ] ] }, "publisher" : "Atlantic Books", "publisher-place" : "London", "title" : "Children of Light, How Electricity Changed Britain Forever", "type" : "book" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(Weightman 2011)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(Weightman 2011)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(Weightman 2011)" }, "properties" : { "noteIndex" : 0 }, "schema" : "" }(Weightman 2011). In 1915, the newly established Electric Power Supply Committee identified more than 600 isolated power systems operating across the country ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "abstract" : "have used a variety offorms to deliver urban services and infrastructures over time. Historically; government has been the domi-nantfactor in the delivery ofinfrastructuresfor which ~10 userfee is charged. whereas a variety offonns have been followed when there are user fees. This article examines changing forms of service delivery systems in the areas of water supply, mass transportation, and electrical supply in the three nations. Alterations in the form of delivery have been shaped by institutional and cultural factors and unique national styles. All three nations have moved in the direction ofprivatization ofservice delivery, but their experience shows that although privatization can reduce government's role ill areas where it is poorly suited. proper oversight and maintenance of competition are vital functions. O ver the past century and a half, there have been many alterations in the patterns by which urban services in the United States are delivered. At various times. private ownership, government ownership, and a variety of mixed arrangements have been employed for provision of different services and infrastructures. The United States has not been unique in regard to shifts in the patterns of service and infrastructure provision. Other countries, too, have changed their methods of service delivery, although not necessarily in a manner identical to the United States. A comparison between experiences with infrastructure in three western industrialized nations-the United States, France, and Great Britain-s-can provide insights into differences in the patterns of change and the manner in which ideas, institutions, and attributes of infrastructures themselves have shaped choice and functioning of forms of ownership. As in the United States, the sheer range and variety of infrastructure arrangements employed in France and Great Britain at different times and places have been extensive (Tarr, 1984). For infrastructure in general, some basic observations are possible. Government ownership of infrastructures such as roads and streets for which user fees are seldom charged has been the dominant approach in nations throughout the world, as it is in the United States. On the other hand, for infrastructures in which service providers are commonly recompensed wholly or in part by user fees-such as telecommunications networks, waterworks, and electric utilities-the range of", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "JACOBSON Washington", "given" : "Charles D", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Joelatarr", "given" : "DC", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "Public Works Management & Policy", "id" : "ITEM-1", "issue" : "1", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "1996" ] ] }, "page" : "60-75", "title" : "PATTERNS AND POLICY CHOICES IN INFRASTRUCTURE HISTORY The United States, France, and Great Britain", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "1" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(JACOBSON Washington and Joelatarr 1996)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(JACOBSON Washington and Joelatarr 1996)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(JACOBSON Washington and Joelatarr 1996)" }, "properties" : { "noteIndex" : 0 }, "schema" : "" }(JACOBSON Washington and Joelatarr 1996). Their average generating capacity was 3.75 MW, in many cases too low to be economically sustainable. To cope with the scattered generation and the multiple standards these systems were operating with, the committee suggested the division of the country into district boards. The boards would take over generation and distribution of electricity in their allotted area ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "ISBN" : "0801821452", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Hannah", "given" : "Leslie.", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "id" : "ITEM-1", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "1979" ] ] }, "number-of-pages" : "467", "publisher" : "Johns Hopkins University Press", "title" : "Electricity before nationalisation : a study of the development of the electricity supply industry in Britain to 1948", "type" : "book" }, "uris" : [ "" ] }, { "id" : "ITEM-2", "itemData" : { "ISBN" : "9781848872257", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Weightman", "given" : "Gavin", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "id" : "ITEM-2", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2011" ] ] }, "publisher" : "Atlantic Books", "publisher-place" : "London", "title" : "Children of Light, How Electricity Changed Britain Forever", "type" : "book" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(Hannah 1979; Weightman 2011)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(Hannah 1979; Weightman 2011)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(Hannah 1979; Weightman 2011)" }, "properties" : { "noteIndex" : 0 }, "schema" : "" }(Hannah 1979; Weightman 2011). Despite this effort, in 1921, there were still approximately 500 authorized suppliers of?electricity in the UK.?They were generating and supplying electricity at a variety of voltages and frequencies. The Electricity Act of 1926 created a central authority to promote a national transmission system.? The Act finally provided a more coherent framework for system growth, establishing “the Grid” (an interconnecting system of selected stations and distribution systems), and the Central Electricity Board (CEB) to manage it. All participating generators sold electricity to the Grid and participating distribution systems bought it from the Grid. This system was largely completed by the mid-1930s. Within seven years, 4,000 miles of cable were hoisted onto 26,265 pylons transmitting electricity all over the country mainly at 132 kV. The scheme costed approximately ? 27 million ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "ISBN" : "9781848872257", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Weightman", "given" : "Gavin", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "id" : "ITEM-1", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2011" ] ] }, "publisher" : "Atlantic Books", "publisher-place" : "London", "title" : "Children of Light, How Electricity Changed Britain Forever", "type" : "book" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(Weightman 2011)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(Weightman 2011)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(Weightman 2011)" }, "properties" : { "noteIndex" : 0 }, "schema" : "" }(Weightman 2011). Different schemes were deployed to bring electricity to the poorest communities. For example, pre-paid arrangements with a minimum consumption threshold (100 kWh/year) in Manchester; increased tariffs for the existing customers; or amortized costs (in the tariff) over a number of years for new customers. Yet, in 1939 before the start of WWII only 12% of the rural population was electrified. WWII imposed its own changes and requirements on the power system, electricity being by then a more central and pivotal part of every wartime economy. However, postwar recovery saw changes with regards to ownership, and major expansions to serve growing civilian demand ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "ISBN" : "9781848872257", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Weightman", "given" : "Gavin", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "id" : "ITEM-1", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2011" ] ] }, "publisher" : "Atlantic Books", "publisher-place" : "London", "title" : "Children of Light, How Electricity Changed Britain Forever", "type" : "book" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(Weightman 2011)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(Weightman 2011)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(Weightman 2011)" }, "properties" : { "noteIndex" : 0 }, "schema" : "" }(Weightman 2011). The post-war Labor government viewed state enterprise as best to provide this service and nationalized the system. Access to reliable electricity services and exploitation of economies of scale in the UK became an unquestioned policy path. The first wave of nationalization started with the Electricity Act in 1947, when 500 power generation and distribution organizations (private companies and/or municipal utilities) went under state control, upon compensation. The generating assets and liabilities of these organizations were also transferred into a single state-controlled body. In addition, the Act introduced fourteen regional Area Boards ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "DOI" : "10.1007/978-94-015-1055-4_1", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Katzarov", "given" : "Konstantin", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "The Theory of Nationalisation", "id" : "ITEM-1", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "1964" ] ] }, "page" : "1-19", "publisher" : "Springer Netherlands", "publisher-place" : "Dordrecht", "title" : "The Pre-Legal Foundations of Nationalisation", "type" : "chapter" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(Katzarov 1964)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(Katzarov 1964)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(Katzarov 1964)" }, "properties" : { "noteIndex" : 0 }, "schema" : "" }(Katzarov 1964), which carried out the distribution and retail of electricity in their own region ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Simmonds", "given" : "Gillian", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "id" : "ITEM-1", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2002" ] ] }, "number-of-pages" : "143", "publisher-place" : "Bath", "title" : "REGULATION OF THE UK ELECTRICITY INDUSTRY", "type" : "report" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(Simmonds 2002)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(Simmonds 2002)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(Simmonds 2002)" }, "properties" : { "noteIndex" : 0 }, "schema" : "" }(Simmonds 2002). Figure 7. Division of power supply over the greater area of London, 1944. Private companies and municipality utilities were operating in a highly competitive environment. In many cases, this fostered co-operation, especially in the years after WWII due to the dread of an imminent nationalization.The nationalization of the power system forced many local power stations to turn their generators off since they were inefficient and too costly to compete with the big, centralized power plants. This effectively ended the era of small-scale local generation and management of electricity as the 50s and 60s saw increasing use of large centralized power plants based on coal and nuclear (plus hydro in Scotland).ReflectionsThere are a few key reflections, that are drawn from the UK story: Mini grids were an important element of the British power industry until a later stage of its development than in comparable economies (e.g. U.S.A.).Overregulation and political parochialism hindered the quick and vigorous development of the power sector in the UK, with policy being a highly influential factor in the adoption of new technologies and schemes. Safety and environmental protection were important factors for the development of power systems in UK, even if they may hamper their rapid expansion.Power enterprises, whether private (for-profit or non-profit) or publicly held, were setting charging rates to levels that were sufficient to cover their costs of maintaining service, match changing load to changing investment needs, and meet external policy demands. This was a critical success factor even where electricity was seen as an investment in social welfare or economic development. Finally, achieving universal access to electricity required strong political commitment and relied to a great extent on public investment. SwedenHistorical contextElectric power arrived in Sweden in the second half of the 19th century. In its early stage, electricity generation was spatially constrained around areas with high demand. As in the USA and the UK, street lighting was the first application of electricity – a DC facility put in operation in H?rn?sand (1885). Similar utilities were founded in towns, usually as an initiative of a prominent person/group within the municipality (local elite, bankers, traders, etc.). The utilities were small with a limited number of customers, forming small isolated islands of electricity distribution ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Bladh", "given" : "Mats", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "id" : "ITEM-1", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2011" ] ] }, "number-of-pages" : "100", "publisher-place" : "Link\u00f6ping", "title" : "Electric Stories: Contributions to the history of electricity in Sweden", "type" : "report" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(Bladh 2011)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(Bladh 2011)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(Bladh 2011)" }, "properties" : { "noteIndex" : 0 }, "schema" : "" }(Bladh 2011). At that time, Sweden was entirely dependent on coal imports for its energy supply, so electricity was usually generated in coal-fired steam stations providing low voltage direct current. However, unlike the USA and UK cases, where expansion of the early electric power systems was concentrated in more urban areas serving multiple needs, the Swedish case followed a slightly different pattern. Namely, electricity production for industrial customers quickly became a major driver for development of the electrical system. For example, by 1885 the number of incandescent lamps in industry was greater than in other part of society – 2,233 industrial out of a total of 4,432. The energy-intensive processes of Swedish industries and the productivity benefits from using electric motors resulted in an increasing demand for electricity. Several energy intensive industries (saw mills, mines, manufacturing companies etc.) developed their own generating capacity - the biggest in the pulp and paper industry and in steel ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Bladh", "given" : "Mats", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "id" : "ITEM-1", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2011" ] ] }, "number-of-pages" : "100", "publisher-place" : "Link\u00f6ping", "title" : "Electric Stories: Contributions to the history of electricity in Sweden", "type" : "report" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(Bladh 2011)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(Bladh 2011)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(Bladh 2011)" }, "properties" : { "noteIndex" : 0 }, "schema" : "" }(Bladh 2011).Isolated power systems expanded throughout the country in order to serve the growing industrial and municipal electricity demand. At the beginning of the twentieth century, industries alone had a generating capacity of 66 MW. Unlike urban centers that relied on coal, industrial production was derived predominantly from hydropower (60%). Electricity boosted productivity in industry but also introduced a new way of life in the Swedish households almost as a side effect ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "DOI" : "10.1016/j.ecolecon.2009.05.005", "ISBN" : "0921-8009", "ISSN" : "09218009", "abstract" : "Energy productivity is crucial for sustainable development. We use cointegration analyses to investigate the effect of electricity on energy productivity in Swedish industry from 1930 to 1990. Electricity augmented energy productivity in those industrial branches that used electricity for multiple purposes. This productivity effect goes beyond \"book-keeping effects,\" i. e. it is not only the result of electricity being produced in one sector (taking the energy transformation losses) and consumed in another (receiving the benefits). \u00a9 2009 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Enflo", "given" : "Kerstin", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Kander", "given" : "Astrid", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Sch\u00f6n", "given" : "Lennart", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "Ecological Economics", "id" : "ITEM-1", "issue" : "11", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2009" ] ] }, "page" : "2808-2817", "title" : "Electrification and energy productivity", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "68" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(Enflo, Kander, and Sch\u00f6n 2009)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(Enflo, Kander, and Sch\u00f6n 2009)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(Enflo, Kander, and Sch\u00f6n 2009)" }, "properties" : { "noteIndex" : 0 }, "schema" : "" }(Enflo, Kander, and Sch?n 2009). Due to the variation in electricity production (as a result of seasonal variation of hydropower) and in order to increase profit many industries were selling the surplus electricity to nearby customers (communities in the vicinity). That stimulated demand, which steadily grew when new devices were introduced (electric irons, radios and later stoves, refrigerators etc.). Furthermore, electricity was highly preferred as a safer means of energy but also as a more stable one. It was cheaper than imported fuels such as lamp oil, kerosene etc. In addition to the industrial capacity, in the year 1900, there were close to one hundred municipal electricity plants all over the country accounting for about 16 MW ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Bladh", "given" : "Mats", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "id" : "ITEM-1", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2011" ] ] }, "number-of-pages" : "100", "publisher-place" : "Link\u00f6ping", "title" : "Electric Stories: Contributions to the history of electricity in Sweden", "type" : "report" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(Bladh 2011)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(Bladh 2011)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(Bladh 2011)" }, "properties" : { "noteIndex" : 0 }, "schema" : "" }(Bladh 2011).At the same time and under a political impetus, power generation activities were highly supported by the government. There were deliberate efforts focusing on the exploitation of one of the country’s most abundant resources, water. The arrival of AC helped overcome the barrier of spatial mismatch between the location of beneficial conditions for electricity generation (North of Sweden for hydropower), the location of residential and commercial electricity consumers (in cities further south) and the location of industry. Early DC power systems required industries to be located near to the energy source. With AC’s ability to transmit power over longer distances, industries started to be located closer to the market and where there was plenty of labor. The period between the 1890s and 1920s was the major growth period for industrialized cities in Sweden ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Bladh", "given" : "Mats", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "id" : "ITEM-1", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2011" ] ] }, "number-of-pages" : "100", "publisher-place" : "Link\u00f6ping", "title" : "Electric Stories: Contributions to the history of electricity in Sweden", "type" : "report" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(Bladh 2011)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(Bladh 2011)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(Bladh 2011)" }, "properties" : { "noteIndex" : 0 }, "schema" : "" }(Bladh 2011).Since the construction of new power plants along with transmission lines required significant investments, coalitions of interested entities were formed to share the high costs and minimize the risk. These coalitions were typically institutionalized in the form of limited companies, founded by municipalities and/or energy-intensive industries (Figure 8). Examples, to name a few include Kungliga Vattenfallstyrelsen (later Vattenfall), Stora Kopparberg, Stockholms elverk and Uddeholm. This simultaneously attracted a number of private investments with many power generation companies being introduced within 1904-1906. (Those included: Sydsvenska kraft - E.ON from 2004 - Hemsj? Kraft AB, Yngeredsfors Kraft AB, Stenkvill-Klinte Kraft AB and Kraft AB Gullsp?ng-Munkfors) ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Bladh", "given" : "Mats", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "id" : "ITEM-1", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2011" ] ] }, "number-of-pages" : "100", "publisher-place" : "Link\u00f6ping", "title" : "Electric Stories: Contributions to the history of electricity in Sweden", "type" : "report" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(Bladh 2011)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(Bladh 2011)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(Bladh 2011)" }, "properties" : { "noteIndex" : 0 }, "schema" : "" }(Bladh 2011).Figure 8. Vattenfall’s power system in Southern Sweden as in 1916 (left) and 1922 (right). The figure illustrates how within a few years, power stations initially developed to serve industrial loads start expanding in the surrounding area so as to cover a growing residential demand. Inter-connection between existing municipal/industrial power stations occurred as an early form of public-private partnership (PPP) ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "URL" : "", "accessed" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2017", "10", "24" ] ] }, "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Vattenfall", "given" : "", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "id" : "ITEM-1", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "0" ] ] }, "title" : "The history and heritage of Vattenfall", "type" : "webpage" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(Vattenfall 2017)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(Vattenfall 2017)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(Vattenfall 2017)" }, "properties" : { "noteIndex" : 28 }, "schema" : "" }(Vattenfall 2017).12739122684200326644022948000From a regulatory perspective, the power company constructing a transmission line was given monopoly over the areas served by that line. In order to construct the line, a distribution agreement was required between the power company and its customer (small industries, commercial stores or households). Thus, in the early stages there was a race towards new agreements and consequently more distribution lines. Even though the network effect triggered local monopolization in some cases, competition was generally high between the early utilities ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Bladh", "given" : "Mats", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "id" : "ITEM-1", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2011" ] ] }, "number-of-pages" : "100", "publisher-place" : "Link\u00f6ping", "title" : "Electric Stories: Contributions to the history of electricity in Sweden", "type" : "report" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(Bladh 2011)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(Bladh 2011)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(Bladh 2011)" }, "properties" : { "noteIndex" : 0 }, "schema" : "" }(Bladh 2011).Utilities were financing their network expansion either through bank loans or governmental support. In order to keep costs down the main strategy among suppliers was to support the formation of cooperative distribution associations at a local level. Similar to the USA scheme, members of the cooperative were actively involved in the electrification process. They built the network themselves, erecting poles and mounting wires. A collective tariff scheme was followed where each member was contributing according to the energy used. The number of electric cooperatives increased from 119 in 1916 to 1,010 in 1919 and reached a maximum of 2,401 cooperatives in 1947 ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Bladh", "given" : "Mats", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "id" : "ITEM-1", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2011" ] ] }, "number-of-pages" : "100", "publisher-place" : "Link\u00f6ping", "title" : "Electric Stories: Contributions to the history of electricity in Sweden", "type" : "report" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(Bladh 2011)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(Bladh 2011)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(Bladh 2011)" }, "properties" : { "noteIndex" : 0 }, "schema" : "" }(Bladh 2011). Gradually, bigger companies dominated and took over control of power generation. However, distribution of power remained under control of local cooperatives until the 1990s ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Wangel", "given" : "Josefin", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "id" : "ITEM-1", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2015" ] ] }, "title" : "Developing Sweden\u2019s transmission grid: what are the drivers and barriers?", "type" : "article-journal" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(Wangel 2015)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(Wangel 2015)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(Wangel 2015)" }, "properties" : { "noteIndex" : 29 }, "schema" : "" }(Wangel 2015).ReflectionsSweden is another example where mini grids played a significant role in the early stages of power grid development. Selected reflections of their contribution are summarized below. Mini grids paved the way for the development of the national grid system by making electricity available as an energy carrier to industry, agriculture and eventually households. Electricity was highly preferred to other fuels as it was safer (in comparison to gas lamps in households) and more affordable than imported fuels (coal, lamp oil, kerosene etc.). For industry, the increased efficiency that came with electrical drive motors was a major productivity boost.Electricity from these isolated systems spurred productivity and increased profit in industries and other enterprises, mobilizing in parallel the economy in the nearby communities.Their decentralized manner allowed competition on local level. This helped to spur relatively low rates, increasing the affordability of electricity services, receptivity to new technology adoption and consequently enhancing social welfare.China Historical contextChina is commonly characterized as a success story in the field of rural electrification. Within 50 years the country managed to provide access to electricity to more than 900 million people ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Pan", "given" : "Jiahua", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Peng", "given" : "Wuyuan", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Li", "given" : "Meng", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Wu", "given" : "Xiangyang", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Wan", "given" : "Lishuang", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Zerriffi", "given" : "Hisham", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Becca", "given" : "Elias", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Zhang", "given" : "Chi", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Victor", "given" : "David", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "id" : "ITEM-1", "issue" : "December", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2006" ] ] }, "number-of-pages" : "74", "publisher-place" : "Stanford", "title" : "Rural Electrification in China 1950-2004", "type" : "report" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(Pan et al. 2006)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(Pan et al. 2006)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(Pan et al. 2006)" }, "properties" : { "noteIndex" : 0 }, "schema" : "" }(Pan et al. 2006). Along with the strong political commitment, the deployment of mini grids and especially small hydropower contributed to a great extent to this success.Electricity arrived in China at the end of the 19th century and as in many other parts of the world was used first for lighting purposes. The first electric company, Shanghai Electric Co. was formed in 1892, three years after Edison’s breakthrough in New York, promising a new way of lighting up the city’s streets. ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "URL" : "", "accessed" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2017", "6", "16" ] ] }, "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Chen", "given" : "Lu", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "id" : "ITEM-1", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2013" ] ] }, "title" : "The end of the night - Global Times", "type" : "webpage" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(Chen 2013)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(Chen 2013)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(Chen 2013)" }, "properties" : { "noteIndex" : 0 }, "schema" : "" }(Chen 2013). A few years later Zhang Garden of Shanghai was the first public place to lit up by electric arc lights ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "ISBN" : "9780824830939", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Pang", "given" : "Laikwan.", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "id" : "ITEM-1", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2007" ] ] }, "number-of-pages" : "280", "publisher" : "University of Hawai\u02bbi Press", "title" : "The distorting mirror : visual modernity in China", "type" : "book" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(Pang 2007)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(Pang 2007)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(Pang 2007)" }, "properties" : { "noteIndex" : 0 }, "schema" : "" }(Pang 2007). Even though electricity was economically less competitive than the well-established gas lighting, it started gaining popularity quickly in areas with foreign activity ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Xiaoqing", "given" : "Ye", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "id" : "ITEM-1", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2003" ] ] }, "number-of-pages" : "15", "title" : "THE LEGAL AND SOCIAL STATUS OF THEATRICAL PERFORMERS IN BEIJING DURING THE QING", "type" : "report" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(Xiaoqing 2003)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(Xiaoqing 2003)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(Xiaoqing 2003)" }, "properties" : { "noteIndex" : 0 }, "schema" : "" }(Xiaoqing 2003). Banks, theatres, tea houses, restaurants were the early adopters, yet the majority of the population remained un-electrified. Electricity supply spread slowly over the following decades. From 1920s onward, small isolated power units (mainly hydropower or internal combustion engines) started appearing in rural areas, covering lighting and motor loads in mining and agricultural processing ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "DOI" : "10.1007/978-1-349-22199-8_1", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Wright", "given" : "Tim", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "The Chinese Economy in the Early Twentieth Century", "id" : "ITEM-1", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "1992" ] ] }, "page" : "1-28", "publisher" : "Palgrave Macmillan UK", "publisher-place" : "London", "title" : "Introduction: Modern Chinese Economic History in a Period of Change", "type" : "chapter" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(Wright 1992)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(Wright 1992)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(Wright 1992)" }, "properties" : { "noteIndex" : 0 }, "schema" : "" }(Wright 1992). In 1923, lines were extended from a coal fired power plant to nearby rural areas in Jiangsu Province to support irrigation and food processing ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Pan", "given" : "Jiahua", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Peng", "given" : "Wuyuan", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Li", "given" : "Meng", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Wu", "given" : "Xiangyang", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Wan", "given" : "Lishuang", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Zerriffi", "given" : "Hisham", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Becca", "given" : "Elias", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Zhang", "given" : "Chi", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Victor", "given" : "David", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "id" : "ITEM-1", "issue" : "December", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2006" ] ] }, "number-of-pages" : "74", "publisher-place" : "Stanford", "title" : "Rural Electrification in China 1950-2004", "type" : "report" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(Pan et al. 2006)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(Pan et al. 2006)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(Pan et al. 2006)" }, "properties" : { "noteIndex" : 0 }, "schema" : "" }(Pan et al. 2006). The progress was slow. In 1949, there were only 33 small hydropower stations in rural China with a total installed capacity of 3.6 MW ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Pan", "given" : "Jiahua", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Peng", "given" : "Wuyuan", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Li", "given" : "Meng", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Wu", "given" : "Xiangyang", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Wan", "given" : "Lishuang", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Zerriffi", "given" : "Hisham", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Becca", "given" : "Elias", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Zhang", "given" : "Chi", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Victor", "given" : "David", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "id" : "ITEM-1", "issue" : "December", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2006" ] ] }, "number-of-pages" : "74", "publisher-place" : "Stanford", "title" : "Rural Electrification in China 1950-2004", "type" : "report" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(Pan et al. 2006)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(Pan et al. 2006)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(Pan et al. 2006)" }, "properties" : { "noteIndex" : 30 }, "schema" : "" }(Pan et al. 2006). Rural electrification progressed steadily but slowly from 1949 when the People’s Republic of China was founded until the economic liberalization of 1979. The 1980s and 1990s saw a rapid expansion of rural electrification with small hydropower stations playing a major role in electrifying hundreds of millions. By 2012, China had achieved universal electrification ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "URL" : "", "accessed" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2017", "6", "16" ] ] }, "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "The World Bank", "given" : "", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "id" : "ITEM-1", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2017" ] ] }, "title" : "Access to electricity (% of population) | Data", "type" : "webpage" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(The World Bank 2017)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(The World Bank 2017)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(The World Bank 2017)" }, "properties" : { "noteIndex" : 0 }, "schema" : "" }(The World Bank 2017). Various forces (political, social and economic) triggered electrification progress in three different stages. The first period, from 1949 to 1978 was characterized by central planning and a significant increase of small isolated hydropower projects over the country. In 1953 the Ministry of Agriculture established the Small Hydropower Agency. Its aim was to train experts that would help actualize the colossal venture of China?s rural electrification. By 1959, 1000 small hydropower plants were built, operating in isolated mode and transmitting electricity at low voltage to nearby communities. Electricity was used for lighting, agricultural processing, drainage, irrigation and industrial operations. Small hydropower capacity expanded from 150 MW in 1959 to 255 MW in 1963 to 380 MW in 1966 and 729 MW in 1969 and 800 in the late 1970s. Meanwhile, the national grid started to expand from the urban centers towards the outskirts reaching some rural areas with 6-10 kV lines. By 1970 there were 1.02 million kilometers of high voltage distribution line stretching off the biggest cities. It is important to mention here that the management and operation of the isolated mini grids was a duty of the local government and remained so even after these areas were connected to the regional or national grid. It is reported that this policy cultivated a sense of ownership in the shareholders. It attracted more farmers, water agencies and local governments to invest (both in cash and labor) in hydropower deployment. As a result, by 1987, 500 million people had gained access to electricity ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Pan", "given" : "Jiahua", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Peng", "given" : "Wuyuan", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Li", "given" : "Meng", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Wu", "given" : "Xiangyang", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Wan", "given" : "Lishuang", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Zerriffi", "given" : "Hisham", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Becca", "given" : "Elias", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Zhang", "given" : "Chi", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Victor", "given" : "David", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "id" : "ITEM-1", "issue" : "December", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2006" ] ] }, "number-of-pages" : "74", "publisher-place" : "Stanford", "title" : "Rural Electrification in China 1950-2004", "type" : "report" }, "uris" : [ "" ] }, { "id" : "ITEM-2", "itemData" : { "DOI" : "10.1007/978-1-4471-4673-5_5", "ISBN" : "9781447146728", "ISSN" : "18653529", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Bhattacharyya", "given" : "Subhes C.", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Ohiare", "given" : "Sanusi", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "Green Energy and Technology", "id" : "ITEM-2", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2013" ] ] }, "page" : "105-129", "title" : "The Chinese Model of Rural Electrification and Electricity Access", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "116" }, "uris" : [ "" ] }, { "id" : "ITEM-3", "itemData" : { "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Niez", "given" : "Alexandra", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "Comparative Study on Rural Electrification Policies in Emerging Economies", "id" : "ITEM-3", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2010" ] ] }, "page" : "118", "title" : "Electrification Policies", "type" : "article-journal" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(Pan et al. 2006; Bhattacharyya and Ohiare 2013; Niez 2010)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(Pan et al. 2006; Bhattacharyya and Ohiare 2013; Niez 2010)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(Pan et al. 2006; Bhattacharyya and Ohiare 2013; Niez 2010)" }, "properties" : { "noteIndex" : 0 }, "schema" : "" }(Pan et al. 2006; Bhattacharyya and Ohiare 2013; Niez 2010). The second period from 1979 to 1998 was characterized by rapid and large scale development of the power system in the country. Decentralized systems were further supported by the government, which provided funds and financial incentives to promote their development. For hydropower, a number of policies were set in place to promote ownership, facilitating access to loans and foreign investments, allowing revenue streams to local government under lower tax rates and supporting interconnection with the main grid when possible. Over a period of twenty years, 653 counties in remote areas gained access to hydropower based electricity. Small-scale thermal power plants were also built where resources were available in order to achieve greater stability and reliability of supply. In 1998, mini grids covered 26.3% of the rural electricity demand with the remainder coming from the regional or national grid. In this period the electrification rate in China reached 97% ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Niez", "given" : "Alexandra", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "Comparative Study on Rural Electrification Policies in Emerging Economies", "id" : "ITEM-1", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2010" ] ] }, "page" : "118", "title" : "Electrification Policies", "type" : "article-journal" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(Niez 2010)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(Niez 2010)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(Niez 2010)" }, "properties" : { "noteIndex" : 0 }, "schema" : "" }(Niez 2010). By the end of the 20th century, there were still 8.8 million households without access to electricity in the country (~30 million people). In addition, rural households that had access did not consume more than a few hundred kilowatt-hours per year. They were also experiencing frequent shortages since the rural grid network was outdated and insufficient. The third period of electrification started in 1999. This period was characterized by institutional reforms in the electric power industry and an extensive renovation of the rural electricity infrastructure. State and regional systems were updated and interconnected to the national system while a standardized electricity tariff was introduced ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Pan", "given" : "Jiahua", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Peng", "given" : "Wuyuan", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Li", "given" : "Meng", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Wu", "given" : "Xiangyang", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Wan", "given" : "Lishuang", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Zerriffi", "given" : "Hisham", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Becca", "given" : "Elias", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Zhang", "given" : "Chi", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Victor", "given" : "David", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "id" : "ITEM-1", "issue" : "December", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2006" ] ] }, "number-of-pages" : "74", "publisher-place" : "Stanford", "title" : "Rural Electrification in China 1950-2004", "type" : "report" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(Pan et al. 2006)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(Pan et al. 2006)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(Pan et al. 2006)" }, "properties" : { "noteIndex" : 0 }, "schema" : "" }(Pan et al. 2006). 315218965786000Figure 9. The story of China shows that, when appropriate, both decentralized (on the left) and centralized (on the right) approaches of electrification can be successful and effective ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Niez", "given" : "Alexandra", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "Comparative Study on Rural Electrification Policies in Emerging Economies", "id" : "ITEM-1", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2010" ] ] }, "page" : "118", "title" : "Electrification Policies", "type" : "article-journal" }, "uris" : [ "" ] }, { "id" : "ITEM-2", "itemData" : { "DOI" : "10.1016/J.RESCONREC.2017.03.011", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "He", "given" : "Gang", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Victor", "given" : "David G.", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "Resources, Conservation and Recycling", "id" : "ITEM-2", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2017", "7", "1" ] ] }, "page" : "335-338", "publisher" : "Elsevier", "title" : "Experiences and lessons from China\u2019s success in providing electricity for all", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "122" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(Niez 2010; He and Victor 2017)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(Niez 2010; He and Victor 2017)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(Niez 2010; He and Victor 2017)" }, "properties" : { "noteIndex" : 31 }, "schema" : "" }(Niez 2010; He and Victor 2017)482601905000In addition, technological advancements in the renewable energy field allowed numerous stand alone and mini grid systems (solar, wind, biogas, hybrids etc.) to be deployed in areas where grid extension was not an economically viable option (Figure 9). Several schemes and pilot projects were introduced such as the “Brightness”, “Township”, “County Hydropower Construction of National Rural Electrification”, “Power for All”, “Golden Sun” electrification programs and the “China Southern Grid” modernization effort ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Niez", "given" : "Alexandra", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "Comparative Study on Rural Electrification Policies in Emerging Economies", "id" : "ITEM-1", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2010" ] ] }, "page" : "118", "title" : "Electrification Policies", "type" : "article-journal" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(Niez 2010)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(Niez 2010)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(Niez 2010)" }, "properties" : { "noteIndex" : 0 }, "schema" : "" }(Niez 2010). By 2012 China achieved universal access to electricity ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "URL" : "", "accessed" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2017", "6", "16" ] ] }, "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "The World Bank", "given" : "", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "id" : "ITEM-1", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2017" ] ] }, "title" : "Access to electricity (% of population) | Data", "type" : "webpage" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(The World Bank 2017)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(The World Bank 2017)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(The World Bank 2017)" }, "properties" : { "noteIndex" : 0 }, "schema" : "" }(The World Bank 2017). ReflectionsThe history of electrification in China provides valuable insights for countries that are currently coping with low electricity access rates, especially in regards to the role of off grid technologies. Governmental commitment along with substantial financial and regulatory support can play a pivotal role in electrification processes. China followed a bottom up approach to electrification which proved to be very successful. Local communities and counties developed off grid generation capacity based on their resource availability and their respective demand. Building self-reliance allowed technological flexibility, capacity building (for construction, operation and maintenance) and an increased sense of ownership by communities. The main grid gradually overtook smaller systems, but not everywhere. The Chinese case shows that power struggles may potentially occur when the grid butts up against mini-grids. However, this also indicates that the electrification mix may require a diversity of solutions that are both time and condition dependent. Finally, it should be noted that in the early electrification days, access to electricity was seen as a way to boost productivity and rural economic development, rather than social welfare policy. This gradual electrification process for productive uses through mini grids allowed the demand to grow in parallel with the ability of rural population to pay for additional services. The resulting observation is that extending and updating the main grid to such areas on a later stage was less challenging since there had been already developed (and growing) electricity demand and functional distribution systems in place.Case briefsIn the following sub-sections, the focus is on a smaller set of insights per country gained from Ireland, India, Bolivia and Cambodia. The electrification process in each one of these countries was (or still is) motivated by various factors, yet mini grids are seen as an important element of power system development.IrelandThe first public electric light in Ireland was lit at Princes Street, Dublin, in the year 1880. Following the general pattern of the times, urban areas were the first to utilize electricity. DC low voltage electricity was distributed over a short distance either for public lighting or for powering local commercial activity. Private companies also played a crucial role from very early on. By 1925 there were 161 independent entities in the country (local authorities or private companies) operating in various frequencies and voltages. Hydro, coal, peat, gas and wind power were all being utilized to generate electricity ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "ISBN" : "9780862788407", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Shiel", "given" : "Michael J.", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "id" : "ITEM-1", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2003" ] ] }, "number-of-pages" : "304", "publisher" : "O'Brien Press", "publisher-place" : "Dublin", "title" : "The quiet revolution : the electrification of rural Ireland, 1946-1976", "type" : "book" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(Shiel 2003)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(Shiel 2003)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(Shiel 2003)" }, "properties" : { "noteIndex" : 0 }, "schema" : "" }(Shiel 2003).The evolution of the power system in the country is deeply entrenched to the formation of the Electricity Supply Board (ESB) in 1927. Its history began with the Electricity Supply Act (1927)?to manage Ireland's electricity supply as the massive Shannon hydro scheme?at Ardnacrusha was being completed. The Ardnacrusha facility, opened in 1929, was the largest hydroelectric plant in the world at the time. Figure 10. High-voltage network and the Shannon electrification scheme in the Free Irish state in 1930 ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "URL" : "", "abstract" : "News - Opening of the Ardnacrusha hydroelectric power plant", "accessed" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2017", "11", "2" ] ] }, "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Siemens", "given" : "", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "id" : "ITEM-1", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "0" ] ] }, "title" : "High-voltage network in the Irish Free State, 1930", "type" : "webpage" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(Siemens 2017)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(Siemens 2017)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(Siemens 2017)" }, "properties" : { "noteIndex" : 0 }, "schema" : "" }(Siemens 2017).The Shannon scheme was undertaken to power the city of Shannon as an industrial base for the country ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Duffy", "given" : "Paul", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "History Ireland", "id" : "ITEM-1", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2004" ] ] }, "title" : "The prehistory of the Shannon scheme", "type" : "article-magazine" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(Duffy 2004)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(Duffy 2004)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(Duffy 2004)" }, "properties" : { "noteIndex" : 0 }, "schema" : "" }(Duffy 2004). The scheme led to Ireland's first large-scale electricity plant – and six years later, it covered 80% of the total electricity demand of Ireland ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "ISBN" : "9780862788407", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Shiel", "given" : "Michael J.", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "id" : "ITEM-1", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2003" ] ] }, "number-of-pages" : "304", "publisher" : "O'Brien Press", "publisher-place" : "Dublin", "title" : "The quiet revolution : the electrification of rural Ireland, 1946-1976", "type" : "book" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(Shiel 2003)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(Shiel 2003)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(Shiel 2003)" }, "properties" : { "noteIndex" : 0 }, "schema" : "" }(Shiel 2003). The importance of the Shannon hydropower scheme can be seen in the concurrent development of a large-scale transmission system that covered much of the country (Figure 10).For the next 25 years, much of the development was through hydropower providing electricity to cities. After the urban areas were completed the rural electrification scheme began. Although its centralized electrification efforts started later than the UK and the US, Ireland is acknowledged in the literature as an example of major centralized electrification schemes ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "DOI" : "10.1177/1070496508326432", "ISBN" : "9781464800931", "ISSN" : "13697021", "abstract" : "This article introduces this special issue that deals with subnational (and, in the case of the European Union, sub-supranational) global climate change politics. While recognizing the limitations that face local governments, the article discusses the importance of focusing more attention on climate policies and programs of state (prefectural, provincial), regional, metropolitan, and local levels of government, where implementation of national climate change policies and programs must occur. Four cases are examined in detail: California within the United States, Germany within the European Union, prefectures and some municipalities (Tokyo and Kyoto) within Japan, and provinces and prefectures within China. The reasons why local governments sometimes choose to act as agenda setters are considered, the ways local governments can influence national government policies are discussed, the role of international networks in diffusing policy ideas among local governments is introduced, and the obstacles to affecting deep change at the local level are considered.", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Schreurs", "given" : "Miranda A.", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "The Journal of Environment & Development", "id" : "ITEM-1", "issue" : "4", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2008" ] ] }, "number-of-pages" : "343 -355", "title" : "From the Bottom Up", "type" : "book", "volume" : "17" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(Schreurs 2008)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(Schreurs 2008)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(Schreurs 2008)" }, "properties" : { "noteIndex" : 0 }, "schema" : "" }(Schreurs 2008) and demonstrates a case of rapid transition from smaller systems to a single large system. By 1965, 81% of rural households were electrified with total expenditures amounting to 36 million Irish pounds. Electrification was finally complete in the early 1980s. Most of the smaller islands are now connected to the main grid, but a few still rely on mini grids, primarily through wind- and/or diesel-based generation. IndiaIn July 1879, the first Indian demonstration of electric lighting was conducted in Kolkata (former Calcutta) by the privately owned company P.W. Fleury & Co. Two years later, the first commercial application of electricity lit 36 lamps at Mackinnon & Mackenzie Company’s Garden Reach Cotton Mills. Mumbai saw electric lighting for the first time in 1882 at Crawford Market. As in many other parts of the world, electricity in India was initially introduced in urban centers for lighting. Small, isolated, privately owned power systems started to appear gradually over the country and particularly deployed by productive units, which saw great potential in this new form of energy ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "URL" : "", "accessed" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2017", "6", "16" ] ] }, "id" : "ITEM-1", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2017" ] ] }, "title" : "History of Indian Power Sector | Power Sector", "type" : "webpage" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(\u201cHistory of Indian Power Sector | Power Sector\u201d 2017)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(\u201cHistory of Indian Power Sector | Power Sector\u201d 2017)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(\u201cHistory of Indian Power Sector | Power Sector\u201d 2017)" }, "properties" : { "noteIndex" : 0 }, "schema" : "" }(“History of Indian Power Sector | Power Sector” 2017). Darjeeling in North East India was the site of the first hydropower application in the country (Sidrabong station – 1896). A 130 kW generator driven by impulse turbines provided electricity to nearby tea plantations. Emambagh thermal power station (1896) in Kolkata served commercial loads in the vicinity. Sivasamudram station (1902) near Bangalore supplied power to the Kolar gold mines and the Ultadanga station (1910) supplied the jute industry. Bombay Electric Supply & Tramways Company (B.E.S.T.) set up a generating station in 1905 to provide electricity for the tramway. Over the next decades, big power plants were built in order to cope with increasing demand, while early interconnection processes had been established as a way to cope with load variation (e.g. Khopoli – Bhivpuri – Bhira interconnected hydropower plants ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "DOI" : "10.1109/HEP.2007.4510263", "ISBN" : "1424413443", "abstract" : "This paper gives an overview of the origins and development of hydroelectric and thermal power systems in India. Most of the early power generating stations, which were developed when India was a colony of the British, were hydro-electric in nature. These pre-independence generating stations fed loads in the urban areas and electrification of the villages was done mostly after 1947. The Electricity Supply Act of 1948 saw the emergence of State Electricity Boards (SEBs). The SEBs led to the rise of Regional Electricity Boards and efforts are being made to integrate the various regional grids into a single national grid. The latter half of the century saw inroads being made into other forms of energy, including nuclear and wind. These aspects have also been dealt with in the paper.", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Madan", "given" : "Sandhya", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Manimuthu", "given" : "Swetha", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Thiruvengadam", "given" : "S.", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "2007 IEEE Conference on the History of Electric Power, HEP 2007", "id" : "ITEM-1", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2007" ] ] }, "page" : "152-165", "title" : "History of electric power in India (1890 - 1990)", "type" : "article-journal" }, "uris" : [ "" ] }, { "id" : "ITEM-2", "itemData" : { "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Journal", "given" : "Indian textile", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "Indian Textile Journal", "id" : "ITEM-2", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "1912" ] ] }, "number-of-pages" : "118", "publisher" : "Indian Textile Journal", "publisher-place" : "Bombay", "title" : "Electricity in India: Being a history of the TATA hydro-electric project with notes on the Mill industry in Bombay and the progress of electric drive in Indian factories", "type" : "book" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(Madan, Manimuthu, and Thiruvengadam 2007; Journal 1912)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(Madan, Manimuthu, and Thiruvengadam 2007; Journal 1912)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(Madan, Manimuthu, and Thiruvengadam 2007; Journal 1912)" }, "properties" : { "noteIndex" : 0 }, "schema" : "" }(Madan, Manimuthu, and Thiruvengadam 2007; Journal 1912).Figure 13. India’ second hydro-electric project in Khopoli (1915) & inter-connection with cotton mills in Mumbai. Early power systems in India were developed around zones with economic activity, based on the available local resources. Soon after independence, the Electricity Supply Act of 1948 introduced State Electricity Boards (SEBs) in 16 states, which were given autonomy over the generation, transmission and distribution of electricity within their territory. The aim of this was to enhance reliability of supply, allow economies of scale and increase geographical coverage ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "DOI" : "10.1017/CBO9780511493287", "ISBN" : "9780511493287", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Tongia", "given" : "Rahul", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "editor" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Victor", "given" : "David G.", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Heller", "given" : "Thomas C.", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "id" : "ITEM-1", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2007" ] ] }, "publisher" : "Cambridge University Press", "publisher-place" : "Cambridge", "title" : "The political economy of Indian power sector reforms", "type" : "book" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(Tongia 2007)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(Tongia 2007)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(Tongia 2007)" }, "properties" : { "noteIndex" : 36 }, "schema" : "" }(Tongia 2007). At that time, the generating capacity was approximately 1.3 GW, mostly provided by privately owned companies. The centralized grid systems were increasingly dependent on large generating stations and became inter-connected in stages from the formation of five regional grids (1967) to the gradual creation of a single grid (1991-2014). This single grid supplies almost half of the power in the country ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "URL" : "", "accessed" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2017", "6", "16" ] ] }, "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "PGCIL", "given" : "", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "id" : "ITEM-1", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2017" ] ] }, "title" : "Our Network | POWERGRID | A Government of India Enterprise", "type" : "webpage" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(PGCIL 2017)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(PGCIL 2017)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(PGCIL 2017)" }, "properties" : { "noteIndex" : 0 }, "schema" : "" }(PGCIL 2017). However, despite this decades long effort to build out the grid system and increase power generation, grid electricity still does not reach approximately 240 million people who reside in currently unserved areas ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "DOI" : "10.1787/weo-2014-en", "ISBN" : "9789264208056", "ISSN" : "<null>", "PMID" : "45886474", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "IEA", "given" : "", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "id" : "ITEM-1", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2015" ] ] }, "number-of-pages" : "726", "title" : "World Energy Outlook", "type" : "book" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(IEA 2015)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(IEA 2015)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(IEA 2015)" }, "properties" : { "noteIndex" : 0 }, "schema" : "" }(IEA 2015). In many cases, off grid systems are an economic electrification alternative for these areas, especially where public funds have proven insufficient to provide central grid electricity. As of 2013, approximately 10,154 villages and hamlets have been electrified through mini grid systems under the Remote Village Electrification Program (RVEP) ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "URL" : "", "accessed" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2017", "10", "24" ] ] }, "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Ministry of New and Renewable Energy", "given" : "", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "id" : "ITEM-1", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "0" ] ] }, "title" : "Off-Grid Power", "type" : "webpage" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(Ministry of New and Renewable Energy 2017)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(Ministry of New and Renewable Energy 2017)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(Ministry of New and Renewable Energy 2017)" }, "properties" : { "noteIndex" : 36 }, "schema" : "" }(Ministry of New and Renewable Energy 2017)ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "DOI" : "10.2175/106143010X12756668801257", "ISBN" : "1061-4303", "ISSN" : "10614303", "abstract" : "A review of the literature published in 2008 on topics relating to decentralized water systems. Decentralized systems are designed with less than fully centralized collection and treatment for various benefits. Although these systems serve diverse needs, they have common characteristics, such as remote monitoring, control, and quality verification, such that study of these systems might provide benefit in their future evaluation, design, and implementation. Copyright 2009 Water Environment Federation.", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Norton", "given" : "John W.", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "Water Environment Research", "id" : "ITEM-1", "issue" : "10", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2010" ] ] }, "page" : "1367-1375", "title" : "Decentralized Systems", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "82" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(Norton 2010)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(Norton 2010)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(Norton 2010)" }, "properties" : { "noteIndex" : 36 }, "schema" : "" }(Norton 2010). Many renewable-based private mini-grid models have emerged as a means of reducing energy poverty in the country. They range in size and scale from providing very low levels of power to each household sufficient only for a light and cell phone charging (e.g. Mera Gao Power), to others that provide power suitable for a range of household needs or even productive activities (e.g. OMC, Husk Power). However, while some have managed to provide electricity to hundreds of villages and thousands of customers, they face a number of challenges. These include unclear regulations around mini-grids, perceptions around grid vs mini-grid power, and difficulties in obtaining finance ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Zerriffi", "given" : "Hisham", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Natarajan", "given" : "Hari", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Purohit", "given" : "Narmada", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Hargadine", "given" : "Sam", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "id" : "ITEM-1", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2016" ] ] }, "number-of-pages" : "76", "title" : "COUNTRY REPORT AND CASE STUDY SUMMARIES \u2013 INDIA DECENTRALIZED ENERGY PORTFOLIO REVIEW", "type" : "report" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(Zerriffi et al. 2016)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(Zerriffi et al. 2016)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(Zerriffi et al. 2016)" }, "properties" : { "noteIndex" : 0 }, "schema" : "" }(Zerriffi et al. 2016).BoliviaDuring the colonial period and until its independence in 1825, Bolivia’s economy had a mono-productive profile based on mining of the large silver ores discovered in Potosí. In the second half of the nineteenth century, the exploitation of silver as well as other minerals intensified, with growing investments flowing in the country mainly by English and Chilean investors. It was at that time the first electric power systems start appearing in the country around areas with mining activity.Public electricity arrived in the cities of La Paz, Oruro, Potosí, Cochabamba and Sucre in a relatively short period of time. In 1898 the first 45 kW diesel generator started operating in Oruro and within 6 years the capacity reached 440 kW powering nearby mines, public and residential lights for about 5.5 hours/day. In 1908, the first privately owned hydroelectric power plant (Cayara - 370 kW) was built near the city of Potosí ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "URL" : "", "accessed" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2017", "6", "16" ] ] }, "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "ENDE", "given" : "", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "id" : "ITEM-1", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2017" ] ] }, "title" : "Nuestra Historia", "type" : "webpage" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(ENDE 2017)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(ENDE 2017)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(ENDE 2017)" }, "properties" : { "noteIndex" : 0 }, "schema" : "" }(ENDE 2017).Due to lack of adequate legislation regulating the electric power industry, systems were developed under different frequencies (25, 50 and 60 cycles per second) and voltages (besides the common 110 and 220 volts, 380, 400, 440, 500 and 600 volts were used, especially in mines). The regulation of the electric industry was also local in character and was carried out through concession contracts awarded by the municipalities to private companies. In order to control the regulation of the sector and cope with the country’s supply limitations, the National Electricity Company (Empresa Nacional de Electricidad S.A - ENDE) was established in 1962. ENDE was created as an institution of public service to fulfil the specific role as a regulator of production, transmission and distribution of electricity and also supervise activities related to operation, construction and planning. During the following decades, significant investments were made in transmission, interconnecting the main generation systems from the north to the south of the country ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "URL" : "", "accessed" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2017", "6", "16" ] ] }, "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "ENDE", "given" : "", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "id" : "ITEM-1", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2017" ] ] }, "title" : "Nuestra Historia", "type" : "webpage" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(ENDE 2017)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(ENDE 2017)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(ENDE 2017)" }, "properties" : { "noteIndex" : 0 }, "schema" : "" }(ENDE 2017).In addition, local mini grids (local cooperatives, municipal utilities and private companies) were technically and financially reinforced by the government, expanding electricity coverage within and around major cities. Centralized generation prevailed, based initially on hydro and later (in the 1980s) on natural gas thermal power plants. At this point in time, industrial and mining isolated stations were shut down since grid electricity became a much more affordable option. Two rounds of privatization (1989-1993 and 1994-1997), resulting from Bolivia’s economic crisis of 1982) further reinforced the dominance of large-scale power generation. The generating capacity was increased significantly primarily due to the construction of big thermal power plants running on the country’s abundant natural gas reserves. Access to electricity improved during the privatization period, yet in rural areas the rate still remained low.In 2005 a new Rural Electrification scheme was approved (Supreme decree No. 28567) aiming to increase rural access to electricity through further reinforcement and extension of the grid network. In 2012, a second scheme (Plan de Universalización Bolivia con Energía” later “Plan Eléctrico 2025” ) was developed targeting universal access to electricity by 2025 ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Ministerio de Hidrocarburos y Energ\u00eda", "given" : "", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "id" : "ITEM-1", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2010" ] ] }, "number-of-pages" : "28", "publisher-place" : "La Paz", "title" : "Plan de Universalizaci\u00f3n Bolivia con Energ\u00eda 2010-2025", "type" : "report" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(Ministerio de Hidrocarburos y Energ\u00eda 2010)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(Ministerio de Hidrocarburos y Energ\u00eda 2010)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(Ministerio de Hidrocarburos y Energ\u00eda 2010)" }, "properties" : { "noteIndex" : 0 }, "schema" : "" }(Ministerio de Hidrocarburos y Energía 2010). Still, in 2015 it was estimated that 44% of rural settlements did not have access to electricity, compared to 2% in urban areas ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Ministry of Hydrocarbons and Energy", "given" : "", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "id" : "ITEM-1", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2014" ] ] }, "publisher-place" : "La Paz", "title" : "Plan El\u00e9ctrico del Estado Plurinacional de Bolivia - 2025", "type" : "report" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(Ministry of Hydrocarbons and Energy 2014)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(Ministry of Hydrocarbons and Energy 2014)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(Ministry of Hydrocarbons and Energy 2014)" }, "properties" : { "noteIndex" : 0 }, "schema" : "" }(Ministry of Hydrocarbons and Energy 2014). Currently, the National Interconnected System (Sistema Interconectado National - SIN) serves big parts of the country’s demand. However, several parts of the country are served by smaller-isolated grids (referred to as Systemas Aislados - SA). For example, the regions of Beni, Pando, Tarija and the eastern region of Santa Cruz are not connected to the SIN and constitute autonomous systems. As in 2014, the installed off grid capacity in Bolivia was 135.7 MW, approximately 8% of the total generating capacity in the country ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Autoridad de Fiscalizaci\u00f3n y Control Social de Electricidad", "given" : "", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "id" : "ITEM-1", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2014" ] ] }, "title" : "Potencia Instalada SIN", "type" : "report" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(Autoridad de Fiscalizaci\u00f3n y Control Social de Electricidad 2014)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(Autoridad de Fiscalizaci\u00f3n y Control Social de Electricidad 2014)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(Autoridad de Fiscalizaci\u00f3n y Control Social de Electricidad 2014)" }, "properties" : { "noteIndex" : 0 }, "schema" : "" }(Autoridad de Fiscalización y Control Social de Electricidad 2014). The electricity distribution of these systems is led by cooperatives and community organizations which sell electricity to middle-size towns and small rural communities. According to the Bolivian government, the capacity of off-grid systems will follow a 10% annual increase and their capacity is estimated to reach approximately 274 MW by 2025. The government is planning the gradual interconnection of these systems with the national system (SIN) within the same time period. Bolivia is another example where mini grids played (and still continue to play) a significant role in electrification processes. CambodiaThe reconstruction after decades of conflict that halted development and damaged existing electricity infrastructure of the national power system in Cambodia started in the early 1990s. While the electricity utility company – Electricité Du Cambodge (EDC) – undertook the challenging task of extending the grid to the more densely populated parts of the country, rural areas in the country’s borders with Vietnam, Laos and Thailand remained unserved. In those areas, electricity was supplied through the private initiative of local entrepreneurs setting up small diesel generators primarily in order to supply households in the vicinity. These mini-grid systems generally did not surpass 200 kW in capacity with low voltage distribution and a generally unstable provision of electricity. However, an estimated 20% of these systems served larger district level towns. These mini-grid systems were able to deliver a few watt-hours daily to each household at relatively high tariffs (approx. 0.8 – 1 $/kWh) in comparison to the retail tariffs charged by EDC (0.15 – 0.25 $/kWh) in urban areas ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Tenenbaum", "given" : "Bernard", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Greacen", "given" : "Chris", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Vaghela", "given" : "Dipti", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "id" : "ITEM-1", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2017" ] ] }, "publisher-place" : "Washington, DC", "title" : "Mini-Grids and arrival of the main grid: Lessons from Cambodia, Sri Lanka and Indonesia", "type" : "report" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(Tenenbaum, Greacen, and Vaghela 2017)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(Tenenbaum, Greacen, and Vaghela 2017)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(Tenenbaum, Greacen, and Vaghela 2017)" }, "properties" : { "noteIndex" : 0 }, "schema" : "" }(Tenenbaum, Greacen, and Vaghela 2017). In some cases, they also provided power to village commercial or productive activities during the day when not serving households, as well as providing battery charging services to households too far to be served by the village micro-grid. In this way they were able to meet multiple demands and segment their market ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "DOI" : "10.1007/978-90-481-9594-7", "ISBN" : "978-90-481-9593-0", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Zerriffi", "given" : "Hisham", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "id" : "ITEM-1", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2011" ] ] }, "publisher" : "Springer", "publisher-place" : "Vancouver, BC, Canada", "title" : "Rural Electrification Strategies for Distributed Generation", "type" : "book" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(Zerriffi 2011)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(Zerriffi 2011)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(Zerriffi 2011)" }, "properties" : { "noteIndex" : 0 }, "schema" : "" }(Zerriffi 2011).After the Electricity Act of 2002, the isolated mini-grids were exposed to a new set of regulatory, commercial and technical arrangements. The formation of an independent regulator led to rules requiring independent generators/distributors to be licensed. At the same time, the expansion of EDC’s territory in a limited range around cities and also along the power transmission corridors created uncertainty for their ability to serve the majority of customers. Many of the smaller, remote, rural entrepreneurs were not in the planned service territory of the utility. In addition, as a new agency, the regulatory authority was focused on larger systems and establishing new rules. For the larger systems, particularly the district town systems, the arrival of the grid triggered a shift in their business models with most of them becoming retail distributors of electricity purchased at wholesale ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Tenenbaum", "given" : "Bernard", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Greacen", "given" : "Chris", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Vaghela", "given" : "Dipti", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "id" : "ITEM-1", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2017" ] ] }, "publisher-place" : "Washington, DC", "title" : "Mini-Grids and arrival of the main grid: Lessons from Cambodia, Sri Lanka and Indonesia", "type" : "report" }, "uris" : [ "" ] }, { "id" : "ITEM-2", "itemData" : { "DOI" : "10.1007/978-90-481-9594-7", "ISBN" : "978-90-481-9593-0", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Zerriffi", "given" : "Hisham", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "id" : "ITEM-2", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2011" ] ] }, "publisher" : "Springer", "publisher-place" : "Vancouver, BC, Canada", "title" : "Rural Electrification Strategies for Distributed Generation", "type" : "book" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(Tenenbaum, Greacen, and Vaghela 2017; Zerriffi 2011)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(Tenenbaum, Greacen, and Vaghela 2017; Zerriffi 2011)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(Tenenbaum, Greacen, and Vaghela 2017; Zerriffi 2011)" }, "properties" : { "noteIndex" : 0 }, "schema" : "" }(Tenenbaum, Greacen, and Vaghela 2017; Zerriffi 2011). From a regulatory perspective, the provision of distribution franchises and the supporting schemes introduced by the Electricity Act in 2002, were of significant importance in the interconnection process. Government’s subsidies to mini-grids based on full cost recovery tariffs and granting no-interest loans for network upgrades, prevented isolated systems from going out of business. In addition, this scheme allowed mini-grid operators to divert their business models successfully without losing commercial value of their assets. In fact, many mini-grid owners found it more profitable to be on the retail/distribution part rather than bearing the operation and maintenance cost of the generators ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Tenenbaum", "given" : "Bernard", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Greacen", "given" : "Chris", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Vaghela", "given" : "Dipti", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "id" : "ITEM-1", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2017" ] ] }, "publisher-place" : "Washington, DC", "title" : "Mini-Grids and arrival of the main grid: Lessons from Cambodia, Sri Lanka and Indonesia", "type" : "report" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(Tenenbaum, Greacen, and Vaghela 2017)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(Tenenbaum, Greacen, and Vaghela 2017)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(Tenenbaum, Greacen, and Vaghela 2017)" }, "properties" : { "noteIndex" : 0 }, "schema" : "" }(Tenenbaum, Greacen, and Vaghela 2017). As of 2015, nearly 35.7% of Cambodia’s retail electricity was sold through licensed small power distributors deriving from previously isolated mini-grids ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "abstract" : "Preface The Annual Report on Power Sector of the Kingdom of Cambodia 2016 Edition is compiled from informations for the year 2015 available with EAC and received from licensees, MME and other organizations in the power sector. The data received from some licensees may not be up to the required level of accuracy and hence the information provided in this report may be taken as indicative. This report is for dissemination to the Royal Government, institutions, investors and public desirous to know about the situation of the power sector of the Kingdom of Cambodia during the year 2015. With addition of more HV transmission system and MV sub-transmission system, more and more licensees are getting connected to the grid supply and expanding their area of supply. This has resulted in supply to more consumers and improvement in quality of supply. By end of 2015, almost 99% of the consumers are connected to the grid system. More licensees are now supplying electricity for 24 hours a day. The grid supply has reduced the cost of supply and consequently the tariff for supply to consumers. Due to lower cost and other measures taken by Royal Government of Cambodia, in 2015 there has been a substantial increase in the number of consumers availing electricity supply. As reported by the licensees, the number of consumers by end of 2015 is 1,859,205; which is almost 30 % higher than the number reported in 2014. From 2014, Time of Use tariff for MV consumers of EDC connected to National Grid has been introduced on an optional basis. Any comments or suggestions from Royal Government, instutions, investors or public to improve the Annual Report published by EAC are welcome and will be considered by EAC to publish more useful reports in future reflecting the actual situation of the sector.", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "EAC", "given" : "", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "id" : "ITEM-1", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2016" ] ] }, "number-of-pages" : "147", "title" : "Report on Power Sector for the Year 2015", "type" : "report" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(EAC 2016)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(EAC 2016)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(EAC 2016)" }, "properties" : { "noteIndex" : 0 }, "schema" : "" }(EAC 2016). Approximately 573,000 rural customers ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "abstract" : "Preface The Annual Report on Power Sector of the Kingdom of Cambodia 2016 Edition is compiled from informations for the year 2015 available with EAC and received from licensees, MME and other organizations in the power sector. The data received from some licensees may not be up to the required level of accuracy and hence the information provided in this report may be taken as indicative. This report is for dissemination to the Royal Government, institutions, investors and public desirous to know about the situation of the power sector of the Kingdom of Cambodia during the year 2015. With addition of more HV transmission system and MV sub-transmission system, more and more licensees are getting connected to the grid supply and expanding their area of supply. This has resulted in supply to more consumers and improvement in quality of supply. By end of 2015, almost 99% of the consumers are connected to the grid system. More licensees are now supplying electricity for 24 hours a day. The grid supply has reduced the cost of supply and consequently the tariff for supply to consumers. Due to lower cost and other measures taken by Royal Government of Cambodia, in 2015 there has been a substantial increase in the number of consumers availing electricity supply. As reported by the licensees, the number of consumers by end of 2015 is 1,859,205; which is almost 30 % higher than the number reported in 2014. From 2014, Time of Use tariff for MV consumers of EDC connected to National Grid has been introduced on an optional basis. Any comments or suggestions from Royal Government, instutions, investors or public to improve the Annual Report published by EAC are welcome and will be considered by EAC to publish more useful reports in future reflecting the actual situation of the sector.", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "EAC", "given" : "", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "id" : "ITEM-1", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2016" ] ] }, "number-of-pages" : "147", "title" : "Report on Power Sector for the Year 2015", "type" : "report" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(EAC 2016)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(EAC 2016)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(EAC 2016)" }, "properties" : { "noteIndex" : 0 }, "schema" : "" }(EAC 2016) have seen benefits from this electrification approach which is estimated to cost 3.5 $/customer/month ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Tenenbaum", "given" : "Bernard", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Greacen", "given" : "Chris", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Vaghela", "given" : "Dipti", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "id" : "ITEM-1", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2017" ] ] }, "publisher-place" : "Washington, DC", "title" : "Mini-Grids and arrival of the main grid: Lessons from Cambodia, Sri Lanka and Indonesia", "type" : "report" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(Tenenbaum, Greacen, and Vaghela 2017)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(Tenenbaum, Greacen, and Vaghela 2017)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(Tenenbaum, Greacen, and Vaghela 2017)" }, "properties" : { "noteIndex" : 0 }, "schema" : "" }(Tenenbaum, Greacen, and Vaghela 2017). Furthermore, the quality of supply and affordability appear to have increased to a great extent. Customers connected to distribution franchises could have access to electricity 24 hours per day while their consumption levels increased from watt-hours to kilowatt-hours per day ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Tenenbaum", "given" : "Bernard", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Greacen", "given" : "Chris", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Vaghela", "given" : "Dipti", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "id" : "ITEM-1", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2017" ] ] }, "publisher-place" : "Washington, DC", "title" : "Mini-Grids and arrival of the main grid: Lessons from Cambodia, Sri Lanka and Indonesia", "type" : "report" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(Tenenbaum, Greacen, and Vaghela 2017)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(Tenenbaum, Greacen, and Vaghela 2017)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(Tenenbaum, Greacen, and Vaghela 2017)" }, "properties" : { "noteIndex" : 0 }, "schema" : "" }(Tenenbaum, Greacen, and Vaghela 2017).The electrification approach in Cambodia was a result of multiple factors. The lack of funds and interest by EDC to invest in reaching rural customers allowed the government to adopt a proactive regulation approach that allowed distribution network upgrades prior to interconnection and capital and operational cost subsidy programs that help mini-grids transition to Small Power Distributors (SPDs). This approach enhanced electrification efforts, with the national utility (EDC) focusing more on the construction of enhanced MV lines, while the experienced mini-grid operators focused on distribution to their own local communities ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Tenenbaum", "given" : "Bernard", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Greacen", "given" : "Chris", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Vaghela", "given" : "Dipti", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "id" : "ITEM-1", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2017" ] ] }, "publisher-place" : "Washington, DC", "title" : "Mini-Grids and arrival of the main grid: Lessons from Cambodia, Sri Lanka and Indonesia", "type" : "report" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(Tenenbaum, Greacen, and Vaghela 2017)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(Tenenbaum, Greacen, and Vaghela 2017)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(Tenenbaum, Greacen, and Vaghela 2017)" }, "properties" : { "noteIndex" : 0 }, "schema" : "" }(Tenenbaum, Greacen, and Vaghela 2017). Discussion and ConclusionsEven if much has changed from the development of early electrification systems over a century ago, this brief historical perspective provides insights on the role that mini-grids can play in current and future electrification efforts. Those insights include a better understanding of the various phases of development, from the inception, to the implementation and the economic scale up of mini-grids, as well as guidelines on how the private and public sector can interact in a mutually beneficial manner.Electrification processes are wedded to the specific social, political, technical and economic environment of each the era, and while parallels do exist, today’s electrification challenge is different from the ones a century ago, in several aspects. For example, unelectrified areas with high population density may now bypass or leapfrog the need for isolated systems that were historically common in urban and peri-urban areas. On the other hand, given the significant technological and cost progress of recent years, various system configurations may be best-suited even within one jurisdiction (based on demand, resources, distance from the existing grid network, etc.) ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Mentis", "given" : "Dimitrios", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "id" : "ITEM-1", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2017" ] ] }, "title" : "Spatially explicit electrification modelling insights Applications, benefits, limitations and an open tool for geospatial electrification modelling", "type" : "article-journal" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(Mentis 2017)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(Mentis 2017)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(Mentis 2017)" }, "properties" : { "noteIndex" : 0 }, "schema" : "" }(Mentis 2017), ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "DOI" : "10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199682362.003.0009", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Bazilian", "given" : "Morgan", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Economy", "given" : "Ryan", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Nussbaumer", "given" : "Patrick", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Haites", "given" : "Erik", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Yumkella", "given" : "Kandeh K.", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Howells", "given" : "Mark", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Takada", "given" : "Minoru", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Rothman", "given" : "Dale S.", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Levi", "given" : "Michael", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "Energy Poverty", "id" : "ITEM-1", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2014", "11", "27" ] ] }, "page" : "180-208", "publisher" : "Oxford University Press", "title" : "Beyond Basic Access", "type" : "chapter" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(Bazilian et al. 2014)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(Bazilian et al. 2014)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(Bazilian et al. 2014)" }, "properties" : { "noteIndex" : 0 }, "schema" : "" }(Bazilian et al. 2014), ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "DOI" : "10.1016/j.energy.2015.11.068", "ISBN" : "0360-5442", "ISSN" : "03605442", "abstract" : "The UN's Sustainable Energy For All initiative has made universal access to energy by 2030 a key target. Countries wherein budgets are constrained and institutions stressed are faced with the challenge of further extending energy services - and doing so significantly. To meet this goal for the power sector in a cost-effective way, governments have to consider the deployment of a mix of stand-alone, mini-grid and grid-based solutions. To help inform analysis, planning and the decision process, this paper presents a simple, transparent, least-cost model for the electrification of rural areas. The approach builds on four key parameters, namely: (i) target level and quality of energy access, (ii) population density, (iii) local grid connection characteristics and (iv) local energy resources availability and technology cost. From an application perspective, this work can be used both for (1) fast assessments of specific energy access projects, and (2) to inform more complex regional studies using a geo-referencing software to analyze the results. Such applications are presented in the results using country case studies developed for Nigeria and Ethiopia. These show how the strategy for expanding energy access may vary significantly both between and within given regions of energy-poor countries.", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Nerini", "given" : "Francesco Fuso", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Broad", "given" : "Oliver", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Mentis", "given" : "Dimitris", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Welsch", "given" : "Manuel", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Bazilian", "given" : "Morgan", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Howells", "given" : "Mark", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "Energy", "id" : "ITEM-1", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2016" ] ] }, "page" : "255-265", "publisher" : "Elsevier Ltd", "title" : "A cost comparison of technology approaches for improving access to electricity services", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "95" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(Nerini et al. 2016)", "manualFormatting" : "(Fuso Nerini; Broad et al. 2016)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(Nerini et al. 2016)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(Nerini et al. 2016)" }, "properties" : { "noteIndex" : 0 }, "schema" : "" }(Fuso Nerini; Broad et al. 2016), ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "DOI" : "10.1088/1748-9326/8/2/024015", "ISSN" : "1748-9326", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Pachauri", "given" : "Shonali", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Ruijven", "given" : "Bas J", "non-dropping-particle" : "van", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Nagai", "given" : "Yu", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Riahi", "given" : "Keywan", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Vuuren", "given" : "Detlef P", "non-dropping-particle" : "van", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Brew-Hammond", "given" : "Abeeku", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" }, { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "Nakicenovic", "given" : "Nebojsa", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "Environmental Research Letters", "id" : "ITEM-1", "issue" : "2", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2013", "6", "1" ] ] }, "page" : "024015", "publisher" : "IOP Publishing", "title" : "Pathways to achieve universal household access to modern energy by 2030", "type" : "article-journal", "volume" : "8" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(Pachauri et al. 2013b)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(Pachauri et al. 2013b)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(Pachauri et al. 2013b)" }, "properties" : { "noteIndex" : 0 }, "schema" : "" }(Pachauri et al. 2013b), ADDIN CSL_CITATION { "citationItems" : [ { "id" : "ITEM-1", "itemData" : { "DOI" : "10.1017/CBO9780511793677", "ISBN" : "9780511793677", "abstract" : "8.nodala 532-533.lpp;", "author" : [ { "dropping-particle" : "", "family" : "GEA", "given" : "", "non-dropping-particle" : "", "parse-names" : false, "suffix" : "" } ], "container-title" : "Gea", "id" : "ITEM-1", "issued" : { "date-parts" : [ [ "2012" ] ] }, "page" : "39", "title" : "Global Energy Assessment \u2013 Toward a Sustainable Future", "type" : "article-journal" }, "uris" : [ "" ] } ], "mendeley" : { "formattedCitation" : "(GEA 2012)", "plainTextFormattedCitation" : "(GEA 2012)", "previouslyFormattedCitation" : "(GEA 2012)" }, "properties" : { "noteIndex" : 0 }, "schema" : "" }(GEA 2012). For mini-grids to realize their potential in achieving SDG 7, there is a need to ensure well-designed enabling environments. Those include technical standards for mini-grids and power-purchase agreements for the integration of mini-grids into the central grid system, among others. Targeted policies can make grid extension vs. mini-grid development more or less financially attractive to private actors and consumers. In some cases, schemes for private entrepreneurs to access electricity supply subsidies could support reaching last-mile consumers and affording grid-ready mini grid solutions. Both historically and again in more recent mini-grid projects, the private sector helped deploy locally appropriate technologies and develop sustainable business models. In several instances, that was despite an unfriendly regulatory environment for private entrepreneurs. Reducing uncertainty around grid extension planning and creating mechanisms to deal with potential sunk costs can support the flourishing of private mini-grids.In addition, compared to early electrification efforts, some important new elements can favor the large-scale roll out of mini-grids. Monitoring systems allow companies to gather a large amount of data on systems usage, allowing them to refine their business models and technical solutions. The development of smart grids with improved automation and communication between supply and demand side technologies can enhance the role of mini-grids in the future. Further, the introduction of higher shares of intermittent renewable energy technologies will necessitate a more robust system design. In this regard, the centralized grid can be supported by possible interconnected mini-grids, providing flexible generation options to cope with rapid fluctuations in generation or demand. We have shown the essential role played by small, isolated grids in the early development of power systems in very different cases. That history, in itself, provides a useful set of information and data to help the planning of off grid systems to meet their significant potential in countries currently struggling in achieving universal access to affordable, reliable and modern energy services. References ADDIN Mendeley Bibliography CSL_BIBLIOGRAPHY AELP. 2013. “An Exciting Beginning.” Alaska Electric Light and Power Company. , A?ke E., David F. Batten, and Charlie. Karlsson. 1989. Knowledge and Industrial Organization. Springer Berlin Heidelberg.ARECA. 1994. “Northern Lights: A Brief History of Alaska’s Electric Cooperatives.” Anchorage. de Fiscalización y Control Social de Electricidad. 2014. “Potencia Instalada SIN.” . 2015. “Alaska Village Electric Cooperative Annual Report.” , Morgan, Ryan Economy, Patrick Nussbaumer, Erik Haites, Kandeh K. Yumkella, Mark Howells, Minoru Takada, Dale S. Rothman, and Michael Levi. 2014. “Beyond Basic Access.” In Energy Poverty, 180–208. Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199682362.003.0009.Bhattacharyya, Subhes C., and Sanusi Ohiare. 2013. “The Chinese Model of Rural Electrification and Electricity Access.” Green Energy and Technology 116: 105–29. doi:10.1007/978-1-4471-4673-5_5.Black, Robert M. (Robert Monro), and Science Museum (Great Britain). 1983. The History of Electric Wires and Cables. P. Peregrinus in association with the Science Museum, London.Black & Veatch. 2010. “Alaska Railbelt Regional Integrated Resource Plan (RIRP) Study.” Kansas. , Mats. 2011. “Electric Stories: Contributions to the History of Electricity in Sweden.” Link?ping. , Rosita. 2016. “Let There Be Light: The Day All Ireland Went Electric.” , Lu. 2013. “The End of the Night - Global Times.” , Joseph J. 2014. “New York Power | Murphy Institute Blog.” , Paul. 2004. “The Prehistory of the Shannon Scheme.” History Ireland. . 2016. “Report on Power Sector for the Year 2015.” . 2017. “Nuestra Historia.” , Kerstin, Astrid Kander, and Lennart Sch?n. 2009. “Electrification and Energy Productivity.” Ecological Economics 68 (11): 2808–17. doi:10.1016/j.ecolecon.2009.05.005.Flemming, Peyton, Fiona Messent, Christine Eibs Singer, Stacy Swann, and Jane Olga Ebinger. 2017. “Energizing Finance: Scaling and Refining Finance in Countries with Large Energy Access Gaps.” Washington, DC. . 2012. “Global Energy Assessment – Toward a Sustainable Future.” Gea, 39. doi:10.1017/CBO9780511793677.Hannah, Leslie. 1979. Electricity before Nationalisation?: A Study of the Development of the Electricity Supply Industry in Britain to 1948. Johns Hopkins University Press. , Gang, and David G. Victor. 2017. “Experiences and Lessons from China’s Success in Providing Electricity for All.” Resources, Conservation and Recycling 122 (July). Elsevier: 335–38. doi:10.1016/J.RESCONREC.2017.03.011.“History of Indian Power Sector | Power Sector.” 2017. , Kristy. 2002. “The Early Electrification of Anchorage.” , T.P. 1987. “The Evolution of Large Technological Systems.” The Political Economy of Science, Technology, and Innovation, 51–82. doi:10.1177/030631289019001010.Hughes, T P. 1983. “Introduction.” Networks of Power - Electrification in Western Society, 1880-1930. . 2015. World Energy Outlook. doi:10.1787/weo-2014-en.———. 2017. “Energy Access Outlook 2017: From Poverty to Prosperity.” Paris. , and The World Bank. 2015. Progress Toward Sustainable Energy 2015: Global Tracking Framework Report. doi:10.1596/978-1-4648 -0690-2.“In the Beginning – Golden State Power Cooperative.” 2017. Accessed June 16. Energy Agency (IEA) and the World Bank. 2017. Sustainable Energy for All 2017—Progress toward Sustainable Energy. Washington DC: The World Bank. doi:10.1596/ 978-1-4648-1084-8.International Magazine Co. 1925. “The Location of Places Served with Electricity.” 119 West 40th St. New York.IRENA. 2015. “OFF-GRID RENEWABLE ENERGY SYSTEMS: STATUS AND METHODOLOGICAL ISSUES.” Washington, Charles D, and DC Joelatarr. 1996. “PATTERNS AND POLICY CHOICES IN INFRASTRUCTURE HISTORY The United States, France, and Great Britain.” Public Works Management & Policy 1 (1): 60–75. , Indian textile. 1912. Electricity in India: Being a History of the TATA Hydro-Electric Project with Notes on the Mill Industry in Bombay and the Progress of Electric Drive in Indian Factories. Indian Textile Journal. Bombay: Indian Textile Journal. , Konstantin. 1964. “The Pre-Legal Foundations of Nationalisation.” In The Theory of Nationalisation, 1–19. Dordrecht: Springer Netherlands. doi:10.1007/978-94-015-1055-4_1.Levin, Todd, and Valerie M. Thomas. 2016. “Can Developing Countries Leapfrog the Centralized Electrification Paradigm?” Energy for Sustainable Development 31 (April): 97–107. doi:10.1016/j.esd.2015.12.005.Locke, Fred (Gish, Elton N.). 1988. “From the book ‘Multipart Porcelain Insulators.’” Infinity Press. , Sandhya, Swetha Manimuthu, and S. Thiruvengadam. 2007. “History of Electric Power in India (1890 - 1990).” 2007 IEEE Conference on the History of Electric Power, HEP 2007, 152–65. doi:10.1109/HEP.2007.4510263.Mandelli, Stefano, Jacopo Barbieri, Riccardo Mereu, and Emanuela Colombo. 2016. “Off-Grid Systems for Rural Electrification in Developing Countries: Definitions, Classification and a Comprehensive Literature Review.” Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 58: 1621–46. doi:10.1016/j.rser.2015.12.338.McDonald, Forrest. 2004. Insull. Beard Books. , Dimitrios. 2017. “Spatially Explicit Electrification Modelling Insights Applications, Benefits, Limitations and an Open Tool for Geospatial Electrification Modelling.” de Hidrocarburos y Energía. 2010. “Plan de Universalización Bolivia Con Energía 2010-2025.” La Paz. DE UNIVERSALIZACI?N BOLIVIA CON ENERG?A.pdf.Ministry of Hydrocarbons and Energy. 2014. “Plan Eléctrico Del Estado Plurinacional de Bolivia - 2025.” La Paz. of New and Renewable Energy. 2017. “Off-Grid Power.” Accessed October 24. , Vijay, Susan McDade, Dominique Lallement, and Jamal Saghir. 2006. “Energy and the Millennium Development Goals.” New York. , Wolfgang. 2008. “Review of Experiences with Rural Electrification Agencies Lessons for Africa.” with Rural Electrification Agencies.pdf.Nerini, Francesco Fuso, Oliver Broad, Dimitris Mentis, Manuel Welsch, Morgan Bazilian, and Mark Howells. 2016. “A Cost Comparison of Technology Approaches for Improving Access to Electricity Services.” Energy 95. Elsevier Ltd: 255–65. doi:10.1016/j.energy.2015.11.068.Niez, Alexandra. 2010. “Electrification Policies.” Comparative Study on Rural Electrification Policies in Emerging Economies, 118. Shore Electric Company (Gish Elton). 1906. “The District Supply System of the North Shore Electric Company, Near Chicago.” Electrical World 47 (8): 406–406. , John W. 2010. “Decentralized Systems.” Water Environment Research 82 (10): 1367–75. doi:10.2175/106143010X12756668801257.OECD, and IEA. 2011. “World Energy Outlook 2011.” , 577. doi:10.1787/weo-2011-en.Office for National Statistics - UK. 2017. “Consumer Prices Index (% Change).” Accessed October 24. , Shonali, Narasimha Rao, Yu Nagai, and Keywan Riahi. 2012. Access to Modern Energy: Assessment and Outlook for Developing and Emerging Regions. Unido.Pachauri, Shonali, Bas J van Ruijven, Yu Nagai, Keywan Riahi, Detlef P van Vuuren, Abeeku Brew-Hammond, and Nebojsa Nakicenovic. 2013a. “Pathways to Achieve Universal Household Access to Modern Energy by 2030.” Environmental Research Letters 8 (2). IOP Publishing: 24015. doi:10.1088/1748-9326/8/2/024015.———. 2013b. “Pathways to Achieve Universal Household Access to Modern Energy by 2030.” Environmental Research Letters 8 (2). IOP Publishing: 24015. doi:10.1088/1748-9326/8/2/024015.Pan, Jiahua, Wuyuan Peng, Meng Li, Xiangyang Wu, Lishuang Wan, Hisham Zerriffi, Elias Becca, Chi Zhang, and David Victor. 2006. “Rural Electrification in China 1950-2004.” Stanford.Pang, Laikwan. 2007. The Distorting Mirror?: Visual Modernity in China. University of Hawai?i Press. , Lily, Dana Pillai, Shashank Mohan, Aly Sanoh, and Vijay Modi. 2017. “National Electricity Planning in Settings with Low Pre-Existing Grid Coverage: Development of a Spatial Model and Case Study of Kenya.” Accessed April 11. doi:10.1016/j.enpol.2009.01.021.Pepermans, G., J. Driesen, D. Haeseldonckx, R. Belmans, and W. D’haeseleer. 2005. “Distributed Generation: Definition, Benefits and Issues.” Energy Policy 33 (6): 787–98. doi:10.1016/j.enpol.2003.10.004.PGCIL. 2017. “Our Network | POWERGRID | A Government of India Enterprise.” , Harold L. 1991. The Electric City?: Energy and the Growth of the Chicago Area, 1880-1930. University of Chicago Press. , Narasimha D, and Shonali Pachauri. 2017. “Energy Access and Living Standards: Some Observations on Recent Trends.” Environmental Research Letters 12 (2). IOP Publishing: 25011. doi:10.1088/1748-9326/aa5b0d.Schewe, Philip F. 2005. “Most Electrified City.” Electrical Book, 64–89. History/Samuel Insull - Pages from ElectricitySep05.pdf.Schreurs, Miranda A. 2008. From the Bottom Up. The Journal of Environment & Development. Vol. 17. doi:10.1177/1070496508326432.Shiel, Michael J. 2003. The Quiet Revolution?: The Electrification of Rural Ireland, 1946-1976. Dublin: O’Brien Press. . 2017. “High-Voltage Network in the Irish Free State, 1930.” Accessed November 2. , Gillian. 2002. “REGULATION OF THE UK ELECTRICITY INDUSTRY.” Bath. , Harry. 1940. Rural America Lights up. Edited by Sherman Mittell F. Washington, DC: National Home Library Foundation. Western Electricity Historical Society. 2003. “Ferranti’s Deptford Power Station.” ó, S., K. Bódis, T. Huld, and M. Moner-Girona. 2013. “Sustainable Energy Planning: Leapfrogging the Energy Poverty Gap in Africa.” Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 28. Elsevier: 500–509. doi:10.1016/j.rser.2013.08.044.Szabó, S, K Bódis, T Huld, and M Moner-Girona. 2011. “Energy Solutions in Rural Africa: Mapping Electrification Costs of Distributed Solar and Diesel Generation versus Grid Extension.” Environmental Research Letters 6 (3): 34002. doi:10.1088/1748-9326/6/3/034002.Taliotis, Constantinos, Abhishek Shivakumar, Eunice Ramos, Mark Howells, Dimitris Mentis, Vignesh Sridharan, Oliver Broad, and Linus Mofor. 2016. “An Indicative Analysis of Investment Opportunities in the African Electricity Supply Sector - Using TEMBA (The Electricity Model Base for Africa).” Energy for Sustainable Development 31. International Energy Initiative: 50–66. doi:10.1016/j.esd.2015.12.001.Tenenbaum, Bernard, Chris Greacen, and Dipti Vaghela. 2017. “Mini-Grids and Arrival of the Main Grid: Lessons from Cambodia, Sri Lanka and Indonesia.” Washington, DC. Electricity Council. 1987. “Electricity Supply in the UK: A Chronology: From the Beginnings of the Industry to 31 December 1985.” London. World Bank. 2017. “Access to Electricity (% of Population) | Data.” , Rahul. 2007. The Political Economy of Indian Power Sector Reforms. Edited by David G. Victor and Thomas C. Heller. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. doi:10.1017/CBO9780511493287.U.S. Energy Information Administration (EIA). 2017. “U.S. Energy Mapping System.” Accessed October 24. . 2002. “Report of the World Summit on Sustainable Development.” Johannesburg. .———. 2015. “Sustainable Development - Knowledge Platform.” States Department of the Interior - National Park Service. 1980. “National Register of Historic Places Inventory.” Department of Labor. 2017. “Bureau of Labor Statistics.” Accessed October 17. EPA. 2017a. “Centralized Generation of Electricity and Its Impacts on the Environment.” .———. 2017b. “Distributed Generation of Electricity and Its Environmental Impacts.” . 2017. “The History and Heritage of Vattenfall.” Accessed October 24. Melendez, Alejandra. 2012. “Energizing Alaska: Electricity Around the State.” Anchorage. , Josefin. 2015. “Developing Sweden’s Transmission Grid: What Are the Drivers and Barriers?”Weightman, Gavin. 2011. Children of Light, How Electricity Changed Britain Forever. London: Atlantic Books.Williams, James C. 1988. “Otherwise a Mere Clod: California Rural Electrification.” IEEE Technology and Society Magazine 7 (4): 13–19, 29. doi:10.1109/44.16811.Wilson, J. F. (John Francis). 1991. Ferranti and the Emergence of the British Electrical Industry, 1864-1930. Manchester University Press.Wright, Tim. 1992. “Introduction: Modern Chinese Economic History in a Period of Change.” In The Chinese Economy in the Early Twentieth Century, 1–28. London: Palgrave Macmillan UK. doi:10.1007/978-1-349-22199-8_1.Xiaoqing, Ye. 2003. “THE LEGAL AND SOCIAL STATUS OF THEATRICAL PERFORMERS IN BEIJING DURING THE QING.” , Hisham. 2011. Rural Electrification Strategies for Distributed Generation. Vancouver, BC, Canada: Springer. doi:10.1007/978-90-481-9594-7.Zerriffi, Hisham, Hari Natarajan, Narmada Purohit, and Sam Hargadine. 2016. “COUNTRY REPORT AND CASE STUDY SUMMARIES – INDIA DECENTRALIZED ENERGY PORTFOLIO REVIEW.” . ................
................

In order to avoid copyright disputes, this page is only a partial summary.

Google Online Preview   Download