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Revolutionary Thinking - The Birth of Modern Science

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|Cues: |Notes: |

| |The Birth of Modern Science |

| |Makers of Europe’s Scientific revolution (between mid-sixteenth and early eighteenth centuries) did not rely on scripture or |

| |ancient philosophers |

| |Careful observations, controlled experiments, and the formulation of general laws, expressed in mathematical terms |

| |Copernicus from Poland, Galileo from Italy, Descartes from France, and Newton from England(departed from older ways of thinking |

| |Altered ideas about the place of humankind within the cosmos and challenged both the teachings and authority of the Church |

| |By 20th century, science had become so widespread that it largely lost its association with European culture and became symbol of|

| |global modernity |

| |But why did the Scientific Revolution occur first in Europe |

| |Islamic world had generated the most advanced science in the world during the centuries between 800 and 1400 |

| |China’s elite culture of Confucianism was sophisticated and secular, less burdened by religious dogma |

| |Europe’s historical development as a reinvigorated and fragmented civilization gave rise to conditions uniquely favorable to |

| |science |

| |Why Europe? |

| |the autonomy of emerging universities |

| |By 1215, University of Paris recognized as a “corporation of masters and scholars,” which could admit and expel students, |

| |establish course instruction, and grant a “license to teach” to its faculty |

| |Universities in Paris, Bologna, Oxford, Cambridge, and Salamanca became “neutral zones of intellectual autonomy” |

| |In Islamic world, within colleges known as madrassas, Quranic studies and religious law held the central place |

| |Earlier openness to free inquiry and religious toleration was increasingly replaced by a disdain for scientific and philosophical|

| |inquiry |

| |Nor did the Chinese permit independent institutions of higher learning in which scholars could conduct their studies in relative |

| |freedom |

| |Instead Chinese education focused on preparing for a rigidly defined set of civil service examinations(based on moral texts of |

| |Confucianism |

| |Western Europe also was in a position to draw extensively upon the knowledge of other cultures due to cultural diffusion during |

| |the Crusades |

| |Before Scientific Revolution, educated Europeans held a view of world derived from Aristotle and Ptolemy(earth-centered(Church |

| |favored( but Scientific Revolution challenged understanding of universe |

| |Summaries: |

|Cues: |Scientists |

| |In 1543, On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres was published |

| |Nicolaus Copernicus argued that “at the middle of all things lies the sun” or the heliocentric model of the universe |

| |Johannes Kepler showed that the planets follow elliptical orbits, undermining the ancient belief that they moved in perfect |

| |circles |

| |Galileo Galilei, an Italian, developed an improved telescope, with which he observed sunspots, or blemishes, moving across the |

| |face of the sun |

| |Culmination of Scientific Revolution came in the work of Sir Isaac Newton |

| |Formulated the modern laws of motion and mechanics, which were scarcely modified until the twentieth century(universal law of |

| |gravitation |

| |Knowledge of the universe could be obtained through human reason alone |

| |Like the physical universe, the human body also lost some of its mystery |

| |Careful dissections of cadavers and animals enabled doctors and scientists to describe the human body |

| |Scientists faced strenuous opposition from the Catholic Church |

| |The Italian philosopher Giordano Bruno, proclaiming an infinite universe and many worlds, was burned at the stake in 1600 |

| |Applying Scientific Thinking to Human Affairs |

| |Thinkers began to apply human reason, skepticism of authority, and natural laws to society |

| |Adam Smith (1723-1790) formulated laws that accounted for the operation of the economy |

| |Smith spoke of the laws of supply and demand as well as the concept of the invisible hand restoring markets to efficiency and |

| |functionality |

| |Many believed that the outcome of scientific development would be “enlightenment,” a term defines the 18th century in European |

| |history |

| |Philosophers took aim at arbitrary governments, the “divine right of kings,” and the aristocratic privileges of European society |

| |John Locke (1632-1704) offered principles for constructing a constitutional government, a contract between rulers and ruled, and |

| |opposed divine right |

| |Voltaire (1694-1778) advocated religious tolerance in this Age of Reason |

| |Central theme of Enlightenment was the idea of progress through reason |

| |Inspired the American, French, Haitian, and Latin American revolutions |

| |But also reaction against reason(Jean-Jacques Rousseau ( 1712-1778) minimized the importance of book learning for the education |

| |of children |

| |The Romantic movement in art appealed to emotion not reason |

| |But also Charles Darwin(The Origin of Species (1859)(theory of evolution |

| |At the same time, Karl Marx (1818-1883) articulated a new view of human history(history of humanity(history of class struggles |

| |Marx believed coming of socialism was inscribed in the laws of historical development |

| |Sigmund Freud (1856-1939)(core of each person lay primal impulses barely held in check by thin veneer of social conscience |

| |Scientific Revolution spread(most desired “product” of European culture |

| | |

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| | |

| |Summaries: |

Questions:

• Why did the Scientific Revolution occur in Europe rather than in China or the Islamic world?

• What was revolutionary about the Scientific Revolution?

• In what ways did the Enlightenment challenge older patterns of European thinking?

• How did nineteenth-century developments in the sciences challenge the faith of the Enlightenment?

• In what ways was European science received in the major civilizations of Asia in the early modern era?

|Which of the following scientists, in On the Revolution of Heavenly |Which of the following movements applied reason to the problems of |

|Bodies, reasserted the Greek and Chinese theories that the universe |human affairs and can be understood as an extension of the Scientific |

|was heliocentric? |Revolution into the field of politics? |

|Nicolaus Copernicus |Renaissance |

|Johannes Kepler |Green Revolution |

|Galileo Galilei |Enlightenment |

|René Descartes |Protestant Reformation |

|Isaac Newton |Bolshevik Revolution |

| | |

|Galileo ran afoul of church authorities when he promoted the idea that|Who is credited with bringing awareness of the heliocentric nature of |

|Observation and reason were superior to other scientific methods. |the solar system into Western civilization? |

|Direct observation of the natural world was the only source of human |Aristotle |

|knowledge. |Galileo |

|Ptolemy, and not Copernicus, had the correct heliocentric model. |Columbus |

|Earth was not the center of God’s creation. |Copernicus |

|All of the above. |Descartes |

| | |

|Which movement from the following list established a tradition of |Which of the following thinkers established the principles of objects |

|seeking answers to questions about nature through the application of |in motion and defined the forces of gravity? |

|reason and methodical investigation of the world? |Descartes |

|Phenomenology |Rousseau |

|Scientific Revolution |Newton |

|Protestant Reformation |Bacon |

|Enlightenment |Galileo |

|Renaissance | |

Excerpt from anu.edu.au/polsci/marx/classics/manifesto.html

Excerpt from The Communist Manifesto

The history of all hitherto existing society is the history of class struggles. Freeman and slave, patrician and plebian, lord and serf, guild-master and journeyman, in a word, oppressor and oppressed, stood in constant opposition to one another, carried on an uninterrupted, now hidden, now open fight, a fight that each time ended, either in a revolutionary reconstitution of society at large, or in the common ruin of the contending classes.

In the earlier epochs of history, we find almost everywhere a complicated arrangement of society into various orders, a manifold gradation of social rank. In ancient Rome we have patricians, knights, plebeians, slaves; in the Middle Ages, feudal lords, vassals, guild-masters, journeymen, apprentices, serfs; in almost all of these classes, again, subordinate gradations.

The modern bourgeois society that has sprouted from the ruins of feudal society has not done away with class antagonisms. It has but established new classes, new conditions of oppression, new forms of struggle in place of the old ones.

Our epoch, the epoch of the bourgeoisie, possesses, however, this distinct feature: it has simplified class antagonisms. Society as a whole is more and more splitting up into two great hostile camps, into two great classes directly facing each other -- bourgeoisie and proletariat. From the serfs of the Middle Ages sprang the chartered burghers of the earliest towns. From these burgesses the first elements of the bourgeoisie were developed.

The discovery of America, the rounding of the Cape, opened up fresh ground for the rising bourgeoisie. The East-Indian and Chinese markets, the colonization of America, trade with the colonies, the increase in the means of exchange and in commodities generally, gave to commerce, to navigation, to industry, an impulse never before known, and thereby, to the revolutionary element in the tottering feudal society, a rapid development.

The feudal system of industry, in which industrial production was monopolized by closed guilds, now no longer suffices for the growing wants of the new markets. The manufacturing system took its place. The guild-masters were pushed aside by the manufacturing middle class; division of labor between the different corporate guilds vanished in the face of division of labor in each single workshop.

Meantime, the markets kept ever growing, the demand ever rising. Even manufacturers no longer sufficed. Thereupon, steam and machinery revolutionized industrial production. The place of manufacture was taken by the giant, MODERN INDUSTRY; the place of the industrial middle class by industrial millionaires, the leaders of the whole industrial armies, the modern bourgeois.

Modern industry has established the world market, for which the discovery of America paved the way. This market has given an immense development to commerce, to navigation, to communication by land. This development has, in turn, reacted on the extension of industry; and in proportion as industry, commerce, navigation, railways extended, in the same proportion the bourgeoisie developed, increased its capital, and pushed into the background every class handed down from the Middle Ages.

Thesis Statement: Change Over Time: European Intellectual Thought (500 – 1800 C.E.)

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Objective: To identify and explain the causes and effects of the Scientific Revolution on Europe and the world

Do Now: Describe how the scientific method changed world history.

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