Excessive Force Prevention: Best Practices



Excessive Force Prevention:Best PracticesbyLisa McCants and Laverne ZephirA Paper Submitted toDr. Leora WaldnerPublic Policy PA6622 Troy UniversityAtlanta CampusApril 8, 2015I. BackgroundAllegations of excessive force encounters between police officers and unarmed black males continue to occur throughout the United States. Public criticism of police officers using excessive force during encounters is growing. According to researchers, officers are trained to use a “reasonable” and “necessary” amount of force on subjects that are resisting arrest, trying to flee or unwilling to comply with lawful commands (Micucci & Gomme, 2005, Segan, 2014). According to U.S. Customs and Border Protection (CBP), reasonable force is defined as the officer’s perception about possible threats, which rationalizes the level of force being used in a given encounter even if the citizen-police encounter results in deadly force (Department of Homeland Security, Office of Inspector General, 2013). CBP states that necessary force is defined as the level of force required to subdue the subject and maintain control in a given situation (Department of Homeland Security, Officer of Inspector General, 2013). The definition of excessive force has not been clearly determined in the United States and what is classified as excessive force is left up to the officer’s perception during a given situation. Though there is not a precise definition, what researchers do know is that “excessive force” is primarily based on the perception of the subject and the officer involved in the situation (Chapman, 2012). One way excessive force can be defined is any kind of force that is unwarranted or excessively used to control a subject (Gul, Hekim, and Terkesli, 2013) which is why it is difficult to define the line between reasonable force and excessive force (Chapman 2012). The Department of Homeland Security (2013) supports Gul’s et al. research that unnecessary or unreasonable force is deemed as excessive. However, there are too many varying definitions of what actually constitutes excessive force to clearly state what is unnecessary and unreasonable. Research has shown that until the expectations and limitations on the use of excessive force are more clearly defined and clarified, incidents of excessive force by police officers will continue to surface. (Alpert & Smith, 1994). Numerous cases of excessive force are recorded every year even though there is no clear definition of what constitutes excessive force. The shooting death of 12 years old, Tamar Rice, by a police officer is one incident that has made national news. It was reported that someone was holding a gun in a public park in Cleveland, Ohio (Bouie,?2014). It was reported that the person was a kid and the gun appeared to be a fake firearm (Bouie,?2014). A police officer fired shots at Rice, fatally wounded him. The police officers on the scene refused to give Rice any medical assistance at the scene. He was later pronounced dead at a local hospital. The Cleveland police department was in full support of the officers that shot and killed Rice (Bouie,?2014). They are claiming that Rice “bears responsibility of his own death.” According to the investigative reports of the Justice Department of Cleveland, Ohio, this officer has had many complaints of misuse of a firearm during arrest situations (Bouie,?2014). Another incident involving the Cleveland police was with a 300-pound officer who punched a boy in the face several times while in handcuffs. The 13-year-old boy was handcuffed inside the police car where he began kicking door. The officer used excessive force by punching the boy several times in the face until his face was bloodied. The investigation revealed that even though the officer weighed significantly more than the boy; the officer was found to use “arguably the best response ("Feds Find Shocking, Systemic Brutality, Incompetence In Cleveland Police Department",?2015).” On November 9, 2012, officers fired approximately 137 shots at an unarmed African American couple killing them during a routine traffic stop. Timothy Russell and Malissa Williams led the police on a 25-minute car chase attempting to resist arrest (Frazier,?2014). The chase ended at a dead end street where Russell was surrounded. The officers open fire at Russell and Williams as Russell attempted to run over one of the officers. Officers unloaded 137 bullets at Russell’s car, killing both Russell and Williams (Frazier,?2014). 24 bullets were removed from Williams’s body and there was extensive damage to her face and torso (Frazier,?2014). These incidents involving the Cleveland, Ohio police department sparked a 2013 investigation of the police division, as a result of these high profile cases of excessive force involving the Cleveland, Ohio police department. The United States Department of Justice has deemed the Cleveland Police Department as a repetitive offender of using excessive force tactics against citizens that were suspects or innocent victims (Department of Justice Northern District of Ohio,?2015). The investigation revealed that these practice methods where “unreasonable and unnecessary” and these actions were in violation of Fourth Amendment of the Constitution (Department of Justice Northern District of Ohio,?2015).The use of excessive force in encounters with police is not unique to Cleveland, Ohio. The Bureau of Justice Statistics reported, “less than half of 1 percent of an estimated 44 million people who had face-to face contact with a police officer were threatened with or actually experienced force” (Bureau of Justice Statistics, 2002). Over time the numbers of cases of excessive force specifically against unarmed African Americans has started and continue to rise. It was reported by the New York Times that approximately two times a week a police officer has killed an African American person during a seven-year period ending in 2012 (Johnson, Hoyer and Heath,?2014). Ninety-six incidents were reported to the Federal Bureau of Investigations as incidents where officers used excessive use of force among the reported 400 cases involving police killings (Johnson, Hoyer and Heath,?2014). “18 % of blacks killed over the seven-year period were under the age of 21 years old, compared to 8.7 % of whites (Johnson, Hoyer and Heath,?2014).” “During 2002 large State and local law enforcement agencies, representing 5% of agencies and 59% of officers, received a total of 26,556 citizen complaints about police use of force. About a third of all force complaints in 2002 were not sustained (34%). Twenty-five percent were unfounded, 23% resulted in officers being exonerated, and 8% were sustained.Using sustained force complaints as an indicator of excessive force results in an estimate of about 2,000 incidents of police use of excessive force among large agencies in 2002” (Law Enforcement Management and Administrative Statistics, 2003). Out of more than 26,000 complaints only 2,000 were convicted of actual excessive force.For reported cases of excessive force, there are numerous factors that may lead to a situation between citizens and police officers that can be perceived as excessive force. The subject’s resistance to arrest, the officer’s fear of threat, the subject’s possible substance use, crowd presence at the scene, lacking of citizens and police training, and demographics of the officers, race and the racial composition of the neighborhood all play into the problem of excessive force. II. Best Practices and Analysis Best Practice #1: Using body-worn cameras to monitor the citizen-police encounters.Current Organizations Using Approach: The Denver Police Department currently uses Body Worn Cameras (BWC). They launched a pilot program in June of 2014 and the Office of the Independent Monitor provided oversight of the program (Mitchell, 2015).Current Practices Utilized by Organizations: The Denver Police Department had 102 patrol officers wear the body cameras during the 6-month pilot program. Supervisors and officers working off duty were not required to wear them. Officers on duty had to activate the devices to get them to record. OIM’s oversight of the DPD allowed them to identify policy and training issues and recommend solutions (Mitchell, 2015).Strengths: The use of body cameras allows for greater transparency into the day-to-day work that police officers conduct (Delong, 2015). Weaknesses: The Denver Police Department did not require the BWC to be worn by supervisors and officers working off-duty. The results found that although 21 force cases were recorded by BWC, 59 were not recorded because they happened off-duty. Therefore, the current practice in Denver as of 2014 was weak because it did not require off-duty officers to wear the cameras (Mitchell, 2015). In addition, because officers had to activate the device at each encounter, some officers reported they didn’t have time to turn them on because of the rapid escalation of the threat. In addition, about 18,000 police departments in the U.S. use body cameras; other departments are hesitant to add them because of the expense (Delong, 2015). According to Warren Cronin (2015), the use of body cameras may be a helpful practice but it fails to reduce police brutality and excessive force. Instead, it only promotes accountability.Best Practice #2: Having an outside Inspector General to oversee and examine allegations against police officers.Current Organizations Using Approach: Los Angeles Police Department currently has Inspector General Max Huntsman who oversees police officer complaints. He found that LA Police Department ranked the worse when it comes to releasing information about officer misconduct. This caused the LA County Sherriff to publicize statistics regarding how often officers shoot suspects (Gardner, 2015). The transparency within the agency creates a sense of trust among the public. Current Practices Utilized by Organizations: Los Angeles’ current practice is that when the police department has a problem, a special commission is appointed and they hire an inspector general. The inspector general completes an internal investigation (Mader, 2014). The Inspector General completes a regular report and provides it to the county supervisors (Gardner, 2015). Strengths: An inspector completes annual reports detailing the number of complaints. The city cannot interfere or overrule the referral. Officers would be compelled to cooperate with the investigations of the inspector general or they would face discipline ( 2015).Weaknesses: The Los Angeles Inspector General has no statutory power. Therefore they can audit and act as monitors, but they have no power to fire anyone. The Inspector General has no confidentiality and cannot promise that interviews will be kept private. They don’t have any collective bargaining rights and can be fired at will without cause. Inspector Generals complain that they have limited access to needed reports for the investigation (Mader, 2014). Best Practice #3: Mandating psychological evaluations of potential police recruits.Current Organizations Using Approach: Psychological testing is not a new practice. President Lyndon first advocated that standard hiring practice be mandated for hiring recruits in 1967 (Bernd, 2015). The Philadelphia Police Department requires that a potential candidate receives extensive testing, and is required to complete 18-month on-the-job probationary period before being hired by the City of Philadelphia (Philadelphia Police Department, “Hiring Process”).Current Practices Utilized by Organizations: One-hour session of psychological evaluations is done with Licensed Psychologist in the State of Pennsylvania before the recruit is cleared for hiring. Candidates are required to take written examination. A computer administered personality testing is done and must be passed before candidates are hired. Strengths: The psychological evaluations are designed to identify potential recruits with personality types and behaviors that are not a match for a job in which sound judgment and the ability to make quick seconds decisions are required (Bernd, 2015). The testing could also determine if the candidate is potentially suffering with any mental disorders. The psychological testing plays a major role in keeping potential trigger-happy police officers off the streets, which directly affects decreasing the use of unnecessary force being used.Weaknesses: According to Bernd (2015), the organizations hired to complete the testing may be bias and lean toward the officers being cleared for “red flags”. Police Departments are able to hire their own psychologist to complete the testing. There may be inconsistency in the way the psychologists determine whether or not an applicant is suitable or unsuitable as a police recruit. Applicants that are determined to be unsuitable can re-apply after a year (Bernd, 2015). Tests are not standard in design, predictive validity, and what traits and target behaviors are measured. Major weaknesses is the applicant can lie on the test and deliberately answer the questions in a way that shed positive light on the recruit’s best traits.Best Practice #4: Providing police housing programs, so that police can live in the community they serve.Current Organizations Using Approach: In an effort to enhance the quality of life and to improve community relations between the police department and the citizens, The City of San Bernardino has implemented the Crime Free Housing Program in Mesa, Arizona. The Greenville Police Department has also adapted this program in Greenville, South Carolina. Current Practices Utilized by Organization: The city of San Bernardino City Council has adopted ordinance no. MC-1351. This ordinance is mandatory for multi-families, rental property owners, and managers. There are three phases to the program ("City Of San Bernardino,”?2015). Phase one consists of an 8-hour training and inspection of the property for verification purpose for the implementation of the crime prevention through the environmental design (CPTED) ("City Of San Bernardino,”?2015). Phase II is the inspection and the implementation of a crime-free lease addendum ("City Of San Bernardino,”?2015). Phase III consists of active participation and certification. During this phase all participants are given the opportunity to become a crime free certified property ("City Of San Bernardino,”?2015).Strengths: The strength of this program is the overall improvement of personal/public safety. The program was developed to gain community commitment and provide accountability for property owners and managers ("City Of San Bernardino,”?2015). Weaknesses: As a mandatory program, the city of San Bernardino will enforce ordinances for property owners who fail to participate in the program with administrative citations, civil penalties, or any other legal remedy ("City Of San Bernardino,”?2015). The majority of police officers are not required to live in the community they serve. There is too much potential for familiarity with suspects when police are living in the community, which could lead to bias in arrest.Best Practice #5: Training police officers on response protocols and de-escalation techniques.Current Organizations Using Approach: The Metropolitan Police Department, the United States Capitol Police Department, and the Georgetown Law School Campus Police Department have partnered with the National Alliance on Mental illness (NAMI) to provide crisis intervention training (CIT) for police officers (Pauly, 2013). Current Practices Utilized by Organization: 40-hour comprehensive curriculum that provides police officers with mental health training and de-escalation strategies (Pauly, 2013). Strengths: Provides mental health training for police officers and it creates a partnership between local agencies (Pauly, 2013). Weaknesses: The challenge of ensuring adequate funding is available to maintain the interest of the police departments (Pauly, 2013). Best Practice #6: Training citizens how to interact with police through Citizens Police Academies.Current Organizations Using Approach: The Birmingham Police Department offers a Citizens Police Academy (CPA) program that is designed to give citizens a better understanding of how to interact with police. The program covers a series of topics including the level of force used during a given situation. Participants are given a chance to have a behind-the-scenes look at the day-to-day police operations in the city. Current Practices Utilized by Organization: There are only 25 people allowed in the nine-week session, so they try to select a diverse population. Individuals must be 21 years old and must work or live in Birmingham, Alabama. The course does require a 2-hour per week commitment. A felony conviction will disqualify an applicant.Strengths: There is no cost associated with enrollment. The class is opened to all Birmingham citizens. Weiss and Davis (2004) found that the CPA common goal was to give citizens a greater knowledge and appreciation of police work through education. The major strength of attending the CPA would be that citizens could now put a face with the uniform, which would help to humanize the officers. Police get to experience interacting with citizens in a non-confrontational situation, which fosters an improved relationship and increases respect for one another (Birmingham Police Department, “Citizens Police Academy – Birmingham”)Weaknesses: The Citizens Police Academy is a voluntary program, which lends itself to selection bias. Self-selection bias in CPA can hinder their effectiveness because the people who most need the training will likely not voluntarily attend the training. The limitation to this type of training is that it is extremely voluntary and does not reach the majority of the Birmingham citizens (Birmingham Police Department, “Citizens Police Academy”).Best Practice #7: Having a hiring practice that requires proportionate distribution of police officers to the demographics of the community they protect.Current Organizations Using Approach: The Department of Justice Office of Community Oriented Policing Services (COPS) have partnered with the International Association of Chiefs of Police (IACP) and the Hartford, Connecticut Police Department to address the ongoing issues with minority recruitment and to narrow the gap between ethnic and racial composition of the department (Tangel & Morabito,?2004). Current Practices Utilized by Organization: A collaboration model has been developed. The model is the Police Recruitment and Placement-Community Collaboration Model (Tangel & Morabito,?2004). The main objective of this model is to encourage diversity within the police agencies (Tangel & Morabito,?2004). Strengths: Improves the police department recruitment process to include potential applicants from the community (Tangel & Morabito,?2004). Weaknesses: The implementation teams must familiarize themselves with the techniques and concepts of the model to avoid confusion and aggravation between the police officers and community partners (Tangel & Morabito,?2004).Best Practice #8: Supervisor oversight and accountability for the actions of the officers they supervise.Current Organizations Using Approach: Supervisors are an important part of the organization. They play a major role in the success of the police organization. The St. Petersburg, Florida Police Department implemented a structure for supervisors based on geographic deployment. Supervisors were assigned and responsible for a particular location and the corresponding officers that work within that location (Engel, 2000).Current Practices Utilized by Organization: St. Petersburg Police Department requires that every supervisor must know what their subordinate day-to-day encounters entailed. Supervisors are required to review all incidents, document any force used and provide justification. Supervisors also must take action in there are cases of misconduct by their subordinates. Strengths: Studies have shown that supervisor oversight has a major influence over an officer’s behavior and use of force toward suspects during an encounter. Having direct supervision of officers holds them responsible for their actions in any given encounter because they know they have someone to answer to. Weaknesses: Supervisors are not required to patrol with officers on a regular basis. According to Engel (2000), supervisors were present at only 7% of encounter between citizens and police. Engel go on to state that the supervisors present only took control and gave directives to subordinates 18% of the time (Engel, 2000).Best Practice #9: Requiring all police officers to have four years of college education.Current Organizations Using Approach: The public demands a lot from their police departments. College-education requirements have remained at the main point in policing best practices (Paoline & Terrill, 2007). The Centerville Police Department is among one of the agencies that require a potential recruit to have a four-year college degree. Current Practices Utilized by Organization: The city of Centerville, Ohio applicant must have a bachelor’s degree and endure a (16) sixteen-week period of intensive training at the Ohio State Patrol Academy.Strengths: According to Rydberg and Terrill (2010), research has shown that there is no difference with respect to officer education when it comes to arrests or searches of suspects. However, studies show that college-educated officers are less likely to use force because of the discretion used in a given situation. Officers with advanced education resorted to using force 56 percent of the time, while officers with no college education used force 68 percent of the time during encounters (Luzer, 2010, September 2). Education serves to stimulate the mind, foster intellectual development, sharpen critical analysis skills, promote civil discussion with people of differing views, and allow for future personal and career development (Clement, Hough, Jones, and Simmons, 2007). According to Clement, Hough, Jones, and Simmons (2007), higher education contributes to individuals’ critical thinking and decision-making skills, which directly affects the paradigm of problem-oriented policing.Weaknesses: Education does not teach integrity and common sense. Internal incentives offered to the existing employees to pursue their 4-year degree are costly.Best Practice #10: Encouraging the use of Tasers before using physical and chemical force.Current Organizations Using Approach: The Berkley police department completed an investigation in 2011to determine if less lethal methods are beneficial for the department. The findings were that the department was able to save an estimated $2.35 million over ten years. The findings also revealed a significant decreased in incidents of excessive force.Current Practices Utilized by Organization: The Berkley Police Department has implemented the use of Tasers as a non-lethal method to address hostile situations (Baird, 2011).Strengths: Decrease in officer and suspect injuries, decrease in the overall use of force by the police department, and it is a cost-effective alternative to other force tactics (Baird, 2011).Weaknesses: The main disadvantage is the medical risk associated with the use of Tasers. Tasers are costly and they are high maintenance (Baird, 2011).Best Practice #11: Having a consent decree and monitoring of police reports.Current Organizations Using Approach: In cities such as Cleveland and Seattle, the Department of Justice have suggested a consent decree and monitoring of police reports. The pattern of excessive force used in citizen encounters has lead the Cleveland Police Department to long journey of reform (Shaffer,?2014). The Justice Department and the Cleveland Police Department will negotiate an agreement that initiates this reform (Shaffer,?2014). This agreement is a consent decree. The Department of Justice has made recommendations to improve the best practices of the department as it relates to excessive force (Shaffer,?2014). The consent decree places accountability on the department to ensure that the recommendations are implemented in a timely manner (Shaffer,?2014).Current Practices Utilized by Organization: The Cleveland Police currently have an internal review process that is flawed. Their current policy and procedures need reform and The Department of Justice is holding the department to their commitment by negotiating the terms of the consent decree (Shaffer,?2014).Strengths: Places accountability on the police department to follow through with the Department of Justice and strengthen the partnership of the police department, the federal government, and the community l (Shaffer,?2014).Weaknesses: The city can resist the consent decree; which delays the reform process (Shaffer,?2014).Best Practice #12: Smart 911Current Organizations Using Approach: Decatur, GA has implemented the Smart 911 database to help improve 911 services for the community ("Smart 911,”?2011).Current Practices Utilized by Organization: The Decatur 911 department create safety profiles of personal and household data to be displayed to 911 call representatives when they receive intakes ("Smart 911,”?2011). This program will provide extensive information where first responders can save lives ("Smart 911,”?2011).Strengths: The Smart 911 database is a free service used by the public service agencies. This database will enhance communications and response times for first responders. It also provides an emergency management system and notification service for the citizens. Overall, it can save a life.Weaknesses: The speed of the communication may be a barrier and the vulnerability of malicious 911 calls or false information provided on the database. There are numerous best practices that various organizations across the country have implemented in order to impact positive change on the use of excessive force. There are strengths and weaknesses associated with each policy that limit the effectiveness of these policies as viable solutions. Most of the best practices outlined have had some positive effects. However, there is not yet a clear answer on what practice can be used in every state and in every police encounter to diminish the unnecessary use of force. So, more research is necessary to determine what will be the most impactful in solving the problem of excessive force being used in police encounters.Best Practices Summary AnalysisBest PracticesStrengthsWeaknessesBody-worn cameras Greater TransparencyToo ExpensivePolice Activated Limited to On-Duty UseExternal Inspector General oversightUnbiased External organizationLimited access to reportsCan only make recommendationsPsychological evaluations of police recruitsEarly identification of recruits with behavior or mental disordersInconsistent Testing Biased psychologistsPotential for false readsPolice housing programs in patrolling communityImproved community relationships with policeNo requirement to live in community Familiarity with suspects in encounters Response protocol and de-escalation training Additional level of training Interagency cooperationInadequate funding available Citizens Police AcademiesHumanize PoliceNo cost to citizens Improved citizen-officer relationsVoluntary ProgramLimited scale Proportionate demographics of police officers Improved recruitment More representative police forceComplex models required to implement Supervisor oversightMore officer responsibility and accountability No patrol requirements for supervisors Required 4-year college education for police officersEnhanced critical thinking and decision making Improved use of discretionDoes not teach integrityCostly to incentivize Use of Tasers before using physical and chemical forceLimits officer/suspect injuriesCost effective alternativeMedical risk High cost and maintenance Consent decree and monitoring of police reportsPolice Department accountabilityStrengthened PartnershipsCity’s resistanceSmart 911Enhanced communication and response times for first respondersFree service for the public Vulnerable to pranks and false reportsReferencesAlpert,?G.?P., & Smith,?W.?C. 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