Potions in medieval Irish literature



POTIONS IN MEDIEVAL IRISH LITERATURE

Master’s Thesis Celtic Languages and Culture

University of Utrecht

Student: Renske Smeenk

Student Number: 0354481

Tutor: Ranke de Vries

19-08-2007

CONTENTS

Introduction 3

1. Terms for potions 4

2. Poisonous potions 5

3. Sleeping potions 11

4. Healing potions 17

5. Other potions 29

6. The power of the potion-giver 35

7. Conclusion 38

8. Bibliography 41

Introduction

Potions[1] are a popular ingredient of many stories in many different cultures, from historical to modern. A good example of potions in modern literature are the popular Harry Potter books in which the students learn to brew many different kinds of potions at school. In medieval Celtic literature potions can also frequently be found in stories. In the medieval Welsh tale Hanes Taliesin (“The Tale of Taliesin”) for example, Ceridwen is brewing a potion for her son so that he will gain the ability to prophesize and thus be accepted by the nobility.[2] The accidental ingestion of the magical characteristics of this potion by Gwion Bach leads to the other events in the story; Ceridwen chasing Gwion in the shapes of many animals. In medieval Irish literature potions are used for many different reasons. In some cases the reasons are good, for example to cure someone. However, potions were also used to a person’s own advantage or, in the worst case, to kill someone. In this thesis, I am going to look at the different kinds of potions that were used and the reasons for their use in saga literature and a the Lives of a number of saints. Apart from potions, milk sometimes has special properties in Irish literature. For this reason, milk has been included in this discussion.

First of all I will discuss the different terms that we find for potions and milk. After this, the first kind of potion that I am going to discuss is the poisonous potion. The second kind is the sleeping potion. The third kind of potion discussed is the healing potion, which comprises both physical and mental healing. The last group of potions I will discuss are those potions that do not fit in the other three categories. This section includes potions that gain or sap strength, a love potion and several kinds of milk with extraordinary powers.

I also wish to take a closer look at the persons in the stories who administer the potions, because the potion giver appears to have power over the person to whom the potion is given.

Chapter 1:

Terms for potions

First of all, I wish to discuss the different terms we find for potions. The most common term is deog, deoch, which means ‘drink’, ‘draught’ or ‘potion’. We often find this in combination with the word indicating what kind of potion we are dealing with. There is deoch lonnaid (“drink of death”), deoch suain (“drink of sleep”) and deoch ndermait (“drink of forgetfulness”). There is also a word for poison, neim. This term occurs for example in the name Bricriu Nemthenga, Bricriu Poison-tongue, who taunts Cú Chulainn in the Táin Bó Cúailnge.[3] Apart from special potions, the substance of which is generally unknown, milk can also hold special powers. For milk we find the terms as, blegon, bainne, melg and lemnacht.

Chapter 2:

Poisonous Potions

The term used most commonly for a potion or drink that is poisonous is deoch lonnaid (“drink of death”). However, there is a problem with the term deoch lonnaid as it does not always refer to an actual drink. Natalia Nikolaeva has discussed this issue in a recent article and has found the following meanings for deoch lonnaid: a violent death associated with a drink for a reason yet unknown, and death in the form of a drink.[4] In the case of a violent death the term deoch lonnaid is sometimes used, but there is nothing to be found on anyone drinking a poisonous liquid. Nikolaeva thinks that the liquid referred to in these cases is blood.[5] To be exact, the blood gushing from the body leading to death.

The term neim (“poison”) is also used when speaking of poisonous potions. In the Middle Ages, several plants were known to be poisonous. Besides plants, it was known that the venom of reptiles could be used as poison, especially the venom of snakes. The plant water-dropwort, especially hemlock water-dropwort, was known for its poisonous qualities. These plants were often gathered by mistake along with brooklime, because they grow in similar conditions.[6] John of Gaddesden discusses the effect of poison and possible cures several times in Rosa Anglica.[7]

Togail Bruidne Da Derga

Deoch lonnaid can be found several times, in different forms, in Togail Bruidne Da Derga (“The destruction of Da Derga’s Hostel”).[8] According to Thurneysen, the text transmitted to us was compiled in the eleventh century from two versions, which were probably written down in the ninth century.[9]

Conaire becomes the king of Tara after the death of his father. He is not a very successful king because of his tendency to break the law. One day Conaire settles a quarrel between two men in Túadmumu, even though he is not allowed to do so. When he returns home his land is under attack. He is informed that this is happening because he has broken too man laws. Conaire and his men leave. During their travels they need a place to stay and go to Da Derga’s hostel. On their way to the hostel, several more laws are broken. One of these is the plundering of Ireland. The plunderers from Ireland have joined forces with the plunderers from Britain. When Conaire and his men arrive at the hostel, they hear the noise of the approaching plunderers. Da Derga bids them welcome. Shortly after, a woman appears in the doorway, who prophesies that none of them will leave the hostel alive. Meanwhile, one of the plunderers goes to the hostel to spy. When he returns he gives a description of the warriors at the hostel. He mentions drinks of death when he gives a description of Conall and Celtchar:

Toingu a toingthe mo thúatha 7 rl., bid imda broen derg tarse innocht ar dorus na Bruidne. Ind tsleg druimnech sin fil húasa, bid sochaidi forsa ndáilfea deoga tondaig innocht ar dorus na Bruidne.[10]

I swear what my tribe swears, many a drop of red blood will fall across it [Conall’s shield] tonight at the door of the Hostel. That ridged spear above him, many will there be to whom it will deal drinks of death tonight at the door of the hostel.[11]

Tongu a tongthe mo thúatha, bid sochaidi forsa ndáile deoga tonnaig innocht ar dorus na Bruidne ind Lúin Celtchair meic Uithechair.[12]

I swear what my tribe swears by, there will be many to whom the lance of Celtchar son of Uthechar will serve drinks of death tonight at the door of the Hostel.[13]

When they know who is in the hostel, the plunderers rise and make for the house. The plunderers attack and before Conaire can reach his sword six hundred of his men have already fallen. Three times the hostel is set on fire, and three times the fire is extinguished. The druids of the plunderers cause a great thirst to come over Conaire. When he goes to his servants to ask for a drink, they tell him that all the liquid has been used to extinguish the fires. Three times Conaire seeks for a drink. The third time one of his warriors goes to the chieftains of Ireland, who are in the hostel, and gives them the choice between protecting the king or seeking a drink for him. From within the house Conall Cernach answers that he and the other chieftains will protect the king. The warrior travels to all the major rivers with Conaire’s cup, but all the rivers have dried up. Eventually he manages to find water to fill the cup. When he returns to the hostel he sees two men striking Conaire’s head off. He kills the two men and pours the water into Conaire’s throat. The third day the warrior who filled the cup dies. Conall Cernach escapes from the battle at the hostel and goes to his father who asks him if their lord is still alive. Conall tells his father about the battle at the hostel and that Conaire has died. When his father tells him that Conall’s hand has injured many, Conall replies:

Fír són, a senlaích, ol Conall Cernach. Is sochuide día tarad deoga tondaig anocht ar dorus mBruidni.[14]

‘Tis true, old warrior, --- said Conall Cernach --- there are many to whom it gave drinks of death tonight at the door of the Hostel.[15]

The first quote is a description of Conall’s arm and the second quote a description of Celtchar’s lance. In the first quote it is Conall’s arm who will deal the drinks of death, meaning it will kill many people and the drink of death must be the blood gushing from the wound. In the second quote it is also a weapon that will deal the drinks of blood, in this case the spear of Celtchar son of Uthechar. The last quote is about Conall’s hand, which has killed many. I have to agree with Nikolaeva that the ‘drink of death’ must refer to blood in these cases, since the use of these weapons will cause blood to gush from wounds. There is no person giving a potion, and no real potion to speak of. However, liquid does play a role in the story. The lack of liquid when Conaire needs it is a punishment for breaking many laws and eventually leads to the death of this unjust king.

Aided Conchobuir

In Aided Conchobuir (“The death of Conchobar”) we encounter what at first glance seems to be the drink of death as a potion. There are four versions of this tale, but the version in the Stowe manuscript is the only one that includes a mention of poison.[16] Conchobar is the son of the famous druid Cathbad.

Conchobar dies when Cet mac Mágach the brain of Mesgegra, the king of Leinster, at him. The brain was taken from Mesgegra’s head during a battle. The following lines are sung by a poet about the head that killed Conchobar;

Láech frisralais co mbúaid chain / fúair lat loimm tonnaid īar sin:

For mac Cathbath, cóinsit fir, / dális dig di nathrach neim.[17]

The hero whom thou didst hit victoriously / thereafter found through thee a

draught of poison: // to the son of Cathbad – men wailed – / thou didst deal a

drink of the serpent’s venom.[18]

The poem continues with the history of the head, relating how Cet had brought it on his back from the battle of Ailbe.

When reading the poem, it at first appears as if Conchobar has died of poisoning. However, at no point in the story does he drink poison. Thus it can safely be assumed that it is the stone (Mesgegra’s brain) thrown at his head which has killed him. The “poison” that is spoken of most likely refers to a violent death. It can be compared to the drink of death, which also is not an actual potion. Both are metaphors for death, and not an actual potion.

Aided Finn mac Cumaill

An example of the use of the word neim for poison can be found in the story Aided Finn mac Cumaill (“The death of Finn mac Cumaill”).[19] Unfortunately, the tale is incomplete. There are two fragments left of this tale, which form the beginning and the ending. The second fragment starts with the following, incomplete, line:

....nuic so, ‘or F[inn]...ar sisi...[tai]rngaire...donepelad cones.....neimh a hadhairc’.[20]

...up to this’, said Finn...said she...prophecy...that he would die when he should drink...poison out of a horn.’[21]

According to Kuno Meyer this line can be explained with the help of the other fragment, in which it is explained that it had been prophesied to Finn by his wife Smirgat that if he drinks out of horns, his death would be nigh.[22] Therefore it was his custom to drink out of cups.

The second fragment starts with Finn drinking water from a spring in a place called Adarca Iuchba (“The Horns of Iuchba”). This is in direct violation with Smirgat’s prophecy, not because he is drinking out of horns, but because the place where he is drinking is called The Horns of Iuchba. While he is drinking an old woman reminds him of the prophecy. After drinking from the spring Finn takes a leap and falls between two rocks. He cracks his head open on the rock and dies, thus fulfilling the prophecy. Fishermen find his body, they cut his head off and eventually drive a spear through it.

Although Smirgat’s prophecy gives the impression that Finn will die when he drinks poison out of a horn, this is not the case. The horns she refers to in her prophecy are not drinking horns, but it is a place called The Horns of Iuchba. The water is not poisonous, but drinking it will lead to Finn’s death, which is why it is called poison in the prophecy.

Eachtra Airt Meic Cuind ocus tochmarc Delbchaime ingine Morgan

It does not play an integral part in the story, but poison is mentioned in Eachtra Airt Meic Cuind ocus tochmarc Delbchaime ingine Morgan (“The adventures of Art son of Conn, and the courtship of Delbchaem daughter of Morgan”).[23] Here we find the word neim for poison.

Conn Cétchathach, the king of Ireland, is married to Eithne Taebhfada. When she dies it weighs so heavily on him that he was unable to rule or govern his kingdom. At this time the Tuatha Dé Danann were gathered in council in the Land of Promise, because a woman had committed a transgression. Her name is Bécuma Cneisgel. It is decided that she will be driven forth from the Land of Promise. She is sent to Ireland where she meets Conn, who is lamenting his wife. She tells him that her name is Delbchaem daughter of Morgan. When she learns that he is without a wife she decides to stay with him. One day, Bécuma is watching Conn’s son Art play fidchell and she demands that he plays it with her. He wins and tells her that she has to get him the wand of Cúroí son of Daire, which she does. The next game is won by Bécuma and she tells Art son of Conn that he will not eat in Ireland until he the real Delbchaem daughter of Morgan. She tells Art that he will find her on an island in the middle of the sea. He travels to the island where he meets the beautiful Creide Firalaind, daughter of Fidech Foltlebor. She tells him that it will not be easy to find Delbchaem for the journey is a hard one. She tells him of the dangers he will encounter, including Ailill Dubhdedach, whom no weapons can harm, and two of her sisters.

Ocus atait da siair damh-sa ann .i. da ingin Fidhigh Foiltlebuir .i. 7 Aebh a n-anmanda. Ocus atait da chopan ana lamhaibh .i. copan lan do neim 7 copan lan d’fin Ocus in copan bes dot laim deis, ibh digh as antan rigfir a les.[24]

And there are two sisters of mine there, daughters of Fidech Foltlebor, Finscoth and Aeb their names. There are two cups in their hands ─ a cup filled with poison, and one filled with wine. And the cup which is on thy right hand drink there from when thou hast need.[25]

Creidne gives Art advice on which cup to drink from when he meets her sisters. He must drink from the cup with wine, otherwise he will die from poisoning. They pour poison and wine for him when he arrives at Morgan’s house, but it is not mentioned if he drinks it, though presumably, he drinks the wine. The two sisters appear to symbolize the choice between life and death and perhaps only the person worthy to stay on the island will choose the cup of wine. Poison is a component of many of the obstacles he has to face to reach the island. Besides the poison given by the two women, venomous steeds (eich neimh) are mentioned in the story. They belong to the wife of Morgan. A venomous mountain (sliabh neimhnech) which Art passes on his way to Delbchaem, is also mentioned.

Chapter 3:

Sleeping Potions

Sleeping potions can be used by persons for good and bad reasons. Sometimes it is used to keep a person safe from harm, other times it is used for the advantage of the person administrating the potion. The term we find for sleeping potion is deoch suain. Besides the potions that cause sleep, I will also discuss a potion that in addition gives a vision while asleep.

Tóruigheacht Dhiarmada agus Ghráinne

Tóruigheacht Dhiarmada agus Ghráinne (“The pursuit of Diarmuid and Gráinne”) tells the story of how Finn Cumhaill pursues Diarmuid and Gráinne after they disappear from her father’s court.[26] Nessa Ní Shéaghdha thinks that the story belongs to the fourteenth century.[27]

Finn mac Cumhaill cannot sleep properly after the death of his wife. One of his warriors tells him that he knows a suitable wife for him, Gráinne the daughter of Cormac mac Art, the king of Ireland. The marriage proposal is accepted by both Cormac and Gráinne. Finn travels to Cormac’s court where a feast is held. Gráinne asks a druid at court who all the men are, and asks if it would not be better for her to marry one of the warriors, instead of Finn who is as old as her father. She gives everyone a sleeping potion, except two of Finn’s warriors.

Rug an chumhal an cornn lé go Fionn 7 do ibh Fionn deoch as 7 tuc an cornn do Chormac 7 do thuit a thorrchim suain 7 síor-chodalta air féin; 7 do ibh Cormac deoch as an gcornn 7 tuc a láimh Eithni é, 7 do thuit an suan céadna ar Chormac. 7 gach aon dá nglacadh a ndiaigh a chéle an cornn do thuiteadh an céadna orra.[28]

The maid took the goblet to Finn and Finn drank a draught out of it and he gave the goblet to Cormac and he himself fell into a deep slumber and sound sleep; and Cormac drank a draught out of the goblet and he put it into Eithne’s hand, and the same slumber fell upon Cormac. And each one that would take the goblet, one after another, would fall into the same state.[29]

She asks the warriors to marry her, but they both decline, since she is betrothed to their leader. She puts one of them, Diarmuid, under bonds of danger and destruction. The other warrior, Oisín, tells him to go with her since he is not guilty of the bonds which have been laid on him. They leave the court. When Finn wakes up he is angry and a long pursuit follows. During the pursuit of Diarmuid and Gráinne, Finn requests the help of several people, among whom the king of Alba, a hag with magical powers and warriors from Muir nIocht with venomous dogs. After many failed attempts to kill Diarmuid, peace is made between Finn and Diarmuid.

One night, Diarmuid hears the voice of a hound. Gráinne tries to prevent him from looking for the hound, but he fails to do so. He meets Finn, who tells him that the hound is chasing the dangerous boar of Beann Gulbain. Finn leaves Diarmuid while he waits for the boar to appear. He manages to kill it, but is mortally wounded. When Finn returns, Diarmuid says that he has the power to heal him, because a drink from Finn’s hands can make people young and sound from sickness. Finn does not want to give him a drink and every time he goes to get water he lets the water seep through his fingers. Eventually he gets water, but it is too late and Diarmuid dies. Gráinne is informed of Diarmuid’s death, and knows it is because of Finn’s treachery. She calls her children to her and tells them to practise the arts of war and go after Finn. However, when they are ready to fight him, they hear that Finn has left with their mother. Eventually peace is made between Gráinne’s children and Finn.

Here the sleeping potion is administered by a servant of Gráinne on her orders. The reason for this is simple; she does not want to marry a man who is as old as her father. She only keeps a few handsome warriors awake who all decline her offer of marriage, which she probably did not expect. She is angered by this which must be why she puts Diarmuid under bonds of strife and destruction.[30] In this way, she sets the event which make up the rest of the tale in motion. Poison can also be found in this tale, although not in the form of a drink, but the warriors who have come to aid Finn are in possession of venomous hounds. However, they have no effect on Diarmuid as he manages to kill them before they can wound him. Liquid plays again an important role later on in the story, and the lack of it results in Diarmuid’s death. Water from the palms of Finn’s hands can cure a person, but Finn refuses to give it to Diarmuid. Here the liquid has a healing function, however, it is not explained in the tale why a drink from Finn’s palm has healing powers.

Tochmarc Emire

In Tochmarc Emire (“The wooing of Emer”) a sleeping potion is used to keep Cú Chulainn away from a battle and safe him from harm.[31] The term used for the sleeping potion here is deog suain. The oldest version of this story, which has been used here, has been dated by Kuno Meyer to the eight century.[32]

Cú Chulainn has been sent to Domnall the Warlike in Alba by Forgall the Wily. Forgall does not want Cú Chulainn to meet Emer, and goes to Conchobar in the disguise of a Gaul. There he tells Cú Chulainn that it would be wonderful if he were to go to Domnall. He goes with the king Conchobar and Loegaire the Victorious. Domnall teaches them many things, but tells them that they will not be taught more until they come to Scathach. The three travel to Scathach, but through the supernatural powers of the daughter of Domnall, whose appearance is loathsome and who has been rejected by Cú Chulainn, the three are separated. Cú Chulainn travels to Scathach alone with the help of the people he meets on the way. After he has been in the east with Scathach for a while, Scathach has a feud with other tribes and Cú Chulainn is given a sleeping potion so that he cannot go to the battle.

Boi cath for Scathaig isind aimsir sin dono fri tuathv eile form-ba banflaith Aiffe. 7 conrecht la Scathaig Cuculaind 7 dobreth deog suain do riam, arna teissed isin cath, ar nach rissed ni and. Ar choimainchi dognith. Dufochtrastar didiuellam inte Cvculaind. A m-ba mithissi cetheora n-var fichet do neuch aili den dig suain hi cotlud, ba hoenvair do-som.[33]

At that time also Scathach had a feud against other tribes, over whom was the princes Aife. And Cuchulaind was put in bonds by Scathach, and a sleeping potion had been given him before, that he might not go to the battle, lest anything should happen (to him) there. As a precaution this was done. However, Cuchulind awoke promptly. While anybody else would have slept twenty-four hours from the sleeping potion, it was but one hour for him.[34]

Cú Chulainn goes to the battle and slays the enemy together with the two sons of Scathach. He also manages to capture Aife and he tells her that her life will be spared if she agrees to three wishes. He then returns to Ireland, where he meets Emer at last.

The potion is not used to do Cú Chulainn any harm, on the contrary, Scathach uses it to keep him safe from harm. However, it is most likely used against his will. He is a warrior and wants to join the battle. She is unsuccessful in keeping him away from the battle, as he wakes up soon after she has given the potion. A similar event happened in Cú Chulainn’s youth, when he is left behind asleep while the Ulstermen go to a battle. When he wakes up he inquires where the men have gone and follows them to the battlefield. There he saves Conchobar, who tells him that they left him behind so that he would not die of fright on the battlefield.[35]

Aided Muirchertaig Meic Erca

The potions that are mentioned in the story Aided Muirchertaig Meic Erca (“The death of Muirchertaig Mac Erca”) have a dual effect.[36] First of all they are a sleeping potion, but they also sap the person who drinks it of his strength. I will discuss the aspect of the potion as a sleeping potion here.

Muirchertach Mac Erca is the king of Ireland. At the border of the Brugh he meets a woman, Sín, and instantly falls in love with her. She tells him that she will go with him, but in order for her to stay with him there are several things he must not do, one of these is saying her name. She comes with him to his house, where Muirchertach asks Sín what powers she has. She tells him that she can turn water from the Boyne into wine. Water of the Boyne is brought to her so that she may show them that miracle. They drink the wine at a feast and the next morning all their strength has left them. The king even feels that his death is coming closer. One day, Muirchertach is in the Brugh and he meets a host Sín has created with her magic and which challenges him. He falls to the floor, because he is without strength. Eventually he manages to charge through the host. At night he sees demons in his sleep. He rises and goes to the clerics to tell them of his vision. When he returns he tells his wife that the clerics are suffering from the great storm and by saying this uses her name, for Sín is a word for storm. It was one of the taboos she put on him and she announces that his death is close. She tells him to go to sleep and he asks her for a drink:

Dochóid sium ‘na lebaid iarsin, 7 do chuindig dig forsin ingin, 7 do chuir-si bricht suain forsin fín mbréci úd, gu ra ib-sium dig de, co nderna mesc aimnertach é cen súg cen nert ann.[37]

Then he went into his bed and asked the damsel for a drink, and she cast a sleep-charm on that deceptive wine, so that he drank a draught of it, and it made him drunk and feeble, without sap or strength.[38]

While he falls asleep again, Sín creates a large army around the fortress with her magic, ready to attack. He wakes up and tells her that a host of demons has appeared to burn down his house. She tells him that it has really happened. He follows Sín out of the house and meets the host, but quickly goes back into the house where fire surrounds him. He decides to hide in a cask of wine, to keep from burning and instead he drowns. Clerics take him from the house and bury him. After the burial the clerics see a beautiful woman coming towards them and they recognize her as Sín. She tells them that Muirchertach killed her father, mother and sisters and that she made poison (neim) for him. She repents for what she has done and straight afterwards dies of grief.

Here we know what the potion is made of. It is made of wine, probably water turned into wine as Sín does this earlier in the story. After turning it into wine Sín casts a sleeping spell on it. The wine is, of course, intoxicating, but it also has the additional power to make someone fall asleep and to sap them of their strength because of the enchantment Sín has put on it. Sín gave it to Muirchertaig as revenge for the death of her parents and her sister. She has been weakening him ever since she came to his house by giving him an enchanted wine. At the end of the story, she tells the clerics that she has given him poison. In the rest of the story it is referred to as a sleeping potion.

Tochmarc Ailbe

In Tochmarc Ailbe (“The wooing of Ailbe”), which has been dated to the tenth century[39], a sleeping potion is given to Ailbe by a druid.[40] The sleeping potion is made by putting a sleeping charm, suanbricht, on the drink

There is a feud between Cormac ua Cuinn and Find ua Baiscni, because Grainne, Cormac’s daughter, has given her love to Diarmuid and her hate to Find. However, eventually peace is made between the two and Cormac will let Find marry one of his other daughters. One of them is Ailbe Guradbred, who lives in Tara. All Cormac’s daughters go to the druid Citruad, also in Tara, to ask him what will happen in the future. He reveals the future to all the daughters except to Ailbe who asks him to which man in Ireland she will be married. He tells her that this man will come the next day. She asks him about the man and Citruad orders her to get him a glass of beer and says that he will put a sleeping charm on it. She will then see the man she is to marry in her sleep.

‘Cuindig si lestar nglanide dam sa 7 uan fircormo and 7 fo·cuirer sa suanbricht and duit si 7 ad·citestair dath 7 eccoscc 7 tuaruscbal ind fir cusa·rado. 7 to·tais re turgabail greni amaireach con·eicis dam sa.’ ― bæ ar n-ol na digi iarum dos·fuiris in taibsiu.[41]

‘Hole mir ein gläsernes Gefäſs mit dem Schaum richtigen Bieres darin, und ich will einen Schlafspruch für dich hineinsprechen, und die Farbe und die Art und das Aussehen des Mannes, zu dem du gehen wirst, wird (von dir) erblickt werden. Und morgen vor Sonnenaufgang sollst du kommen und mir berichten.’ Nach dem Trinken des Getränkes ward ihr dann die Erscheinung.[42]

The next morning she goes to Citruad to tell him what she has seen. Based on what Ailbe has told him he sings a song. In this song he describes the hero she has seen in a vision, who turns out to be Find. Ailbe and Find meet at a feast given by Cormac. After they marry, three miracles happen and they have three sons together.

The potion given here is a sleeping potion which will give the drinker a vision in her dreams of the man that she will marry. The potion itself is not brewed as a sleeping potion, but becomes one after the druid has put a sleeping spell on it. It is not an ordinary sleeping potion, as it also gives the drinker a vision.

Chapter 4:

Healing Potions

Here I will discuss the potions that were used to heal a person of an illness. I will discuss two kinds of healing potions; the first kind heals a person of a physical disease, while the second kind heals a person of a mental disease. Many of the healing potions are made of milk.

Milk was, and still is, an important part of the human diet in many cultures. In medieval Ireland the largest proportion of milk was gotten from cows, although sheep and goats were also milked. The milk of a cow was worth more than that of sheep and goats. The milk was used to make several products; cream, butter, buttermilk and cheese.[43]

Besides being part of the human diet, it was sometimes used for medicinal purposes. In the Rosa Anglica by John of Gaddesden for example[44], milk is mentioned several times as a cure for various ailments. Gaddesden says that the best milk should be given to a person who suffers from epilepsy. He also mentions milk several times as a cure for poison. For example, he suggests tormentil with wine or milk in it as a cure for someone who has been poisoned. John of Gaddesden notes that milk itself can become poisonous when it turns to curds in the stomach.[45]

For milk we find the terms as, blegon, bainne, melg and lemnacht is used for new milk. The word melg requires a closer look, because it can mean ‘milk’ or ‘death’. Nikolaeva gives the following explanation of melg: ‘It exists as part of two compound words, both apparently meaning ‘death’, but in a rather obscure way: melglheme and melglhene.’[46] These terms can be translated with ‘death darkness’ (melglheme) and ‘fire of death’ (melglhene) according to O’Davoren.[47] Nikolaeva explains that the composition meglhleme may also mean ‘milk of death’: ‘It may be understood either as a compound ‘deadly darkness’ (leme being ‘darkness’) or as a word-combination ‘milk of death’ (with secondary meaning of leme ‘death’).’[48]

Táin Bó Cúailnge

Another story involving Cú Chulainn and a healing potion is part of the Táin Bó Cúailnge.[49] Recension I, used here, is the oldest version of this story, and has been dated to the first half of the eight century by Rudolf Thurneysen.[50] Here we encounter the word blegon for milk. Cú Chulainn has been wounded and the Mórrígan heals him by giving him milk to drink from a cow with three teats. The Mórrígan is a battle-fury or war-goddess who appears in the Táin Bó Cúailnge as a crow who appears on the corpses of the slain.

The Mórrígan challenges Cú Chulainn during a confrontation. She tells him that she has come for him, because she loves him. Cú Chulainn replies that it is not for a woman’s body that he has come. She retorts that it will be worse for him if she goes into the shape of several animals, an eel, a wolf and a hornless red heifer, to do him harm and he replies that he will fight back if she does so. She leaves after his reply.

During a battle between Cú Chulainn and Lóch, whose brother has been killed by Cú Chulainn, an eel twines itself around Cú Chulainn’s feet so that he falls. One of the onlookers insults him by saying that his strength is exhausted if such a puny opponent can overthrow him. He rises up again and strikes the eel so that its ribs break.[51] Then a wolf appears who drives cattle towards Cú Chulainn, but he picks up a stone, throws it at the wolf and breaks her eye. Next, a red hornless heifer appears at which he also casts a stone so that her legs break. Eventually he manages to defeat Lóch, but then five men come to attack him simultaneously. He manages to defeat them all, after which he is very tired.

O Cond ai[th]scís mór sin trá do C[h]oin Culaind, danarraid in Mórrígan i ndelb na sentainne caillige 7 sí cáech losc, oc blegon bó triphne. Coniacht-som dig furri. Dobert-si blegon sini dó. ‘I n-iam bid slán doduc!’ ol Cú Chulaind. ‘Bennacht dé 7 andé fort!’ ol sé. Déi leó-som in t-áes cumachta, andéi immorro in t-áes trebtha.

Íctha a cend-si íarom combo slán. Dobeir blegon in tress sini combo slán a fergaire.

Combad ed atberad-som in cech ní díb sin: ‘Brath bennachtan fort!’ or sé. ‘Atbirt frim trá,’ or in Mórriígan, ním bíad íc lat co bráth.’ ‘Acht rofessin[d] combad tú,’ ol Cú Chulaind, ‘nít ícfaind tria bith sír.[52]

While Cú Chulainn lay thus in great weariness, the Mórrígan came to him the guise of an old crone, one-eyed and half-blind and engaged in milking a cow with three teats. He asked her for a drink. She gave him the milk of one teat. ‘She who gave it will at once be whole,’ said Cú Chulainn. ‘The blessing of gods and non-gods be on you!’

—The magicians were their gods but the husbandmen were their non-gods.—

Thereupon her head was made whole. Then she gave him the milk of the second teat, and her eye was healed.She gave him the milk of the third teat, and her leg was cured. —And it is suggested that on each occasion he said: ‘The judgement of blessing be on you!’— ‘But you told me,’ said the Mórrígan, ‘that I should never get healing from you.’ ‘Had I known that it was you,’ said Cú Chulainn, ‘I should never have healed you.’[53]

The reason for giving the potion is selfish. The Mórrígan knows that by healing Cú Chulainn she herself will be healed too. Whenever she gives Cú Chulainn some of the milk, he is cured a little more and cures her in return as a reward. Cú Chulainn himself does not heal by giving a potion, but heals the Mórrígan by saying that a part of her will be healed. She knows that he will never heal her if he knows who she truly is after all the things she has done to him during his fight with Lóch, hence the disguise as an old crone. The potion that is given to Cú Chulainn is milk from a cow with three teats. The fact that this cow only has three teats might indicate that it is a supernatural animal. This could be why the milk has healing powers. There is, however, no evidence of this in the Táin bó Cúailnge. It is more likely that the cow reflects the Mórrígan’s state; she is wounded and not whole. If this is the case, then it is the milk itself that has healing powers.

Imthechta Tuirill 7 a Mac

A drink with special powers appears in the story Imthechta Tuirill 7 a Mac (“The Adventures of Tuirill and his sons”).[54] There is a prose version of this text and a poetic version. Rudolf Thurneysen has dated the prose text to the twelfth century and the poem to the eleventh century or the first half of the twelfth century.[55]

Tuirill is looking for a cure for his illness[56], but cannot find a cure anywhere until he finds Dían Cécht.[57] He is the father of Tuirill’s mother, Étain the daughter of Dían Cécht. Dían Cécht prepares a dig scēthrig (“drink of vomit”) for Tuirill. He drinks the potion on a hill. After drinking it he spits it out again into three different lakes, thus giving these lakes their names.

Dianchēcht, ar ba sī a ingen .i. Etán ingen Dianchēcht a māthair. Do·rigne dig scēthrig dó, coro·scé tri lomanna asa bēlaib. Is ann at·ib an dig i cnuc auchtair Archæ, coro·mebdatar tri lomanna assa bēlaib .i. loim n-uar i-lLoch n-Uair 7 loim ainndinn i-lLoch Ainnind, loim iairn i-lLoch Iairn.[58]

Den dessen Tochter Etan ingen Diancecht war seine (Tuirills) Mutter. Der bereitete ihm einen Brech-Trunk, so daſs er drei Schlücke aus seinem Munde spie. Auf dem Hügel von Ober-Archæ trank er den Trunk, so daſs drei Schlücke aus seinem Munde hervorbrachen: ein kalter Schluck in den Loch Uair, ein Schluck in den Loch Aininn, ein Schluck Eisen in den Loch Iairn.[59]

After this it seems that Tuirill is cured of his illness.

Betha Senain

Betha Senain (“Live of Senán”) is about the many miracles performed by the saint Senán.[60] The Betha Senain was written at Inis-Cathaig when it was still a flourishing monastery, which means that it can be no later than the tenth century.[61] These miracles include several healing miracles. Two different kinds of healing potions can be found in two different miracle episodes.

The first of these episodes concerns Senán’s favorite church. The name of this church is Killnagalliach. The people who live around the church are wicked, and one day the patron saint punishes them for their actions. While a woman is parching corn close to the church, a sparrow hops down from the top of the church to where the woman is. He takes a burning straw in its beak and flies back to the top of the church. The sparrow drops the burning straw on the thatch roof, after which the church burns down completely. After this, the people who live around the church propose to rebuild it. The next day they begin to make a lime kiln.

Sgela na teinedh áoil ó sin amach: gach uile cinel galair do bhíodh for dhuine no for ainmidhe gan acht an taol sin do chumailt de, do bhiodh slán gan fuirech; nó cloch da bfaghtaoi ann, 7 a téghadh, 7 a cur i ndigh doibh, do ícadh cach 7c.[62]

As to the subsequent history of the lime-kiln: ― every kind of disease in man or beast, if only (the patient) were rubbed with the lime, would be healed at once, or if a stone taken thence were heated and put in their drink, it would heal everyone, &c.[63]

The episode that follows concerns a woman who has a sick animal. She leaves it in the kiln at night, and says that she does not want it to come out until Senán has performed a miracle on it. The word for milk here is báinne.

Do fhaccaibh an oidhce sin arin aol é, 7 docúaidh da fhechain ara bharach, 7 is amhlaidh fuair é, 7 uth mór bainne aicce, 7 e féin slan ina shesamh, 7 do slánaigedh a bhainne gach galar, 7 gach teidm da mbiodh ar dhaoinibh 7 airnéisibh; 7 do beirtí do rioghaibh 7 d’esccopaibh a bhainne sin ósin amach.[64]

She left the animal in the kiln that night, and the next day she went to look at it, and found it standing quite healed with a great udder of milk, and the milk healed every illness and every plague in man and cattle, and was carried henceforth to kings and bishops.[65]

The milk of a young animal that a woman left in the kiln to be cured by a miracle is a healing potion. It is cured after staying in the kiln for a night, and its milk heals every illness and plague in man and cattle. The miracles are attributed to Senán, but the place where the kiln is must also play an important part, since it is where his favorite church used to stand.

Betha Brigte

In Betha Brigte (“Life of Brigit”)[66], first written down in the middle of the seventh century[67], several potions are mentioned. The most prominent one is the healing potion. This is not very unusual, as healing miracles are the most prominent in saints lives. However, we also find a love potion in this story. Here I will discuss the healing potions in Betha Bhrighdi which can be found in four different miracle episodes. The words we find for milk in this story is leamhlacht and as. The word for poison, neim, appears at the end of the tale.

Brigit is the daughter of Dubthach and his bondmaid Broicsech. Dubthach’s wife is very jealous of her and when Broicsech becomes pregnant his wife wants him to sell her. Dubthach refuses, especially after a wizard tells him that his daughter will become marvelous and that the child his wife is carrying will serve the child of the bondmaid. When his wife hears this same information from a bishop, she demands that he sells Broicsech. A poet comes to their house and asks if Dubthach is going to sell the bondmaid. He tells the poet that he has to do so because of his wife. The poet advices him to sell the bondmaid, but not the child. This is done and the poet leaves with the bondmaid. A wizard comes to the poet’s house, to whom the poet sells the bondmaid, but not the child. The wizard makes a great feast. That day the wife of one of the kings at the feast brings forth a dead son. The next morning Broicsech walks with a vessel full of milk over the doorstep, and at that moment her daughter Brigit is born. Servants wash the child with the milk that is still in her mother’s hands. Then the child is taken to the dead boy and Brigit’s breath brings the boy back to live. This is the first of the many miracles in this story. Brigit’s association with milk is established here. She cures the boy after having been bathed in milk. Additionally, she may have drunk the milk when they bathed her. As a child, Brigit will not eat the same food as others, but only the milk of a red-eared cow. When she is old enough, she returns to her father Dubthach. The first miracle she performs there is healing her nurse by taking water from a well and blessing it.[68]

Taraill Brigit iarsin co araile topur gur’lin leastar as, 7 robeannach cu rosoudh i mblas corma, 7 dobert dia muime, 7 ba oghshlan focedair.[69]

Then Brigit went to a certain well, and filled her vessel thereat, and blessed (the water), so that it turned into the taste of ale, and she gave it to her nurse, who straightway became whole.[70]

When Brigit is older, a man comes to Dubthach to ask for his daughter in marriage. Dubthach is willing, but Brigit refuses the proposal. Instead she takes the veil from Bishop Mél in Telcha Mide. It is after she has become a nun that the second healing miracle takes place.

Araile caillech do muinntir Brigte dorala a ngalar trom cu romhianaigh leamhlacht. Ni tharla bo isin recleis ind inbhaidh-sin, cu rolinadh leastar lan d’uisce do Brigit, cu ros-bennach, curo soudh il-leamhnacht. Dorat don caillig 7 ba hoghshlan hi focedair.[71]

A certain nun of Brigit’s household fell into sore disease and desired milk. There did not happen to be a cow in the church at that time, so a vessel was filled with water for Brigit, and she blessed it, and it was turned into milk. She gave it to the nun who at once became quite well.[72]

She cannot only create healing potions, but also change water into ale. She does this at Easter for the Bishop Mél.

One day, Brigit visits Brigit daughter of Conaille where the third healing miracle takes place when she enters the house.

Feacht ann dodhecaid Brigit do thigh araile oighi .i. Brigit ingen Conaille insin. In t-uisqui doratadh dara cosaibh do Brigit iar taidhecht roíc araili ógh robai istigh a ngalar.[73]

Once upon a time Brigit went to the house of another virgin, even Brigit daughter of Conaille. The water that was put over Brigit’s feet after she had arrived, healed a certain virgin who was lying sick in the house.[74]

On another occasion, seven bishops come to visit Brigit. She has no food for them and is ashamed of this. While she is praying angels tell her to milk the cows for the third time that day. When she does this they fill three tubs with milk. The milk overflows the vessels and a lake is created, called Loch in Ais, the ‘Lake of Milk’. Everything that Brigit asks the Lord is granted to her at once, the lake of milk is an example of this.

At the end of the story, an example is given of Brigit worship when three of her household visit Rome. The men are saved from poisoning after praising Brigit. A man asked them whether they need a place to stay. They go into his house where another man tells them that it is the custom of their host to kill his guests.

Tucadh tra neimh doib i linn, cu romholsat Brigit dia soeradh 7 cu rochansat ‘Brigit be bhitmaith’ 7 rl. Atibhset an linn cusan neim, 7 ní derna pudhur doibh. Tainic iarum fer in tighi dia fegad dus in ros-marbh in neim, 7 atconnaic iat ‘na mbethaid, 7 adconnaic ingin t-sochraid etarru.[75]

So poison was given to them in ale; and they praised Brigit that she might save them, and they sang Brigit bé bithmaith, etc. They drank the ale with the poison, and it did them no harm. So the man of the house came to see whether the poison had killed them. And he beheld them alive, and he beheld a comely maiden amongst them.[76]

Betha Patraic

In another Saints life, Betha Patraic (“Life of Patrick”)[77], potions are also used to cure people. Work on the life of Patrick began in the seventh century by clerics of Patrician churches.[78] One of the healing miracles attributed to him involves curing a person who has drunk poison.

Patrick performs his first healing miracle when he is still in his mother’s womb. A son of the king of Britain comes to the place where Patrick’s mother dwells. She washes his feet and entertains him. The king’s wife becomes jealous.

Co tuc a shetich-siumh dig neme do Chochmais tria ét, conus-ibh, cu-roghab Patraic in neim dina ghlaic, 7 dorighne cloich di ina laimh, conidh amhlaid sin rucadh-sum.[79]

Wherefore his wife through jealousy gave a drink of poison to Concess, who drank it. And Patrick seized the poison in his grasp, and made thereof a stone in his hand, and thus was he born.[80]

Patrick’s mother’s sister takes him in fosterage, as she herself is barren. When he is with his foster-mother, Patrick creates two healing potions. The first miracle consists of water changed into honey with healing powers. Patrick’s nurse asks him why he has not brought her any honey, while all the other boys are bringing honey to their mothers.

Teit-sium iarumh docum in uisqui, 7 leastar lais, 7 senais an t-uisqui cur’bo milk, 7 co n-dernta cretre don mhil-sin, 7 noic(ad c)ech teidm.[81]

Then, taking a vessel, he goes to the water, and sained the water so that it became honey; and relics (?) were made of that honey, and it used to heal every disease.[82]

After this a child dies who used to go milking with Patrick’s foster-mother. His foster-mother orders the child to be brought to the place where they milk the cow.

Dobreath a mhuime leamlacht do Patraic 7 isbert fris: ‘Gairm cucatt in mac aile co n-eisbhiudh comaidh fruit.’ ‘Táre, a naidhiu,’ oul se, ‘ille!’ Atracht focedair in mac a bas la togairm Patraic co n-eisbetar commaid iarum.[83]

His foster-mother gave new milk to Patrick and said to him, ‘Call unto thee the other boy that he as well as thou may drink it.’ ‘Come, my child,’ saith he, ‘hither.’ Straightway at Patrick’s call the boy arose from death, and then they drank it equally.[84]

The healing miracles involving a potion all take place before Patrick becomes an adult. It is not exactly clear what role the milk plays when Patrick heals the boy, but it appears to be part of the healing ritual and helps to heal the boy. For this ritual, Patrick and the dead child have to drink from the milk given to him by his foster-mother. Before they drink it, Patrick calls the child, who rises from death. After the resurrection they both drink of the new milk. Perhaps it is new milk that has to be drunk here, because the child has been given a second life. Instead of receiving milk from his mother, as he did when he was born and started his first life, he has to drink new milk of a cow this time.

Suibhne Geilt

A story in which it is not explicitly stated that milk heals a person, but it does appear to be that way is Suibhne Geilt.[85] J. G. O’Keeffe thinks the text was composed between the thirteenth and sixteenth century.[86] Suibhne is the king of the Dál nAraidhe. He becomes a madman after he has been cursed twice by a member of the church. In his madness, he disappears into the wilderness. In this story we find lemnachta which means ‘milk’ or ‘new milk’ and the word bainne for milk.

Ronan Finn, a holy patron in Ireland, is building a church in Dal Araidhe, Suibhne’s territory. When he hears the bells of Ronan’s church he leaves his house to expel him. His wife Eorann tries to stop Suibhne by grabbing his cloak, however, he walks on and the cloak bursts off him. He arrives naked at the church to expel Ronan. He grabs Ronan’s Psalter and throws it into a lake. While he is dragging Ronan out of the church a servant arrives to tell Suibhne that he should go to the battle of Mag Rath. Ronan curses Suibhne to be naked, since this is how he came to expel him from his church. The second time he curses Suibhne is when they are both at a battle of Mag Rath and Suibhne kills one of Ronan’s psalmists. The psalmists sprinkle the warriors with water, and Suibhne thinks they are mocking him. Then, during the battle Suibhne goes mad after hearing the cries of the warriors and he flees into a tree. He lives in the wilderness as a geilt (“madman”) and travels around Ireland for many years, but he always returns to Glen Bolcain, a place that was known as a place of great delight for madmen. He meets a madwoman, and another madman with whom he travels together for a while. Several times he comes into contact with humans. At one time he is almost sane again, when his foster brother Loinseachan takes Suibhne home with him and tells him that his wife and children are dead. However, a hag challenges him to a jumping contest, after which Suibhne loses his sanity again. There are many nature poems in the story in which Suibhne glorifies nature and lets it be known that he thinks the sounds of birds is more beautiful than that of a church bell.

One day he comes to the monastery Teach Moling, where he meets Moling. He makes a deal with him, Suibhne will travel through Ireland during the day and come back in the evenings to tell Moling of his wanderings. Moling orders his cook Muirghill, the wife of his swineherd Mongán, to give new milk to Suibhne each day.

Ba hí méd na proinni sin dobheiredh an bhen dó .i. nodhingedh a sail conuige a hadhbronn isin mbualtrach fa coimhnesa dhi 7 nofágbadh a lán lemnachta ann do Suibhne. Dothigedh-somh co faiteach furechair i n-eatarfhásach na búailedh do ibhe an bhainne sin.[87]

This was the extent of the meal the woman used to give him: she used to thrust her heel up to her ankle in the cow dung nearest her and leave the full of it of new milk there for Suibhne. He used to come cautiously and carefully into the vacant portion of the milking yard to drink the milk.[88]

One day, Mongán’s sister tells him that his wife is meeting another man. Mongán sees Suibhne lying down while he is eating the milk in the dung and thrusts a spear through him. Moling hears that Suibhne has been wounded by Mongan. He goes to Suibhne, who acknowledges his faults and makes his confession. Together they walk to the church, where Suibhne dies leaning against the doorpost. Moling buries him and a tomb is made near a well, which is called The Madman’s Well thereafter.

The milk is given to Suibhne by Muirghill on Moling’s orders. The milk does not completely cure Suibhne, but it does seem to make him a bit saner. He drinks the milk every day and returns to the monastery to tell Moling what he has learned that day. Maybe the milk is the reason why he can act relatively normal around Moling, since he usually does not feel comfortable among other humans. He trusts both Moling and Muirghill, who are responsible for giving him milk. In this story it is not the milk alone that is important, but also the way it is served appears to attribute to its healing powers. In a way, it eventually leads to his death as it is the husband of the woman who gives him the milk who kills him out of anger. His fear of other humans, except for Moling and Muirghill, is therefore justified.

Serglige Con Culainn

There is another story involving Cú Chulainn in which a potion is given to him. In this case the story is Serglige Con Culainn (“The wasting sickness of Cú Chulainn”).[89] The story was first written down in the ninth century.[90] The word we find for the healing potion in this story is dig ndermait and deoga dermait (“potion of forgetfulness”).

The story begins with an assembly of the men of Ulster to celebrate Samain. On a lake there are many wonderful birds and the women want Cú Chulainn to catch two for each of them to put on their shoulders. He catches birds for all the women, except for his own wife Eithne. He tells Eithne that he will catch the most beautiful birds for her, but he does not manage to catch them. He falls asleep and in his sleep two women come to him and beat him. After he wakes up, Cú Chulainn becomes ill. A year later a man comes to him to tell him that Fand’s husband, Manannán mac Lir has left her. Cú Chulainn goes back to the place where he fell asleep and a woman comes to him there. Her name is Lí Ban wife of Labraid and she tells him that if he fights Labraid’s enemies he will have Fand’s love. Cú Chulainn sends Lóeg with her. When Lóeg returns, Cú Chulainn sends him to his wife Emer to tell her that he is cured of his illness.[91] He is asked again to come to Fand, but again he sends Lóeg instead. The third time however, he decides to travel to the island where Fand lives himself. He defeats the enemy by himself and stays a month with Fand on the island. After that month he leaves her and they make a tryst.

Emer also comes to the tryst, intent on taking revenge. After a conversation between the three, Fand decides that it is she who has to leave. When Cú Chulainn sees that Fand is leaving with Manannán mac Lir, he goes mad. He takes three high leaps and three leaps southward to Lúachair. He is there for a long time without food or drink, wandering through the mountains and sleeping every night on the mountain Slidge Midlúachra. Emer goes to Conchobor to tell him what has happened to Cú Chulainn, who in turn sends poets, learned men and druids to find Cú Chulainn and to bring him to Emain.

Ro chansat-side brechta druídechta ina agid coro gabait a chossa 7 a lama conos tánic trell dia chéill. Ro boíseom dano oc cuingid digi chucu iar sin. Tucsat na druid dig ndermait dó. Amal atib in ndig nírbo chumain laiss Fand 7 cech ní doróni. Tucait dano deoga dermait a héta do Emir, ar nírbo ferr ro boí.[92]

The sang druid spells against him, so that his feet and his hands were bound, until his sense returned for a while. Then he asked them for a drink. The druids gave him a drink of forgetfulness. When he had taken the drink, he did not remember Fand, nor anything that he had done. And drinks of forgetfulness were given to Emer for her jealousy, for she was in no better case.[93]

It is not clear what the potion was made of in this story. After the potion has been given, Cú Chulainn is cured of his madness, because the memory of Fand is gone, and Emer is cured of her jealousy. Manannán mac Lir shakes his cloak between Cú Chulainn and Fand so that they will never meet again.

Chapter 5:

Other Potions

Here I will discuss the potions that do not fit in the other categories. First of all a story in which we find the use of melglheme (“milk of death”). Next, the other function of Sín’s potion.[94] Then two kinds of milk; milk that gives the drinker strength and milk that is both food and drink. Finally, I will discuss a love potion given by Saint Brigit.

Amrae Con Roi

An example of the use of melglheme can be found in the story Amrae Con Roi (“The Eulogy for Cú Roí”).[95] The text has been dated to the first half of the eight century.[96]

It is a poem in which the poet recounts the things that have been given to him by Cú Roí. He mentions many things, including beautiful garments, excellent beasts and fine weapons. After the summary of the many wonderful things given to him, the poet tells that Cú Roí was in the great houses of mac Dáire where he dispensed drinks.

Con-tethaig flaith firu batar fo melgtheme / maīn medb domun do chernaib Con Roi.[97]

The prince shared with men who were subject to the ‘milk of death’ / the deep intoxicant bounty of Cú Roí’s exploits.[98]

This passage refers to a drink, but not one that kills a person because it is poisonous. Patrick Henry explains that ‘The milk of death was dispensed throughout the comitatus in which the prince had his place’.[99] The leader shares drinks with the men who were ‘subject to the milk of death’, which means his most loyal men. On the one hand it can be compared to the ‘drink of death’, because these loyal warriors are prepared to die for their lord in a battle. On the other hand it is not exactly the same, as there is a real drink involved. The milk they all drink ritually binds this close group of warriors.

Aided Muirchertaigh meic Erca

We return to Aided Muirchertaigh meic Erca to discuss the other effect of the potions made by Sín, because it also saps people of their strength. Sín has changed three vats of water from the river Boyne into wine and gives them to the king and his men. After drinking the wine their strength disappears. While the main object of the sleeping potion was of course to put the drinker to sleep, it also sapped him of his strength. The sleeping effect of the potion is not mention the first time she changes water into wine, but the drinkers of the wine wake up the next morning without strength. The following passages contains the potion that drains a person of his strength;

Linais in ingen tri dabcha don uisqui iarsin, 7 cuirid bricht indtib, 7 nocho táinic for talmain fín rob fearr blas na brig dar leo inas.[100]

O roe rig in rig iarnabárach is amlaid ro bói, mar do beith i searggalar, 7 is amlaid rob hui cech oen archena ro caith in fín 7 in fheoil dolbthi draidechta ro ordaig Sín dochum na fledi sin, 7 atbert in rig:

A ingen, ro scáich mo nert,

Súail nach táinic mo tiuglecht, 7rl.[101]

The damsel then filled three casks with the water, and casts a spell into them; and it seemed to the king and his household that never came on earth wine of better taste or strength.[102]

When he rose on the morrow he was thus: as if he were in a decline, and so was every one else who had partaken of the wine and the fictitious magical flesh which Sín had arranged for that feast. And the king said:

O damsel, my strength has departed,

my final grave has almost come, etc.[103]

The enchanted water of the Boyne, which Sín has turned into wine, and the magical food have drained the king and the other partakers of the feast of their strength. The king feels so weak, that he can even feel that his death is coming closer.

Goire Conailll Chernaigh i Crúachain ocus Aided Ailella ocus Conaill Chernaig

In Goire Conailll Chernaigh i Crúachain ocus Aided Ailella ocus Conaill Chernaig (“The cherishing of Conall Cernach and The Deaths of Ailill and of Conall Cernach”) milk is mentioned at the end of the story.[104] It seems to give the drinker strength. The story leads up to how this object with magical powers came to be. Here we find the word as for milk. The story has been dated to the twelfth century by Thurneysen.[105]

It tells the story of Conall Cernach of Ulster, who is in a deadly feud against the men of Connaught. He has killed many Connaughtmen, including three sons of Ailill and Medb. After his foster brothers Conchobar and Cú Chulainn have been slain, a great sorrow, misery and leprosy falls upon him. Conall Cernach decides to go to the household of Ailill and Medb to be cherished and fed, because there is no strength left in him. He knows that his enmity towards them is great, but that he has to go. Ailill and Medb welcome him and a house is made ready for Conall. They give him food and drink for a full year, and every day Conall entertains the men of Connaught by telling them how he killed their sons, brothers and fathers.

In the meantime, Medb is jealous of her husband, because he also sees other women. She sets Conall as a watch on Ailill. One day Ailill is meeting a woman and both Medb and Conall see this. Conall throws his spear so that it goes through Ailill. When the men of Connaught realize what has happened they go after Conall. Conall is caught and his head is cut off. The head is carried to the west, but there is a prophecy about the head being taken south again:

Ata a tarngire do Ultaib a breth budhes aris 7 doicfa a nert cétna intib aris acht co n-ebat as as 7 is de sin ata: dith Ulad le dith Ulad.[106]

There is a prophecy for the men of Ulster that it shall be taken south again, and the same strength shall come to them again, if they drink milk out of it.[107]

Here it is the object the milk is drunk from, Conall’s head, which gives the drinker strength. However, since milk is specifically mentioned as the substance that has to be drunk from the head, I assume that it will also attribute to the strength gained from drinking. Milk only provides the drinker with strength if it is drunk from Conall’s head in this tale. Conall himself was in possession of great strength before he was killed, which explains why a person gains strength from drinking milk out of his severed head.

Altromh Tighi da Medar

The power of the milk in Altromh Tighi da Medar (“The Fosterage of the House of the two goblets”) is that one does not need to eat or drink anything else.[108] The first part of the tale is about the expulsion of Ealcmar from Brugh na Boinne by Áengus Og. The second part of the tale deals with Eithne daughter of Dichu. I will discuss the second part here, as it features milk with extraordinary powers. The term we find for milk in this story is bleaghan.

Áengus becomes the foster-father of two girls; Curcóg and Eithne. Finnbarr Meadha comes from a sidh to behold the two women.[109] He is made welcome and tells Áengus that he has come to see the women. The women are brought before him and when Finnbarr sees Eithne he insults her, calling her father a worthless steward and insulting the race she comes from. This angers Áengus greatly and he nearly kills Finnbarr. Finnbarr apologizes for his behaviour. They go into the hall together with the women to eat. They all enjoy the feast, except for Eithne. She refuses all the food that is brought to her and does not eat for seven days and seven nights.

Agus ssmuaíntighis Aengus an idhbfidh baínne na hUidhri 7 a bleaghan a meadair illealbach oir, .i. bo odhar do bi ag Aengus annsin 7 sotsuaithnidh soineamhnail nach roibhi a nErind a hinnamail na isin domhan uile ach aen bo eile. Gach uair fa ham caithme do cach do beírthi don ingín ín bo da bleaghan 7 is e a bainne fa biadh 7 fa deoch di. Bith a ngach raithe don bliaghain bith-bhlicht 7 bith blas-meala 7 mheisgi fhína ana bainne 7 sasadh saer-bidh.[110]

And Áengus bethought him would she drink the milk of the Dun Cow, milked into a beautiful gold goblet; that is, a dun cow belonging to Áengus then and so unique and remarkable that it’s like was not in Eire or in the world save one other. At every hour of the common meals the cow was brought to the maiden to be milked and that milk was her food and drink. It is in full milk every season of the year and it’s milk tastes of honey and intoxicating wine and the satisfaction of good food.[111]

Eithne asks where he found this cow. Áengus tells her that he once went on a journey with Manannán. They went to India where they found two cows; the dun cow and the speckled cow. After that Áengus tries to learn from the druids, seers and sages why Eithne will only drink the milk of the Dun Cow and does not want to eat anything else. However, he gets not answer from any of them. Manannán hears Eithne’s story and invites Curcóg and Eithne to find out why she will not eat. He calls Eithne aside and asks her why she eats no food. Eithne tells him that she only knows she cannot eat any earthly food after Finnbarr insulted her. She can only eat the milk of the dun cow and only if she milks the cow herself and drinks the milk from a golden goblet. Manannán tells her that he will prepare food for her that evening. He uses all his powers while he is preparing the food. However, when the food is brought into the hall Eithne again refuses to eat it. He asks her if she will drink the milk of his Speckled Cow. They give Eithne a golden goblet and she milks the Speckled Cow herself. Manannán explains to the people present why she does not eat. He thinks that all magic has left Eithne after she had been insulted and that an angel has come in its place. She worships neither wizardry nor devilry and that is why she will only drink the milk of a cow that comes from a righteous land. When the women return Áengus asks them if Eithne ate anything. Curcóg tells him what happened when they were with Manannán. After this Eithne stays at times with Áengus and at times with Manannán. In both houses she only drinks the milk of the Dun Cow and the Speckled Cow.

One day, when Eithne is looking for her clothes after she has been swimming, she comes across a church where a cleric lives. A conversation follows in which the cleric tells Eithne that Patrick is his lord. She stays with him and asks him to educate her in the Christian faith. The cleric catches a salmon for her, which they eat. Curcóg tells Áengus that they have lost Eithne and they at once go on a search for her. Eithne sees them, but does not wish to leave the cleric who prays for Patrick to come to them. Patrick and Áengus both arrive at the same time at the church and an argument about Eithne follows. Áengus loses the argument and he leaves feeling sad because he has to leave Eithne behind. Eithne hears the cries of her people and a terrible grief comes over her. She asks Patrick to baptize her, but grows worse after that and feels that her death is near. She dies and is burried at the church.

The special powers that this milk has, one who drinks it does not need any other food or drink and it has a special taste, can be attributed to the Dun Cow and the Speckled Cow. Eithne has to milk the cow herself and drink the milk from the golden goblet, otherwise it appears not to have any power since she clearly states that this is how she has to drink it. She also gives a reason why she can only drink the milk from the Dun Cow and the Speckled Cow; she has been insulted and thus can no longer eat earthly food. She has left the pagan beliefs behind and now worships the Christian God. That is why she can only drink the milk of the Dun Cow and Speckled Cow, because they come from a righteous land. Besides the cows coming from a Christian land, the cows are female. Perhaps this is another reason why she can only drink their milk, because she has been insulted by a man and now can only eat the food of a female animal. The milk is pure, unlike the food prepared by men. However, once she is with the cleric she does eat the salmon he has caught for her. This probably is because it is his share of provision from the Lord. Since the food comes from God it must be pure, and thus she is able to eat it.

Betha Brigte

A different kind of potion not seen thusfar, a love potion, is found in Betha Brigte, which has been partly discussed above.

Araili fer robhai I cill Lassaire, 7 robui a ben occá fhacbhail, 7 nís-geibheadh cuit na codlad imailli fris, cu tainic co Brigit do chuinghidh eptha cu rocharadh a bhen he. Robennach Brigit usqui dhó 7 is ed atbert: ‘Tabair in t-uisci-sin tar in tech 7 tar bhiadh 7 tar digh dhuibh fein 7 tar an leapuid a n-écmais na mna.’ O doríne amhlaid dorat in ben shreic ndímhoir dosom conná faghbhadh bheith ‘na ecmais cidh il-leth in tigi fris, acht for a leathlaim eiccin.[112]

There was a certain man biding in Lassair’s church, and his wife was leaving him and would not take bit nor sleep along with him; so he came to Brigit to ask for a spell to make his wife love him. Brigit blessed water for him and said: ‘Put that water over the house, and over the food, and over the drink of yourselves, and over the bed in the wife’s absence.’ When he had done thus, the wife gave exceeding great love to him, so that she could not keep apart from him, even on one side of the house; but she was always at one of his hands.[113]

Although the it is water, and not a specially brewed potion, it becomes a love potion after Brigit has blessed the water. Although there is only one example of a love potion in these tales, it appears in many medieval European tales. The most well known tale of these is ‘Tristan and Isolde’.[114] In this story, Tristan and Isolde ingest a love potion. Isolde is married, and Tristan and Isolde commit adultery. Eventually, the potion wears off and they can decide if they want to continue their relationship or end it. In Betha Brigte the love potion prevents the woman from committing adultery, because she no longer loves her husband, while in ‘Tristan and Isolde’ adultery is committed because of the love potion.

Chapter 6:

The power of the potion-giver

In the lives of Saints the power of the potion-giver is obvious. The saint has healing powers and can perform miracles. It does not matter whether the Saint is a man or a woman, their powers are the same. However, in saga literature it is most commonly a woman who administers the potion and this gives her power. I wish to take a closer look at these women.

First let us look at the stories in which a real potion is given. In these stories potions are usually given by women to obtain what they desire. This can either be a husband, revenge or healing.

The two sisters Finscoth and Aeb in Eachtra Airt Meic Cuind ocus tochmarc Delbchaime ingine Morgan hold a cup of wine and poison in their hands. They symbolize the choice between life and death. Art has been instructed which cup to take, the one on the right if he is in need.[115] They have power in a way, as they give the drinker the choice between life and death.

Gráinne uses a sleeping potion in Tóruigheacht Dhiarmuda agus Ghráinne, because she wishes to marry a young warrior instead of an old man. She gets what she desires, after giving almost everyone a sleeping potion and putting bonds of danger and destruction on Diarmuid. She certainly has a lot of power over Diarmuid, who leaves the court with her and marries her. She leaves him no choice because of her actions.

A woman who also has power over her husband is Sín in Aided Muirchertaig Meic Erca. Sín’s reason for using a potion is not to get a husband, but to get revenge. She gives him a sleeping potion, that also saps Muirchertach of his strength. In the end, she is the reason for his death. She exercises power over him by keeping him weak and tired, so that she can get her revenge.

In Tochmarc Emire the reason for giving a potion is less selfish than in the previous two stories and the woman does not have complete power over Cú Chulainn. Scathach gives a sleeping potion to Cú Chulainn to keep him safe from harm. However, the potion does not work and he wakes up after only one hour of sleep and goes to the battle. Scathach is a powerful woman in her own right, being the leader of a tribe, but she does not hold power over Cú Chulainn.

Another woman who has power over Cú Chulainn is the Mórrigán in the Táin Bó Cúailnge. His life is in her hands, because she has the power to cure him with the milk of the cow.

Now let us look at the women in the stories in which no real potion is given, or in which the potion is given by a man. Even in these stories the women are powerful and play an important role.

No potion is given in Togail Bruidne Da Derga, but women and the liquid motif do play an important role. Máire Bhreathnach notes that in death tales like Togail Bruidne Da Derga the woman may be compared with the Sovereignty goddess, but her role seems to be that of a death goddess provoking the downfall and death of an unjust king.[116] In Togail Bruidne Da Derga druids inflict great thirst on king Conaire. However, all the water has been used to fight the fires. One of Conaire’s servants has to find water for the king, but by the time he has found water it is too late. Bhreathnach compares Conaire’s cup to the Sovereignty Goddess.[117] As Bhreathnach says, ‘So we see that the golden goblet full of liquid at the king’s accession and the synonymous with the Sovereignty Goddess is, for Conaire Mór, the unjust king, completely empty and impossible to refill. The Goddess of Sovereignty has withdrawn her bounteous favour.’[118]

In the Aided Finn mac Cumaill it at first appears that Finn will meet his death after drinking poison out of a horn. There is no man or woman in this story who gives a potion, but it is prophesized by his wife Smirgat that he will die when he drinks poison out of a horn. When he wants to drink water out of a spring in a place called the Horns of Iuchba, it is again a woman who warns him of the prophecy. Even though they do not give the potion, the women still are important to the story.

Neither of the two women in Serglige Con Culainn give a potion. The druids are the ones dispensing potion. A potion is given to Cú Chulainn to cure him of his madness and a potion is given to Emer to cure her of her jealousy. Cú Chulainn goes mad because a woman, Fand, has left him. She is the reason for his madness.

Another story in which a potion is given by a druid is Tochmarc Ailbe. Ailbe wishes to know who her husband will be, and the druid gives her a sleeping potion which causes her to see a vision in her sleep. In both of these tales the druids help the main characters.

Two stories remain in which a woman gives, or takes a potions, but does not have any power over the men in the story. On the contrary, it appears to be the men who have power over the women. The first of these is Suibhne Geilt, in which a woman gives Suibhne milk. However, she does this because Moling ordered her to do so. Yet in the end, it is still a woman who gives the milk to Suibhne. The second story is Altromh Tighi da Medar, in which Eithne has been insulted by a man. After this, she can eat no earthly food. She is given a cow from a righteous land, and can only drink its milk. The man has power over her, because his insult effects her in such a way that she can no longer eat. She can only eat the milk of a female cow.

Chapter 7:

Conclusion

The most common potions are poisons, sleeping potions and healing potions. Healing potions can be divided in potions that cure a person of a physical disease and potions that cure a person of a mental disease. There are several potions that do not fit in these three categories, these potions are ‘the milk of death’, milk that gives strength, milk that is both food and drink, a potion that saps strength and a love potion.

What at first appears to be poison often turns out to be not even an actual potion. The term ‘drink of death’ is used in the sense of a violent death and the drink that is referred to is blood. This is the case in Togail Bruidne Da Derga. Here the ‘drink of death’ appears as a description of weapons and an arm, who will both deal drinks of death. In Aided Conchobuir there is also no real poison. It again refers to a violent death as Conchobar dies after a stone has been thrown at his head. Another violent death is that of Finn in Aided Finn mac Cumaill. He dies after drinking water in a place where it is forbidden for him to do so. Here the poison mentioned is also not a real potion. However, there are also stories in which real poison is given. In Eachtra Airt Meic Cuind ocus tochmarc Delbchaime ingine Morgan for example, two women hold a cup with poison and a cup with wine.

Sleeping potions are administered for several reasons; to marry a younger man, revenge and to keep the drinker safe. They are always given by a woman, except in Tochmarc Ailbe, where a sleeping potion is given to Ailbe by a druid. Sín’s potion in Aided Muirchertaigh meic Erca and the druid’s potion in Tochmarc Ailbe have both been created by casting a spell on the potion. This is interesting, as both these potions are not regular sleeping potions. Sín’s potion has the additional effect of draining a person’s strength, and the druid’s potion also gives the drinker a vision in her sleep. It appears that potions created by casting a spell on them have additional powers.

Milk is the substance that is the most often used as a healing potion, although other uses for it are found. In the Táin Bó Cúailnge the Mórrígan gives Cú Chulainn the milk of a cow with three teats. Every time he cures him a little, he cures her in return. Tuirill is given a potion by his mother’s father in Imthechta Tuirill 7 a Mac. He is cured in an unusual way, as he has to spit the potion out again to be cured. In the three Saint’s lives the saints cure ailments by performing miracles. In Betha Senán a person can be cured in the lime kiln where Senán’s favorite church used to stand. If a stone is taken from the kiln, heated and put into a drink it will cure everyone. Then there is the healing milk of the wounded animal a woman left in the kiln to be cured. Several potions are given in Betha Brigte. She heals her nurse by giving her water she has blessed and a nun of her household by given her water that she has turned into milk. At the end of the story, men are saved from poisoning after praying to Brigit. Patrick performs his first healing miracle while he is still in the womb in Betha Patraic when he cures his mother of poisoning. The other two healing miracles involving a potion both take place in his childhood. First he turns water into honey with healing power and second he helps to cure a boy with milk. In Suibhne Geilt and Serglige Con Culainn, Suibhne and Cú Chulainn are both cured of a mental disease. Although Suibhne is not completely cured by the milk given to him, it does make him more sane. Cú Chulainn, however, is completely cured of his madness after druids give him a potion of forgetfulness.

Finally, there are the potions that do not fit in the other three categories. The first of these is comparable to the drink of dead. In Amrae Con Roi the loyal warriors drink ‘milk of death’ with their leader. This close group of warriors is willing to die for their lord in a battle. The sleeping potion made by Sín in Aided Muirchertaigh meic Erca has another function, it also saps the drinker of his strength. This way, her husband Muirchertaig is not able to defend himself and dies. In Goire Conailll Chernaigh i Crúachain ocus Aided Ailella ocus Conaill Chernaig milk has drunk from Conall’s severed head gives the drinker power. This probably is because Conall himself was a powerful warrior. Eithne drinks milk in Altromh Tighi da Medar that is both her food and drink. The reason why she drinks this is that she has been insulted by a man and can no longer eat earthly food, but only the food of the Dun Cow and Speckled Cow who come from a righteous land. This we also find in Betha Brigte. Brigit can only eat the milk of a cow with red ears, because all other food is unclean. Besides the healing potions, there is also a love potion in Betha Brigte. This is given to a woman who wants to leave her husband.

In some cases the way a potion is drunk attributes to its powers. In Suibhne Geilt the milk has to be drunk from a hole in the dung made by a woman. In Beha Senán a potion has to be made at the place where the church used to stand in order for it to have healing powers. Sometimes it has to be drunk from a certain object, for example Conall’s head in Goire Conailll Chernaigh i Crúachain ocus Aided Ailella ocus Conaill Chernaig. It is not always clear how a potion is made. In some cases, a potion becomes extraordinary after a spell has been cast on it or after it has been blessed by a saint.

In most cases the potion giver is a woman in saga literature. This gives these woman power over the men to whom they give the potions. Even when they do not give the potion, women still play an important role. In Aided Finn mac Cumaill for example, it is a woman, his wife, who prophesizes that he will die if he drinks poison from a horn.

The potion giver is usually a woman, which gives her power over the men to whom the potion is given. The most common substance of a healing potion is milk, which usually has healing powers in both saga literature and the lives of saints. This can be explained by the fact that milk was known to have healing qualities in the Middle Ages.[119] Lemnacht (“new milk”) is the most common term used for milk in these stories, followed by bainne. I think the term lemnacht can be associated with a new life. This does not necessarily have to mean a resurrection like in Betha Patraic. The other two stories in which we find lemnacht are Suibhne Geilt and Betha Brigte. Suibne’s life changes from the moment he starts drinking the new milk. He remains a madman, but he no longer lives as isolated from humans as before. Brigit gives a nun another chance at life, because she cures her from her illness by giving her new milk. Milk is always given by women. In the Saint’s lives where the saint is a man healing milk is also administered, but it is never given by the saint himself. In Betha Senán the milk comes from an animal which has been left in the lime-kiln and in Betha Patraic milk is used during a healing ritual, but given not given by Patrick himself. The milk is given to Patrick by his foster-mother, who tells him that he and the dead child he has to save both have to drink it. It is likely that the milk is only given by women, because they themselves can produce milk.

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[1] Potions include drinks made by people, but also several kinds of milk. The potions all have extraordinary powers, usually because some form of enchantment has been put on them. There are also regular potions, whithout special powers, which symbolize something extraordinary. An example of this is the mead in Baile in Scaíl. I will not discuss these potions in this thesis, but only the potions which have extraordinary powers or which have been enchanted. Kevin Murray, Baile in Scaíl (London 2004).

[2] Patrick K. Ford (ed.), The Mabinogi and other medieval Welsh tales (Berkeley 1977). For Welsh text see: Patrick K. Ford (ed.), ‘A fragment of the Hanes Taliesin’, Études Celtiques 14 (1975) 451-460.

[3] Cecile O’Rahilly (ed.), Táin Bó Cúailnge, Recension I (Dublin 1976) 180. There are two versions of the Táin bó Cúailnge. Version two can be found in; Cecile O’Rahilly (ed.), Táin bó Cúailnge from the Book of Leinster (Dublin 1967).

[4] Nikolaeva, ‘The Drink of Death’, 300.

[5] Ibid., 305.

[6] Fergus Kelly, Early Irish Farming (Dublin 1998) 310-311.

[7] Winifred Wulf, Rosa Anglica (London 1929).

[8] Jeffrey Gantz (ed.), Early Irish Myths and Sagas ([pic]Harmondsworth 1981). For the Irish text, see Eleanor Knott, Togail Bruidne da Derga (Dublin 1963).

[9] Rudolf Thurneysen, Die irische Helden- und Köningsage bis zum siebzehnten Jahrhundert (Halle 1921) 627.

[10] Knott, Togail Bruidne da Derga, 29.

[11] Nikolaeva, ‘The drink of Death’ 299.

[12] Knott, Togail Bruidne, 37-38.

[13] Nikolaeva, ‘The drink of Death’ 299.

[14] Knott, Togail Bruidne, 46.

[15] Nikolaeva, ‘The drink of Death’ 299.

[16] All four versions can be found in; Kuno Meyer, The death-tales of the Ulster heroes (London 1906) 2-21. All four versions of Aided Conchobuir can be found in this edition.

[17] Meyer, The death tales, 18.

[18] Meyer, The death tales, 19.

[19] Kuno Meyer (ed.), ‘The death of Finn mac Cumaill’, Zeitschrift für Celtische Philologie 1 (1897) 462-465.

[20] Meyer, ‘The death of Finn mac Cumaill’, 464.

[21] Ibid., 465.

[22] Ibid., 463.

[23] R. I. Best, ‘The adventures of Art son of Conn, and the courtship of Delbchæm’, Ériu 3 (1976) 149-173.

[24] Ibid., 166.

[25] Best, ‘The adventures’, 167.

[26] Nessa Ní Shéaghdha, Tóruigheacht Dhiarmada agus Ghráinne (Dublin 1967).

[27] Ibid., xiv.

[28] Ibid., 8, 10.

[29] Ibid., 9, 11.

[30] Putting Diarmuid under bonds of strife and destructions means that Gráinne puts him under gaesa. T. M. Charles-Edwards, ‘Geis, prophecy, omen and oath’, Celtica 23 (1999) 38-59: 58.

[31] Kuno Meyer, ‘Tochmarc Emire’, Revue Celtique 11 (1890) 433-457.

[32] Meyer, ‘Tochmarc Emire’, 439.

[33] Ibid., 448, 450.

[34] Ibid., 449, 451.

[35] O’Rahilly, Táin Bó Cúailnge, Recension I, 138-139.

[36] Whitley Stokes, ‘The Death of Muirchertach mac Erca’, Revue Celtique 23 (1902) 395-437. For a more recent edition of the Irish text see; Lil Nic Dhonnchadha, Aided Muirchertaig Meic Erca (Dublin 1964).

[37] Ibid., 420, 422.

[38] Stokes, ‘The death’, 421, 423.

[39] Rudolf Thurneysen, ‘Tochmarc Ailbe ‘Das werben um Ailbe’’, Zeitschrift für Celtische Philologie 13 (1921) 251-282: 253.

[40] Ibid., 251-282.

[41] Thurneysen, ‘Tochmarc Ailbe’, 256.

[42] Ibid., 257.

[43] Fergus Kelly, Early Irish Farming (Dublin 1998) 52, 324-330.

[44] Winifred Wulf (ed.), Rosa Anglica (London 1929). John of Gadesden, or Johannes Anglicus, was a physician of great repute during the Middle Ages.

[45] Ibid., 93, 223, 95.

[46] Natalia Nikolaeva, ‘The Drink of Death’, Studia Celtica 35 (2001) 299-306: 303.

[47] Whitley Stokes (ed.), Three Irish Glossaries (London 1862) 105.

[48] Nikolaeva, ‘The Drink of Death’, 303.

[49] O’Rahilly, Táin Bó Cúailnge,

[50] Thurneysen, Heldensagen, 112. Recension I can be found in three manuscripts; the Yellow Book of Lecan, Lebor an h-Uidre and Egerton 1782. The oldest version of Recension II can be found in the Book of Leinster. Recension II is longer than Recension I, even though many parts have been omitted. Several episodes are told more fully in Recension II.

[51] An interesting fact is that whenever Cú Chulainn is losing the fight, someone insults him after which he manages to stand up fight his opponent.

[52] O’Rahilly, Táin bó Cúailnge, 62-63.

[53] O’Rahilly, Táin bó Cúailnge, 181-182.

[54] Rudolf Thurneysen, ‘Tuirill Bicrenn und seine Kinder’, Zeitschrift fúr Celtische Philologie 12 (1918) 239-250. Both the prose version and the poem can be foun in this article.

[55] Ibid., 243.

[56] It is not clear what illness Tuirill is suffering from, as the prose version of this story starts rather abruptly. In the poem Tuirill is not cured after he has been given a drink, but after spells have been put on him. The spells have the same effect as the drink; they make him vomit.

[57] Dían Cécht appears a physician, in Cath Maige Tuired (“The Second Battle of Mag Tuired”). He is a healer, which explains why he is capable of curing Tuirill. Elizabeth A. Gray (ed), Cath Maige Tuired: The Second Battle of Mag Tuired (Kildare 1982).

[58] Thurneysen, ‘Tuirill Bicrenn’, 244-245.

[59] Ibid., 247-248.

[60] Charles Plummer, ‘The Mircales of Senan’, Zeitschrift fúr Celtische Philologie 10 (1915) 1-35.

[61] James F. Kenney, The sources for the early history of Ireland: an introduction and guide (Dublin 1979) 365.

[62] Plummer, ‘The Miracles of Senan’, 16.

[63] Plummer, ‘The Miracles of Senan’, 17.

[64] Ibid., 16.

[65] Ibid., 17.

[66] Whitley Stokes (ed.), Lives of Saints from the Book of Lismore (Oxford 1890).

[67] Kenney, The Sources, 356-357.

[68] Besides healing potions, there are also wells with healing powers. Examples of this can be found too in other literature, for example in[69]()Y„?¾ÕÚÞêë - > F f m Œ ‘ ± ´ Ô

-2RVXYjüïßÖÎÇÀǸ­¸¢¸š¸’¸’¸Š¸‚¸‚¸z¸z¸zo­oahwB6?B*[pic]mH phsH h®ihwBmH sH

hÛH½mH sH

hÙhjühwB ‘The Second Battle of Moytura’. In this story Dian-cecht appears again, but this time with his two sons, Octriuil and Miach, and his daughter Airmed. Together they sing spells over a well. The mortally wounded are cast into this well and are whole again when they come out of it. Whitley Stokes (ed.), ‘The Second Battle of Moytura’, Revue Celtique 12 (1891) 52-130, 306-308. Another example of a healing well can be found in the Rennes Dindsenchas. Again it is Diancecht who gives the well healing powers. It is also an account of the battle of Moytura, but this time he throws herbs of healing into the well. Whitley Stokes (ed.), ‘The Rennes Dinsenchas’, Revue Celtique 16 (1895) 31-83.

[70] Stokes, The Lives of Saints, 37.

[71] Ibid., 185.

[72] Ibid., 41.

[73] Stokes, The Lives of Saints, 189.

[74] Ibid., 42.

[75] Ibid., 190.

[76] Ibid., 51.

[77] Stokes, The Lives of Saints, 198.

[78] Ibid.

[79] Kenney, The sources, 324-325.

[80] Stokes, The Lives of Saints, 2.

[81] Ibid., 150.

[82] Ibid., 4.

[83] Ibid., 152.

[84] Stokes, The Lives of Saints, 4.

[85] Ibid., 152.

[86] J. G. O’Keeffe, The adventures of Suibhne Geilt (London 1913).

[87] Ibid., xvi. However, there are much earlier indications of a tradition surrounding Suibhne.

[88] O’Keeffe, The adventures, 142.

[89] Ibid., 143.

[90] Myles Dillon (ed.), ‘The wasting sickness of Cú Chulainn’ Scottish Gaelic Studies 7 (1953) 47-88.

[91] Myles Dillon (ed.), Serglige Con Culainn (Dublin 1953) xvi.

[92] Both Eithne and Emer appear in Serglige Con Culainn as Cú Chulainn’s wife.

[93] Dillon, ‘The wasting sickness of Cú Chulainn’, 29.

[94] Ibid., 75.

[95] Stokes, ‘The death’, 408-411.

[96] Patrick-L. Henry, ‘Amra Con Roi (ACR): discussion, edition, translation’, Etudes Celtiques 31 (1995) 179-194.

[97] Ibid., 182.

[98] Ibid., 188.

[99] Ibid., 193.

[100] Ibid., 193. The comitatus was a close group of warriors around a leader.

[101] Stokes, ‘The death’ 408.

[102] Ibid., 410.

[103] Ibid., 409.

[104] Ibid., 411.

[105] Kuno Meyer, ‘Goire Conaill Chernaig i Crúachain ocus Aided Ailella ocus Conaill Chernaig’, Zeitschrift fúr Celtische Philologie 1 (1897) 102-111.

[106] Thurneysen, Heldensagen, 579.

[107] Ibid., 105-106.

[108] Ibid., 109.

[109] M. E. Dobbs, ‘Altromh Tighi da Medar’, Zeitschrift fúr Celtische Philologie 18 (1930) 189-230.

[110] Supernatural dwelling.

[111] Dobbs, ‘Altromh Tighi da Medar’, 206, 208.

[112] Ibid., 207, 209.

[113] Stokes, Lives of Saints, 44.

[114] Ibid., 192.

[115] Béroul, Tristan et Yseut (Greifswald 1994). Thomas d’Angleterre, Tristan et Yseut (Greifswald 1994).

[116] It is logical that he is advised to take the right cup, because left is hardly ever good in literature. It makes sense that the sisters hold the cup with poison in their right hands.

[117] Máire Bhreathnach, ‘The Sovereignty Goddess as Goddess of Death?’ Zeitschrift für Keltische Philologie 39 (1982) 243-260: 244-245.

[118] Ibid., 257.

[119] Ibid., 258.

[120] Wulf, Rosa Anglica, 93, 223.

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