Learn Math By Ashwani Gupta



Class X Notes Life Process

1. Nutrition: The process of nourishing or being nourished, especially the process by which a living organism assimilates food and uses it for growth and for replacement of tissues. In other words, the science or study that deals with food and nourishment, especially in humans.

2. Respiration: The oxidative process occurring within living cells by which the chemical energy of organic molecules is released in a series of metabolic steps involving the consumption of oxygen and the liberation of carbon dioxide and water.

3. Excretion: Excretion is a biological process by which metabolic waste products and toxic materials are removed from the body of an organism. Its an essential part in life, c0z it gets rid of all the poisons and etc

Difference between living things and non living things:

|Living things |Non-living things |

|Living things are made up of the living material or the protoplasm. |Non-living things are made up of dead material |

|Living things can respire |Non-living things cannot respire |

|Living things can reproduce |Non-living things cannot reproduce. |

|Living things can move or locomotive |Non-living things are motionless |

|Moreover, living things show all of the features of life like taking |Non-living things cannot even response to the changes around them. |

|in food, excretion, sensing etc | |

|They have a definite life span |There is no definite life span. |

4. Modes of nutrition:

1. Autotrophic mode of nutrition: When any organism prepare its own food by the help of naturally present elements and taking energy from sun light is called autotrophs and the phenomena is called autotrophic mode of nutrition. Examples are plants.

2. Heterotrophic mode of nutrition: Heterotrophs are organisms that derive their energy from ingested organic molecules

They are divided into three types:

i) Holozoic nutrition: Holozoic nutrition is that found among the higher animals. It can be broken down into:

• ingestion (taking into the body via the mouth)

• digestion (mechanical and enzymatic breakdown)

• absorption (in the small intestine)

• assimilation (use of the products of digestion within the body)

• egestion (defecation of unused components of the food)

ii) Saprobiontic nutrition: Saprobionts (saprotrophs) are decomposers. They get their food by digesting dead and decaying organisms.  Digestion is by the release of extracellular enzymes on to the dead matter and absorption of the soluble products of enzymatic digestion. This lifestyle is typical of fungi and bacteria.

iii) Parasitic nutrition: parasitic are organisms that have to live (for at least some of their life cycle) in close association with another host species.

Parasites can live:

• on outside of the host - ectoparasites

• within the host - endoparasites

➢ Parasites derive their food from their host

➢ Parasites usually harm the host

➢ Parasites are usually very highly adapted for their lifestyle

5. Nutrition in plants:

[pic]

6. Photosynthesis: Animals inhale oxygen and exhale carbon dioxide. Green plants are the only plants that produce oxygen and make food, which is called photosynthesis. Photosynthesis means ''putting together with light.''

This takes place in chloroplasts, which have chlorophyll in them. Chlorophyll absorbs the sunlight. From sunlight, green plants combine carbon dioxide and water to make sugar and oxygen. Green plants use sugar to make starch, fats, and proteins. There are tiny pores called stomata. Oxygen and carbon dioxide enter and leave through the stomata.

6CO2 + 6H2O (+ light energy) [pic]C6H12O6 + 6O2

7. Photosynthesis pigments: Pigments are chemical compounds which reflect only certain wavelengths of visible light. This makes them appear "colorful". Flowers, corals, and even animal skin contain pigments which give them their colors. More important than their reflection of light is the ability of pigments to absorb certain wavelengths.

8. Site of photosynthesis: Photosynthesis occurs only in the green parts of the plant. For efficient photosynthesis the leaf should be thin and have a large surface area. This helps in absorption of light and gaseous diffusion, and a means of preventing excessive water loss through stomata and epidermis. Large numbers of chloroplasts in palisade mesophyll cells provide the main photosynthetic tissue. The spaces between the irregularly shaped spongy mesophyll cells within leaf permit free diffusion of gases. Turgot changes into guard cells permit gaseous exchange with the atmosphere. Cuticle on the single layered transparent upper and lower epidermis protects the leaf from desiccation and infection.

9. Chloroplast: Chloroplasts are the food producers of the cell. They are only found in plant cells and some protists. Animal cells do not have chloroplasts. Every green plant you see is working to convert the energy of the sun into sugars. Plants are the basis of all life on Earth. They create sugars, and the byproduct of that process is the oxygen that we breathe. That process happens in the chloroplast. Mitochondria work in the opposite direction and break down the sugars and nutrients that the cell receives.

10. Raw materials for photosynthesis: Raw materials used in photosynthesis are Carbon dioxide, sunlight, and water.

Mechanism of Photosynthesis:

The mechanism of photosynthesis involves two important reactions- the Light/Hill/Photochemical Reaction and the Dark/Biosynthetic Reaction. This topic explains the photolysis of water, photophosphorylation, Calvin Cycle and Hatch & Slack Cycle.

a) Light-Dependent Reactions: The light-dependent reactions require light. These reactions occur in the thylakoid membrane. They produce ATP and NADPH, which are needed to produce glucose in the light-independent reactions (below).

6CO2 + 6H2O + Energy ® C6H12O6 + 6O2

[pic]

b) Light-Independent Reactions: Light-independent reactions occur in stroma of the chloroplast in light or dark conditions. They function to reduce CO2 to glucose.

11. Photo systems: The closely packed pigment molecules and the reaction center form a unit referred to as an antenna complex.

Photons of light that are picked up by any of the pigment molecules in the antenna pass their energy to nearby pigment molecules until it is eventually passed to a special molecule of chlorophyll a called the reaction center.

The reaction center molecule becomes ionized and it loses its electron to an electron acceptor. This electron will need to be replaced. The antenna, the reaction center, and the electron transport molecules make up a photosystem

13. Factors affecting Photosynthesis:

(a) Light: It is affected by intensity, quality and duration of light. Rate of photosynthesis increases with the increase in light intensity until it reaches the point of saturation where photosynthesis becomes stationary.

(b) Carbon dioxide: Percentage of CO2 in photosynthesis is 0.03% which is another limiting factor for photosynthesis. An increase in CO2 concentration increases photosynthesis and its increase to about 1% is advantageous to man but above this it has an inhibitory effect on photosynthesis.

(c) Temperature: In presence of plenty of light and CO2 photosynthesis increase with an increase in temperature.

(d) Water: It is one of the essential raw materials required for photosynthesis. It provides hydrogen and plays a significant role in opening and closing of stomata. A decrease in water content decreases photosynthesis due to closing of stomata and dehydration of protoplasm.

14. Nutrition in animals: The nutritional requirements of most animals are relatively extensive and complex compared with the simple requirements of plants. The nutrients used by animals include carbohydrates, lipids, nucleic acids, proteins, minerals, and vitamins.

15. Nutrition in amoeba: Nutrition in amoeba is Holozoic. Thus, solid food particles are ingested which are then acted upon by enzymes and digested. It is an omnivore, feeding on both plants and animals. Its diet includes bacteria, microscopic plants like the diatoms, minute algae, and microscopic animals like other protozoa, nematodes and even dead organic matter.

Since it is a unicellular organism, amoeba does not have any specialized structure or organ for the process of nutrition. It takes place through the general body surface with the help of pseudopodia.

16. Mechanism of Nutrition:

1. Ingestion: The food is ingested at the point where it comes in touch with the cell surface with the help of pseudopodia. Pseudopodia engulf the food into the cytoplasm. The process of ingestion takes about two minutes.

2. Digestion: Digestion in amoeba is intracellular taking place within the cell. The food taken in remains in a food vacuole or gastric vacuole formed by the cell membrane and small part of the cytoplasm. The vacuoles are transported deeper into the cells by cytoplasmic movements. Here they fuse with lysosomes that contain enzymes. Two enzymes amylase and proteinase have been reported. Thus, amoeba can digest sugars, cellulose and proteins. Fats, however, remain undigested.

The contents of the vacuole become lighter and the outline of the vacuole becomes indefinite indicating that the digestion is complete.

3. Absorption: Since the food on digestion is converted into liquid diffusible form, it is readily absorbed by the cytoplasm. The vacuole becomes progressively smaller as the food is absorbed by diffusion.

4. Assimilation: All the parts of the cell get the nutrients by the cyclic movement of the cytoplasm called the cyclosis. These nutrients are used to build new protoplasm. In this manner the food is assimilated.

5. Egestion: The egestion takes place by exocytosis. There is no particular point from which the egestion takes place. As the amoeba moves forward, the undigested matter is shifted to the back and eliminated as food pellets through a temporary opening formed at any nearest point on the plasmalemma.

17. Nutrition in human beings:

Human digestive system: The human digestive system is a complex series of organs and glands that processes food. In order to use the food we eat, our body has to break the food down into smaller molecules that it can process; it also has to excrete waste.

Most of the digestive organs (like the stomach and intestines) are tube-like and contain the food as it makes its way through the body. The digestive system is essentially a long, twisting tube that runs from the mouth to the anus, plus a few other organs (like the liver and pancreas) that produce or store digestive chemicals.

18. The Digestive Process:

1. The start of the process - the mouth: The digestive process begins in the mouth. Food is partly broken down by the process of chewing and by the chemical action of salivary enzymes (these enzymes are produced by the salivary glands and break down starches into smaller molecules).

2. On the way to the stomach: the esophagus - After being chewed and swallowed, the food enters the

esophagus. The esophagus is a long tube that runs from the mouth to the stomach. It uses rhythmic, wave-like muscle movements (called peristalsis) to force food from the throat into the stomach. This muscle movement gives us the ability to eat or drink even when we're upside-down.

3. In the stomach - The stomach is a large, sack-like organ that churns the food and bathes it in a very strong acid (gastric acid). Food in the stomach that is partly digested and mixed with stomach acids is called chyme.

4. In the small intestine - After being in the stomach, food enters the duodenum, the first part of the small intestine. It then enters the jejunum and then the ileum (the final part of the small intestine). In the small intestine, bile (produced in the liver and stored in the gall bladder), pancreatic enzymes, and other digestive enzymes produced by the inner wall of the small intestine help in the breakdown of food.

5. In the large intestine - After passing through the small intestine, food passes into the large intestine. In the large intestine, some of the water and electrolytes (chemicals like sodium) are removed from the food. Many microbes (bacteria like Bacteroides, Lactobacillus acidophilus, Escherichia coli, and Klebsiella) in the large intestine help in the digestion process. The first part of the large intestine is called the cecum (the appendix is connected to the cecum). Food then travels upward in the ascending colon. The food travels across the abdomen in the transverse colon, goes back down the other side of the body in the descending colon, and then through the sigmoid colon.

19. The end of the process - Solid waste is then stored in the rectum until it is excreted via the anus.

20. Cellular Respiration: The series of metabolic processes by which living cells produce energy through the oxidation of organic substances. In other words, it is also known as 'oxidative metabolism', is one of the key ways a cell gains useful energy. It is the set of the metabolic reactions and processes that take place in organisms' cells to convert biochemical energy from nutrients into adenosine triphosphate (ATP), and then release waste products.

21. Types of cellular respiration:

|Aerobic respiration: |Anaerobic respiration: |

|1. Occurs in presence of oxygen. |1. occurs in absence of oxygen |

|2. CO2 and water is produced |2. Lactic Acid or Alcohol is produced |

|3. lot of energy is liberated (38 ATP) |3. relatively small energy is liberated (2ATP) |

|4. occurs in plants' and animals' cells. |4. Occurs in many anaerobic bacteria and human muscle cells. |

|5. C6H12O6 --> CO2 + H2O + ATP ( Energy) |5. C6H12O6 --> Lactic acid / C2H5OH + ATP |

22. Respiratory system in human beings:

The human respiratory system is composed of the nasal passage, the pharynx, larynx, the trachea, bronchi and lungs. Respiration is the process of obtaining and using oxygen, while eliminating carbon dioxide.

Structure of the Human Respiratory System:

The respiratory system in human beings can be divided into the upper respiratory tract that consists of the nasal passages, pharynx and the larynx and the lower respiratory tract that is composed of the trachea, the primary bronchi and the lungs.

Nasal passages: Air entering from the nostrils is led to the nasal passages. The nasal cavity that is located behind the nose comprises the nasal passages that form an important part of the respiratory system in human beings. The nasal cavity is responsible for conditioning the air that is received by the nose. The process of conditioning involves warming or cooling the air received by the nose, removing dust particles from it and also moistening it, before it enters the pharynx.

Pharynx: It is located behind the nasal cavity and above the larynx. It is also a part of the digestive system of the human body. Food as well as air passes through the pharynx.

Larynx: It is associated with the production of sound. It consists of two pairs of membranes. Air causes the vocal cords to vibrate, thus producing sound. The larynx is situated in the neck of mammals and plays a vital role in the protection of the trachea.

Trachea: The term refers to the airway through which respiratory air travels. The rings of cartilage within its walls keep the trachea open.

Bronchi: The trachea divided into two main bronchi. The bronchi extend into the lungs spreading in a tree-like manner as bronchial tubes. The bronchial tubes subdivide and with each subdivision, their walls get thinner. This dividing of the bronchi into thin-walled tubes results in the formation of bronchioles. The bronchioles terminate in small air chambers, each of which contains cavities known as alveoli. Alveoli have thin walls, which form the respiratory surface. The exchange of gases between the blood and the air takes place through these walls.

Lungs: Lungs form the most vital component of the human respiratory system. They are located on the two sides of the heart. They are responsible for transporting oxygen from the atmosphere into blood and releasing carbon dioxide from blood to the atmosphere.

Mechanism of breathing: Inhalation and Exhalation.

Inhalation:

When we inhale,

- The External Intercostals’ Muscles present between the Ribs contract pulling the ribs, by which ribs make an angular movement, expanding the thoracic area.

- At the same time, the diaphragm present below the lungs also contract increasing the thoracic area.

As the thoracic area increases, the negative pressure between the pleural membranes force the lungs (which are elastic in nature) to expand. As a result, the air through the nasal cavity and bronchus (and bronchioles) gushes inside the lungs filling the alveoli with fresh air.

Fresh air (with oxygen) then diffuses into the blood vessels through the alveolar walls. At the same time carbon-di-oxide also diffuses from blood vessels into the alveoli.

All this happens within the time period between inhalation and exhalation

Exhalation:

When we exhale,

- The Diaphragm muscles are relaxed and diaphragm returns to its normal structure. This decreases the thoracic volume.

- The Internal Intercostals’ Muscles contract, making ribs to return back to there normal position. This also decreases the Thoracic volume.

As the thoracic volume decreases, the lungs are forced contracted. By this the air in alveoli are pushed outside through the bronchioles, bronchus and finally out by nasal cavity.

Functions of blood in blood circulation:

1. Circulates OXYGEN and removes Carbon Dioxide.

2. Provides cells with NUTRIENTS.

3. Removes the waste products of metabolism to the excretory organs for disposal.

4. Protects the body against disease and infection.

5. Clotting stops bleeding after injury .

6. Transports HORMONES to target cells and organs.

7. Helps regulate body temperature.

Function of blood in blood clotting: Blood is a connective tissue. It has protective functions.

1. It coagulates the blood usually referred to as blood clotting. It has Fibrinogen etc.

2. It has antibodies and antigens. They prevent entering of any other blood as its antibodies may cause damage to its body.

3. It has leucocytes also called White Blood Cells. They are the defense mechanism of body and does not allow any external microbe or anything to enter the body.

This way blood performs three protective functions.

Blood Vessels:

a) Arteries: Arteries are blood vessels that carry blood away from the heart. All arteries, with the exception of the pulmonary and umbilical arteries, carry oxygenated blood.

b) Veins: In the circulatory system, veins (from the Latin vena) are blood vessels that carry blood toward the heart. Most veins carry deoxygenated blood from the tissues back to the heart; exceptions are the pulmonary and umbilical veins, both of which carry oxygenated blood. They differ from arteries in structure and function; for example, arteries are more muscular than veins and they carry blood away from the heart.

c) Capillaries: Capillaries are the smallest of a body's blood vessels and are part of the microcirculation. They are only 1 cell thick. These micro vessels, measuring 5-10 μm in diameter, connect arterioles and venules, and enable the exchange of water, oxygen, carbon dioxide, and many other nutrient and waste chemical substances between blood and surrounding tissues.

Heart:

The human heart is a muscular, cone-shaped, hollow organ about the size of a fist (about 12cm in length and 9cm in breadth). The heart is situated behind the sternum, between the lungs in the thoracic cavity. The heart is tilted slightly such that its apex is towards the left side.

Structure of Heart:

Heart is made up of four chambers. The right atrium and ventricle help to circulate blood through the lungs. The left atrium and ventricle help to circulate blood to the rest of your body.

So the blood that’s on the right side of the heart is depleted of its oxygen and the blood that flows through the left side of your heart is oxygen-rich. The atria receive blood into the heart and the ventricles pump blood out of it. Between these four chambers there are valves. These valves help to keep blood flowing in the right direction. They also prevent it from slipping back to the wrong chamber when the heart is at rest. In a sense, they are one-way doors.

The cells of the heart are specialized and actually will beat on their own. To make sure that they all beat at the right time, the heart has a special area called a pacemaker. This is located in the right atrium of the heart and is called the SA node. It sends an electrical impulse to regulate your heartbeat.

The heart is the central organ of the circulatory system. The entire system works together to deliver oxygen and nutrients to the cells. At the same time it picks up wastes and carbon dioxide from the cells. In order to do this, blood vessels provide a transportation network for delivery.

The left ventricle empties blood out into the aorta – the strongest artery in the body. It carries the blood away from the heart and branches off into smaller arteries and eventually blood makes its way to the capillaries.

At the capillaries the blood makes its exchanges and then returns to the heart through the veins. The vena cava is the major vein that returns blood to the heart. There are also pulmonary arteries and veins that transport blood from the heart to the lungs and then back again.

The heart may seem like a simple structure, but it can actually be quite complicated because of its many structures and its essential functions. The heart is the most efficient pump on earth – no manmade structure can come close to its efficiency and longevity.

Function of the Heart: unction of the heart is to transport oxygen rich blood to the body and transport oxygen poor blood to the lungs from the body. Heart circulates the body's blood supply about 1000 times a day. The heart relies on gravity to pump the blood but it must also push the blood to the brain and other parts of the body.

Double Circulation: Each time a blood cell goes around your body, it goes through the heart twice, (double circulation).

WHY?

• the systemic circuit is the main circuit. It carries oxygenated blood around the body in the arteries, and deoxygenated blood back to the heart along the veins;

• the pulmonary circuit includes the heart and lungs. It carries deoxygenated blood from the heart to the lungs to be oxygenated.

Lymphatic System: At the capillary end of the arteries, the walls are only one-cell thick. The pressure in the arterial capillaries is also quite high. These leads the plasma to leak into the interstitial space. The interstitial space is the space between the cells of the tissue.

Lymph: Lymph is the interstitial fluid found between the cells of the human body. It enters the lymph vessels by filtration through pores in the walls of capillaries. The lymph then travels to at least one lymph node before emptying ultimately into the right or the left subclavian vein, where it mixes back with blood.

Lymph Capillaries: Lymph capillaries or lymphatic capillaries are tiny thin-walled vessels that are closed at one end and are located in the spaces between cells throughout the body, except in the central nervous system, and in non-vascular tissues.

Purpose of Lymph Capillaries: The main purpose of these vessels is to drain excess tissue fluids from around the cell ready to be filtered and returned to the venous circulation. This tissue fluid upon entering the lumen (elongated cavity of a tubular structure) is known as the lymph.

Lymph Vessels: Lymph vessels are thin walled, valved structures that carry lymph. Lymph vessels are complementary to the vascular system. Lymph vessels are lined by endothelial cells, and deep to that have a thin layer of smooth muscles, and adventitia that bind the lymph vessel to the surroundings.

Lymph Nodes (or glands): A lymph node is a small bean-shaped organ of the immune system, distributed widely throughout the body and linked by lymphatic vessels. Lymph nodes are found all through the body, and act as filters or traps for foreign particles. They contain white blood cells that use oxygen to process.

Main functions of Lymphatic System:

| |(a) "to collect and return interstitial fluid, including plasma protein to the blood, and thus help maintain fluid balance,  |

| |(b) to defend the body against disease by producing lymphocytes,  |

| |(c) to absorb lipids from the intestine and transport them to the blood."  |

Transportation in Plants:

Transportation of minerals: Minerals are absorbed from the soil along with water as they are dissolved in water. They are taken up in the ionic form.

Transport of food: Food is manufactured in the form of carbohydrates (sucrose) in the leaves. Thus, food is transported as sucrose along phloem. From the leaves the prepared food has to be transported to the roots, the younger top regions of the plant, the flowers and fruits. Thus, the food has to move in not only downward but also upward direction.

Ascent of Sap (Transport of water): Plants absorb water from the soil through the roots. Thus, water has to be transported upwards to the other parts of the plant. This upward movement of water is called ascent of sap. It is called the sap as it contains many dissolved minerals. Ascent of sap involves root pressure and transpiration pull.

Transportation in Human Beings:  The transport system in animals is called the circulatory system. The materials are transported from one part of the body to another by a mass flow system which is the circulatory system. The animals, particularly the more advanced forms, have a higher metabolic rate. This means that they require more nutrients and oxygen at a faster rate. They also produce more wastes that have to be removed from the cells in less time.

Transpiration:  Transpiration is the evaporation of water from the aerial parts of plants, especially leaves but also stems flowers and roots. Leaf surfaces are dotted with openings called stomata’s that are bordered by guard cells.

Excretion:

1. The act or process of discharging waste matter from the blood, tissues, or organs.

2. The matter, such as urine or sweat, that is so excreted.

Osmoregulation: means the maintenance of optimal osmotic pressure in the body

Importance of Excretion:

1) If metabolic waste is not removed from the body,it may become poisonous and kill living cells.

2) It maintains salt balance in the blood.

3) Keeps you from becoming fecal grenade.

Importance of Osmoregulation:

Osmoregulation is the regulation of water and ion concentrations in the body. Keeping this regulation precise is critical in maintaining life in a cell. Balance of water and ions is partly linked to excretion, the removal of metabolic wastes from the body.

Kidney: A Kidney function test is a collective term for a variety of individual tests and procedures that can be done to evaluate how well the kidneys are functioning.

Purpose of Kidneys: The kidneys, the body's natural filtration system, perform many vital functions, including removing metabolic waste products from the bloodstream, regulating the body's water balance, and maintaining the pH (acidity/alkalinity) of the body's fluids. Approximately one and a half quarts of blood per minute are circulated through the kidneys, where waste chemicals are filtered out and eliminated from the body (along with excess water) in the form of urine.

Major Functions of Kidneys: They kidneys have a couple of different functions. The main purpose of the kidney is to separate urea, mineral salts, toxins, and other waste products from the blood. The kidneys also conserve water, salts, and electrolytes. At least one kidney must function properly for life to be maintained.

Nephron: Nephron is the basic structural and functional unit of the kidney. Its chief function is to regulate the concentration of water and soluble substances like sodium salts by filtering the blood, reabsorbing what is needed and excreting the rest as urine. A nephron eliminates wastes from the body

Structure of nephron: Nephrons are renal or kidney tubules. Each kidney has over one million nephrons that are responsible for removing waste products from blood and maintaining water, salt and pH balance in the body. This vital job results in the formation of urine.

Function of nephron: Its chief function is to regulate water and soluble substances by filtering the blood, reabsorbing what is needed and excreting the rest as urine. Nephrons eliminate wastes from the body, regulate blood volume and pressure, control levels of electrolytes and metabolites, and regulate blood pH. Its functions are vital to life and are regulated by the endocrine system by hormones such as ant-diuretic hormone, aldosterone, and parathyroid hormone.

Excretion in Plants: In plants, breakdown of substances is much slower than in animals. Hence accumulation of waste is much slower and there are no special organs of excretion. Green plants in darkness or plants that do not contain chlorophyll produce carbon dioxide and water as respiratory waste products. Carbon dioxide released during respiration gets utilized during photosynthesis.

Oxygen itself can be thought of as a waste product generated during photosynthesis. Plants can get rid of excess water by transpiration.

Waste products may be stored in leaves that fall off. Other waste materials that are exuded by some plants — resins, saps, latexes, etc. are forced from the interior of the plant by hydrostatic pressures inside the plant and by absorptive forces of plant cells. Plants also excrete some waste substances into the soil around them.

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