Harpeth High School Health Science



TissuesA. Cells are the basic building blocks of our bodies (Multicellular organisms that carry –on sexual reproduction, are multi-cellular, their first cell is a zygote. The zygote develops into a multicellular organism by a process of cell division called Mitosis. Genetically identical somatic(body)bells undergo differentiation. The differentiations the development process that results in the formation of different specialized cell types. )B. Similar cells are organized into tissues that perform similar functionsC. A collection of tissues designed to perform similar or several functions is called an organ(Organ = Structure Made-up of 2 or more tissues) Ex. Heart is composed of epithelial, muscle, and connective tissue.)D. Organs that work together to perform major specific activities, often with the help of accessory structures, form what we call a systemTissue is formed when a collection of similar cells act together to perform a function* Imagine the cells as bricks; placing the bricks (cells) in a specific pattern creates the functional wall (or tissues) of a building.C. There are four basic tissue types1. Epithelial (epithelial cells), 2. Connective (Connective tissue cells), 3. Muscle (Muscle tissue cells), 4. Nervous (Nervous Tissue cells)D. Epithelial tissue1. Like plastic wrap, epithelial tissue covers and lines much of the body and covers many of the parts found in the body2. Cells are packed tightly together, forming a sheet that usually has no blood vessels (Non- vascular) in it3. Epithelial tissue is classified by its cell shape and arrangementa. Cell shapesi. Squamous – flat or scale-like cellsii. Cuboidal – cube shaped cellsiii. Columnar – column-like cellsb. Cell arrangementsi. Simple – a single layer of cellsii. Stratified – when cells are several layers deepiii. Pseudostratified – looks layered, but actually it is not.Based on cellular modifications (usually only present in columnar epithelial cells):Cilia- Fine motile hairs Microvilli (brush border) Finger- like extensions of the cell. Increase the surface area.. absorption)Mucus-secreting (goblet) columnar cells. 4. Membranes are sometimes made of epitheliuma. Membranes are sheet-like structures that perform special functionsi. Epithelial membranes possess a layer of epithelial tissue and a bottom layer of a specialized connectivetissueb. Types of epithelial membranesi. Cutaneous membranes- ? commonly known as the skin ? Functions like a tarp placed over a boatii. Serous membranes -A two-layered membrane with a potential space in between? Parietal layer - The layer that lines the walls of body cavities - Produces serous fluid, which reduces friction between different tissues? Visceral layer - The layer that wraps around individual organs - Also produces serous fluidiii. Mucous membranes ? Line openings to the outside world - Examples: digestive tract, respiratory system, urinary and reproductive tracts ? Contain specialized cells that produce mucus Epithelial tissue:1. Simple squamous epithelial a. makes up the alveoli (air sacs ) in the lungs b. makes up the lining of all blood vessels as well as the wall of the capillaries (endothelium) c. Makes up various membranes within the body. Ex. peritoneum (mesothelium)2. Simple Cuboidal Epithelium a. makes up the urinary tubules of the kidney, the liver , pancreas, thyroid, and other glands of the body. 3. Simple Columnar Ciliated Epithelium a. makes up the lining of the fallopian tubes(oviducts)4. Simple Columnar epithelium with goblet cells – makes up lining the stomach5. Simple columnar microvilli (brush border) Epithelium with goblet cells- makes up the lining of the intestine6. Pseudostratified Columnar – Ciliated Epithelium with goblet cells (Ciliated Mucus Membrane)- the nuclei appear at different levels because the columnar cells are not at the same height. Lines the respiratory tract.7. Transitional Epithelium- makes up the lining of the urinary bladder. This stratified tissue stretches as the bladder becomes filled with urine.8. Stratified Squamous Epithelium – Named by the appearance of the surface layer of cells. Located in areas of the body subject to abrasion. 2 sub-types: a. Non-Keratinizing Stratified Squamous Epithelium No dead layers of cells Lines the oral cavity, anal cavity, and vaginal cavity. b. Keratinizing Stratified Squamous Epithelium Dead layers of cells present Makes up the epidermis of the skin Connective tissue-. The most common of the tissues, found scattered throughout the body more than any other form. Found in organs, bones, nerves, muscles, membranes, and skin Holds things together and provides structure and support Can form fine, delicate webs or strong cordlike structures similar to wire cables Examples of connective tissues (. Ligaments and tendons, bones and cartilage, Adipose tissue (fat) Blood and lymph . Connective tissue membranes – synovial membranes. These important membranes are found in the space between bones of a joint. They produce a slippery substance called synovial fluid. Synovial fluid greatly reduces friction when joints move. Connective General Characteristics: Embryologic origin (develops in the mesoderm) Connective tissues consist of cells and intracellular matter secreted by cells. Connective tissues are highly vascularized Function to support and connect the other tissues of the body. Classification of connective tissue: Based on the type of cells(s) Based on the type of intercellular matter found between cells. Types of connective tissue: 1. Areolar (loose )connective tissue Cells present: Fibroblasts – principle type of cell. Secrete proteins into the space between cells. Macrophages- engulf foreign agents Mast cells- secrete histamine and other chemical mediators of inflammation Local inflammation: 1. Local dilation of blood vessels in the injured area>erythema (in the injured area) 2. Local ↑permeability( leaky) of blood vessels →swelling “edema” 3. Local stimulation of pain fibers→ pain * injury to mast cells to secrete histamine. Intercellular matter Protein gel (like jello) containing protein fibers Elastin protein fibers confer elasticity to the tissue All proteins are synthesized and secreted by the fibroblasts. Areolar C.T, is the most widely distributed tissue in the body serving to support and nourish (via the blood vessels)the other tissues of the body. 2. Adipose (fat) connective tissue- Cells present: closely packed adipose (fat) cells each containing a large fat filled vacuole. Intercellular matter: Small amount of protein fibers, secreted by the fat cells. Adipose tissue provides a reservoir of food (for energy), insulates against heat loss, supports and protects the organs it encloses. Locations: Under skin (subcutaneous) Around kidneys and eyeballs Buttocks and breasts 3. Dense Fibrous Connective tissue – Cells present Fibroblasts Intercellular matter – principally collagen protein fibers, secreted by fibroblasts, which confers strength to the tissue There are two sub types of dense fibrous connective tissue (based on how the protein fibers are arranged) A. Regular Arranged dense fibers connective tissue- the protein fibers are arranged in parallel bundles. Locations: tendons- cords that connect muscles to bones Ligaments- cords that connect bones together Dura matter-fibrous connective tissue sheet that encloses the brain and spinal cord Fascia- fibrous connective tissue sheets that enclose muscles Perichondrium and periosteum-fibrous connective tissue that enclose cartilage and bones. B. Irregularly arranged Dense Fibrous Connective Tissue- the protein fibers are interwoven, running in all directions. Locations: Dermis of skin Scar Tissue4. Cartilage- “gristle” Cells present :chondrocytes, usually arranged in groupings of 2-4 cells, surrounded by a pocket of fluid called lacuna Intercellular matter- protein gel (jello) containing protein fibers Cartilage contains no blood vessels(non- vascular), and is thus a general exception to the general pattern of connective tissues. Cartilage tissue is capable of growing in both length and width(thickness) There are 3 sub types of cartilage(based upon the nature of the intercellular matter): 1. Hyaline Cartilage- the interecellular matter is made up of a gel interwoven with collagen protein fibers (secreted by the chondrocytes) Locations: Embryonic long bones of the body The front of the nose The trachea and larynx The surfaces of articulating bones 2. Fibrocartilage- the intercellular matter is made up of a gel containing large bundles of collagen protein fibers Locations: intervertebral disks 3. Elastic Cartilage: the intercellular matter is made up of a gel containing elastin protein fibers. Locations: the external ear (pinna) 5. Bone Tissue Cells present osteocytes, each surrounded by a pocket of fluid called a lacuna Intercellular matter: Calcium Salts (calcium phosphate and calcium carbonate) Collagen protein fibers interwoven in the calcium salts Highly vascularized Only capable of growing in width(thickness) There are 2 sub-types of bone tissue(based on organization): a. Compact bone- the osteocytes are arranged in concentric circles , called Haversian systems (osteons). b. Spongy ( Cancellous) bone tissue – the osteocytes are arranged in a spongy network Osteoblasts(osteocytes)- secrete calcium mineral →form bone tissue ossification Osteoclasts – break down bone calcium mineral (bone reabsorption).Structure of long bones: Diaphysis- shaft of the bone Epiphysis- Proximal epiphysis Distal Epiphysis Epiphyseal plates (child)- lines- (Adult)- location of ossifying cartilage prior to completion of bone growth. Medullary Cavity (Marrow)- Red Marrow- Yellow Marrow Structure of a flat bone- Outer compact bone Inner spongy Bone (Diploe) Embryonic Development of bones: Long bone formation2 Hormones that stimulate the growth of cartilage at the epiphyseal plates: Growth Hormones and TestosteroneFlat bones: Intramembranous bone formation of the skullMesodermal→fibroblasts collagen Dense fibrous Connective tissue→primary ossification center bone tissueHemopoietic Tissues: Blood and LymphCells present: Red cells (Erythrocytes) Transports O2 and CO2White Cells (Leukocytes) Produce antibodies and interferon that inactivate foreign agents. Phagocytize (engulf) foreign agents Blood Platelets (Thrombocytes) Produce thromboplastin which triggers blood clotting. Intercellular matter: Plasma ( 92% water + Plasma proteins –mostly synthesized by the liver cells.Muscular TissueNervous Tissue Tumors (neoplasms) Benign Tumors- Increased multiplication of tissue cells (Mitosis) Treatment: Surgical treatment of tissue massMalignant Tumors (Cancers)- Increased multiplication of tissue cells Abnormal cells exhibit metastasis (migration) Treatment: Surgery, radiation, Chemotherapy Muscle tissue- Provides the means for movement by and in the body Has the ability to shorten itself (contractility) Types of musclea. Skeletal- Often called striated muscle because of its striped appearance Is attached to bones, and causes movement by contracting and relaxing .Also surrounds openings in the body like the mouth, and controls the size of the openingCells that make up skeletal muscle are long and fiber like with many nuclei in each cellSkeletal muscle contraction and relaxation are consciously controlled; because of this skeletalmuscles are also called voluntary musclesb. Cardiac- Found in the walls of the heart. The heart beats without conscious thought, so this muscle type is considered an involuntary muscle tissue. Cells in this type of tissue interlock with each other,resulting in a more efficient contractionc. Smooth- Forms the walls of blood vessels and hollow organs, such as those in the digestive system.Not consciously controlled, so they are also called involuntary muscles Cells forming this tissue are not as long and fibrous as skeletal muscles, and each cell has only one nucleusNervous tissue1. Acts as a rapid messenger service for the bodya. Its messages can cause actions to occur2. Has two types of cellsa. Neurons - the conductors of informationb. Glia (neuroglia) – help to hold the neurons in place3. Neurons have two basic partsa. Dendrites – a branch-like area that receives sensory informationb. Axons – the trunk-like structures that send signals4. Many neurons have an insulating layer called the myelin sheathIII. Tissues and DiseaseA. Meningitis1. The meninges are the membranes that cover the brain and spinal cord2. In meningitis, these membranes become inflamed3. It is caused by a bacteria or a virus4. The bacterial form of meningitis can spread via droplets as a result of sneezing or coughing. It can also be spread through contact with the saliva of an infected persona. College students and military personnel in crowded situations are at higher risk5. Once you are infected, you become a carrier of the diseasea. Only some people who become carriers will develop the diseaseb. In other people, the immune system actually destroys and removes the pathogen before illness develops6. Symptoms of meningitis may include:a. Non-specific headachesb. Feverc. Nausead. Neck stiffnesse. Skin rashf. Hearing lossg. Neurologic/ brain damageh. Kidney failure7. Bacterial meningitis has an approximately 10% fatality rate8. A vaccine is available to prevent meningitis. However:a. It does not protect against all pathogens that can cause meningitisb. It has been associated with adverse reactions, including headaches, dizziness, vomiting, convulsions, and even death9. Right now, the meningitis vaccine is not mandatory for highrisk groupsa. Individuals should weigh the risks and benefits in deciding if they would like to be vaccinated. Blood sugar and tissue damage1. Diabetes (and the associated high blood sugar) can cause damage to body tissuesa. Since glucose cannot be moved inside body cells, cells must burn fats and proteins in the body for energyi. As the body uses up its protein:? Tissues start to break down? It becomes difficult to produce more tissueii. With impaired tissue production, wounds become more difficult to heal, and infections become harderto fightiii. Lipids are released from fat so that the cell can burn the lipids for energy? These lipids can deposit around the inside walls of blood vessels (atherosclerosis develops)? These deposits cause impaired blood flow to the tissues*Together, the tissue breakdown, deficient blood flow, and impaired wound healing mean that diabetics are prone to tissue death and gangrenea. This can lead to the loss of toes, feet, and even legsDiabetic neuropathy-Diabetic neuropathy is a type of nerve damage that can occur if you have diabetes. High blood sugar can injure nerve fibers throughout your body, but diabetic neuropathy most often damages nerves in your legs and feet. Depending on the affected nerves, symptoms of diabetic neuropathy can range from pain and numbness in your extremities to problems with your digestive system, urinary tract, blood vessels and heart. For some people, these symptoms are mild; for others, diabetic neuropathy can be painful, disabling and even fatal. Diabetic neuropathy is a common serious complication of diabetes. Yet you can often prevent diabetic neuropathy or slow its progress with tight blood sugar control and a healthy lifestyle. (Mayo clinic)Therefore damage tissue may go unnoticed until serious complications occur due to not being able to feel the pain. Melanoma1. A type of skin cancer with a very high mortality ratea. Accounts for only 3% of all skin cancers, but accounts for approximately 75% of all skin cancer deaths2. The most common form of skin cancer in people aged 25-293. Approximately 60,000 new cases of melanoma are reported annually4. Risk factors include excessive sun exposure and tanninga. The effects of the sun have cumulative effects over the course of a lifetimeb. Every sunburn a person gets increases the risk of developing melanoma5. The classic patient with melanoma has fair skin, blue eyes, and blonde or red haira. Patients with darker pigmentation are also at risk of melanoma, although their risk is somewhat lowerIV. OrgansA. An organ is the result of two or more types of tissue organizing in such a way as to accomplish something that the tissues cannot do on their ownB. Some organs occur singly and some in pairsC. The body cannot survive without the organs known as vital organsD. Other organs, like the spleen, appendix, and gallbladder, can be removed without causing deathV. SystemsA. General information1. Systems are formed by organs that work together to accomplish something more complex than what a single organ can do on its own2. Each system is interrelated, often depending on each other for the proper functioning of the bodyB. Skeletal system1. Organs in the system (and combining forms that relate to them)a. Bones (oste/o)b. Joints (arthr/o)c. Ligamentsd. Cartilage2. Functions of the skeletal systema. Provides support and structure to the bodyb. Protects organsc. Provides movementd. Stores a variety of mineralse. Produces blood cells3. Medical specialties that relate to the skeletal systema. Orthopedicsb. RheumatologyC. Muscular system1. Organs in the system (and combining forms that relate to them)a. Various types of muscle (my/o, muscul/o)2. Functions of the muscular system . Movement of body parts Skeletal muscle? Found attached to the skeleton? Moves the arms, legs, etc.? Is under voluntary (conscious) controlii. Cardiac muscle? Found in the heart? Makes the heart beat? Is involuntary (not under conscious control)iii. Smooth muscle? Found in the walls of organs, such as the blood vessels and airways? Example functions - changes the diameter of blood vessels and airways? Is involuntary (not under conscious control)3. Medical specialty that relates to the muscular systema. Orthopedicsb. RheumatologyD. Integumentary system1. Organs in the system (and combining forms that relate to them)a. Skin (dermat/o, cutane/o)b. Hair (trich/o)c. Nails (ungu/o)d. Sweat glands (sud/o, hidr/o)e. Sebaceous glands (seb/o)2. Functions of the integumentary systema. Protection (from pathogens and dehydration)b. Regulation of body temperature (through sweating, goose bumps, and changing the diameter of blood vessels in the skin)c. Sensing the outside world (through heat, cold, pain, and pressure receptors in the skin)3. Medical specialty that relates to the integumentary systema. DermatologyE. Nervous system1. Organs in the system (and combining forms that relate to them)a. Brain (encephal/o)b. Spinal cord (myel/o, spin/o)c. Peripheral nerves (neur/o)d. Sensory organsi. Eyes (ocul/o, ophthalm/o)ii. Ears (ot/o)iii. Nose (rhin/o, nas/o)iv. Tongue (ling/o, gloss/o)2. Functions of the nervous systema. Receiving messages (sensing the internal and external environment)b. Processing and interpreting messagesc. Acting on messages (motor output)3. Medical specialties that relate to the nervous systema. Neurology – study of nervesb. Neurosurgery – specialty focusing on nervous system surgeriesc. Ophthalmology – study of eyesF. Endocrine system1. Organs in the system (and combining forms that relate to them)a. Endocrine (hormone producing) glands, such as thei. Pituitary gland (pituit/o)ii. Pineal gland (pineal/o)iii. Thyroid gland (thyr/o)iv. Parathyroid gland (parathyroid/o)v. Thymus (thym/o)vi. Adrenal glands (adren/o)vii. Pancreas (pancreat/o)viii. Gonads? Ovaries (ovari/o, oophor/o)? Testes (test/o, orchi/o)2. Functions of the endocrine system - Releases chemicals called hormones into the bloodstream.These hormones help control various body functions, such as electrolyte balance and growth3. Medical specialties that relate to the endocrine systema. Endocrinology - study of the endocrine systemb. Internal medicine - a specialist in adult medicinec. Gynecology - study of women’s healthG. Cardiovascular system1. Organs in the system (and combining forms that relate to them)a. Heart (cardi/o)b. Blood vesselsi. Arteries (arteri/o)ii. Veins (phleb/o, ven/o, veni/o)iii. Capillariesc. Blood (hemat/o, hem/o)2. Functions of the systema. To transport important substances like water, oxygen, and nutrients to the body cells, and to remove waste products from the cells3. Medical specialties that relate to the systema. Cardiology – study of the heartb. Hematology – study of the bloodH. Respiratory system1. Organs in the system (and combining forms that relate to them)a. Lungs (pneum/o)b. Airwaysi. Nose (nas/o, rhin/o)ii. Pharynx (pharyng/o)iii. Larynx (laryng/o)iv. Trachea (trache/o)v. Bronchial tubes (bronch/o)vi. Alveoli2. Functions of the systema. Supplies bloodstream with oxygenb. Eliminates carbon dioxide wastec. Helps maintain body’s proper acid-base balanced. Filters, warms, and moistens inhaled aire. Aids in the elimination of ingested alcohol3. Medical specialties that relate to the systema. Otorhinolaryngology – study of ears, nose, and throatb. Pulmonology – study of lungsc. Thoracic surgery – a chest surgeond. Internal medicine – a specialist in adult healthI. Lymphatic and immune system1. Organs in the system (and combining forms that relate to them)a. Lymph nodesb. Lymph vessels/ductsc. Lymph (lymph/o)d. Thymus gland (thym/o)e. Tonsilsf. Spleen (splen/o)2. Functions of the lymphatic and immune systemsa. Maintaining proper fluid balancei. Excess fluid that accumulates in inappropriate places is brought back into the lymphatic system, cleaned, processed, and then re-circulatedb. Protecting the body from infectioni. Lymph nodes act as a filter to capture pathogensii. Lymphocytes (special WBCs) can be produced by the lymphatic system to help fight infection3. Medical specialty that relates to the lymphatic and immune systemsa. ImmunologyJ. Gastrointestinal (GI / digestive) system1. Organs in the system (and combining forms that relate to them)a. Mouth (or/o)b. Pharynx (pharyng/o)c. Esophagus (esophag/o)d. Stomach (gastro)e. Intestines or “bowels”i. Small intestine (enter/o)ii. Colon (col/o, colon/o)f. Anus (proct/o)g. Accessory organsi. Liver (hepat/o)ii. Gall bladder (cholecyst/o)iii. Pancreas (pancreat/o)iv. Salivary glands2. Functions of the gastrointestinal systema. Breaks down food (mechanically and chemically) into usable substancesb. Absorbs and transports those substances to cellsc. Eliminates unusable wastes leftover after food is digested3. Medical specialties that relate to the gastrointestinal systema. Gastroenterology – study of stomach and intestinesb. Proctology – study of anusc. Internal medicine – specialty covering all adult healthK. Urinary system1. Organs in the system (and combining forms that relate to them)a. Kidneys (nephr/o, ren/o)b. Ureters (ureter/o)c. Urinary bladder (cyst/o, vesic/o)d. Urethra (urethr/o)2. Functions of the urinary systema. Elimination of waste products (including excess electrolytes, excess water, drugs, and toxins)b. Regulation of water and electrolyte balancec. Regulation of acid/base balance in bloodd. Regulation of blood pressuree. Regulation of blood cell production3. Medical specialties that relate to the urinary systema. Nephrology – study of kidneysb. Urology – study of urinary systemL. Reproductive system1. Organs in the system (and combining forms that relate to them)a. Femalesi. Ovaries (oophor/o)ii. Uterus (uter/o, hyster/o)iii. Fallopian tubes (salping/o)iv. Vagina (vagin/o)v. Mammary glands (mamm/o)b. Malesi. Testes (orchid/o)ii. Penisiii. Prostate (prostat/o)2. Functions of the reproductive systema. Making new humansi. The male donates sperm containing his traits and the female donates an egg containing her traitsii. Sperm and egg combine to create a new individualiii. The female provides a place for the fertilized egg to grow to maturity3. Medical specialties that relate to the reproductive systema. Gynecology – study of women’s healthb. Obstetrics – specialty of pregnancy, labor, and delivery4. Reproductive system is often combined with the urinary system to make the “genitourinary” system or “GU” systemM. Pathology Connection – Septicemia1. Septicemia (also called sepsis or blood poisoning) is a condition in which a pathogen is present in the blood2. Because blood is needed by all body systems, sepsis can lead to a multi-system infectiona. The blood can spread the bacteria to the organsb. Once the bacteria get in the organs, they may continue to grow, adversely affecting organ function3. Sepsis syndrome – when the infection causes a decrease in blood perfusion to the organs along with other systemic signs4. Septic shock – when decreased perfusion to the organs causes a drop in blood pressure5. Multiple Organ Dysfunction Syndrome (also known as MODS or multi-system failure) can develop if septic shock is not quickly and effectively treateda. As the number of involved organ systems increases, the mortality rate rises, Mortality can approach 100% if MODS continues for more than 4 hospital days, depending on the patient6. Signs and symptoms related to sepsis syndromea. Feverb. Chillsc. Tachypnead. Tachycardiae. Skin lesionsf. Redness of the skin, either in selected areas (erythema), or over widespread areas of the skin (erythroderma)g. Hypoxemiah. Changes in mental statusN. Pathology Connection: Obesity and Anorexia1. Obesitya. The U.S. population is becoming increasingly overweight every yearb. Experts speculate that the current generation of adolescents potentially may have a shorter life span than their parents2. Anorexia nervosa- A condition in which there is a progressive and severe weight lossi. Patients avoid eating or eat too little food to sustain a healthy weightii. Patients deny that there is a problem3. Bulimiaa. A condition in which an individual goes on eating binges, overeats, and then attempts to get rid of the food by either vomiting or using laxatives to keep from gaining weight. ................
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