New and Revised Course Descriptions
New Course Curriculum Format
This form should be attached to the New Course Adoption Proposal form and should be written like an overview of a curriculum map.
|Course Name: IB Biology SL |Grade Level: 11 or 12 |Contact: |
| | |Courtney Irwin |
|Content area: Science |Grade level (s) |Credit: 1.0 |
|Standards: |Learning Targets: |Topic/Unit: |Assessment Strategies: |
| | | | |
|Organisms consisting of only one cell carry out all functions |I can identify and briefly describe these functions of |Cell biology |Formative |
|of life in that cell. |life: nutrition, metabolism, | | |
| |growth, response, excretion, homeostasis and |Introduction to cells |As an inquiry-based course, there is ongoing formative |
|Surface area to volume ratio is important in the limitation of|reproduction. | |assessment as the students and teacher interact to move |
|cell size. | |Ultrastructure of cells |the inquiry forward. Students’ questions indicate what |
| |I can use a light microscope to investigate the | |they need to know to understand the concepts being |
|Multicellular organisms have properties that emerge from the |structure of cells and tissues, with drawing of cells. |Membrane structure |studied, and when the inquiry stalls, the teacher |
|interaction of their cellular components. | | |prompts new questions from the students. This process |
| |I can calculate the magnification of drawings and the |Membrane transport |of continuous questioning provides the basis for |
|Specialized tissues can develop by cell differentiation in |actual size of structures and ultrastructures shown in | |feedback and for the teacher to adjust the tempo of |
|multicellular organisms. |drawings or micrographs (Practical 1). |Cell division |instruction, to review or reteach when necessary. |
| | | |A mock exam will be administered approximately one month|
|Differentiation involves the expression of some genes and not |I can examine the cell theory using atypical examples, | |prior to the administration of the IB Biology SL exam in|
|others in a cell’s genome. |including striated muscle, giant algae and aseptate | |May that will simulate the exact format and conditions |
| |fungal hyphae. | |under which the IB Biology SL exam will be administered.|
|The capacity of stem cells to divide and differentiate along | | |Results from this mock exam will serve as a cumulative |
|different pathways is necessary in embryonic development and |I can investigate functions of life in Paramecium and | |formative assessment to inform review and re-teaching as|
|also makes stem cells suitable for therapeutic uses. |one named photosynthetic unicellular organism. | |exam preparation. |
| | | |Summative |
|Prokaryotes have a simple cell structure without |I can explain the use of stem cells to treat | |Practical work: Students will complete a series of |
|compartmentalization. |Stargardt’s disease and one other named condition. | |practical work activities, which may include: |
| | | |short labs or projects extending over several weeks |
|Eukaryotes have a compartmentalized cell structure. |I can discuss the ethics of the therapeutic use of stem| |computer simulations |
| |cells from specially created embryos, from the | |using databases for secondary data |
|Electron microscopes have a much higher resolution than light |umbilical cord blood of a new-born baby and from an | |developing and using models |
|microscopes. |adult’s own tissues. | |data-gathering exercises such as questionnaires, user |
| | | |trials and surveys |
|Phospholipids form bilayers in water due to the amphipathic |I can describe the structure and function of organelles| |data-analysis exercises |
|properties of phospholipid molecules. |within exocrine gland cells of the pancreas and within | |fieldwork |
| |palisade mesophyll cells of the leaf. | |Practical Investigation: Each student will choose an |
|Membrane proteins are diverse in terms of structure, position | | |area of biology that is of personal interest and design |
|in the membrane and function. |I can describe how prokaryotes divide by binary | |an investigative task that is complex and commensurate |
| |fission. | |with the level of the course. It should require a |
|Cholesterol is a component of animal cell membranes. | | |purposeful research question and the scientific |
| |I can draw the ultrastructure of prokaryotic cells | |rationale for it. Possible tasks might include: |
|Particles move across membranes by simple diffusion, |based on electron micrographs. | |hands-on laboratory investigations |
|facilitated diffusion, osmosis and active transport. | | |using spreadsheets for analysis and modelling |
| |I can draw the ultrastructure of eukaryotic cells based| |extracting data from a databases and analysing it |
|The fluidity of membranes allows materials to be taken into |on electron micrographs. | |graphically |
|cells by endocytosis or released by exocytosis. | | |producing a hybrid of spreadsheet / database work with a|
| |I can interpret electron micrographs to identify | |traditional hands-on investigation |
|Vesicles move materials within cells. |organelles and deduce the function of specialized | |using open-ended simulations |
| |cells. | |The student’s report will be graded using criteria |
|Cells can only be formed by division of pre-existing cells. | | |developed by the IB Organization. |
| |I can explain how cholesterol in mammalian membranes | |Unit tests and the IB Biology SL exam: Unit tests will |
|The first cells must have arisen from non-living material. |reduces membrane fluidity and permeability to some | |model the format, content, and rigor of the IB Biology |
| |solutes. | |SL external assessments, which are administered in May. |
|The origin of eukaryotic cells can be explained by the | | |IB Command Terms will be used on all unit tests, which |
|endosymbiotic theory. |I can draw the fluid mosaic model. | |will consist of multiple-choice questions, data-based |
| | | |questions, short-answer and extended response questions |
|Mitosis is division of the nucleus into two genetically |I can explain how evidence from electron microscopy led| |based on experimental skills and techniques, analysis |
|identical daughter nuclei. |to the proposal of the Davson-Danielli model. | |and evaluation as well as core content. |
| | | | |
|Chromosomes condense by supercoiling during mitosis. |I can explain how the falsification of the | | |
| |Davson-Danielli model led to the Singer-Nicolson model.| | |
|Cytokinesis occurs after mitosis and is different in plant and| | | |
|animal cells. |I can describe the structure and function of | | |
| |sodium–potassium pumps for active transport and | | |
|Interphase is a very active phase of the cell cycle with many |potassium channels for facilitated diffusion in axons. | | |
|processes occurring in the nucleus and cytoplasm. | | | |
| |I can estimate osmolarity in tissues by bathing samples| | |
|Cyclins are involved in the control of the cell cycle. |in hypotonic and hypertonic solutions. (Practical 2) | | |
| | | | |
|Mutagens, oncogenes and metastasis are involved in the |I can examine evidence from Pasteur’s experiments that | | |
|development of primary and secondary tumors. |spontaneous generation of cells and organisms does not | | |
| |now occur on Earth. | | |
| | | | |
| |I can examine the correlation between smoking and | | |
| |incidence of cancers. | | |
| | | | |
| |I can identify phases of mitosis in cells viewed with a| | |
| |microscope or in a micrograph. | | |
| | | | |
| |I can determine a mitotic index from a micrograph. | | |
| | | | |
| |I can describe the sequence of events in the four | | |
| |phases of mitosis. | | |
| | | | |
| |Literacy Targets: | | |
| | | | |
| |I can cite specific textual evidence to support | | |
| |analysis of science and technical texts, attending to | | |
| |important distinctions the author makes and to any gaps| | |
| |or inconsistencies in the account. | | |
| | | | |
| |I can determine the central ideas or conclusions of a | | |
| |text | | |
| | | | |
| |I can summarize complex concepts, processes, or | | |
| |information presented in a text by paraphrasing them in| | |
| |simpler but still accurate terms. | | |
| | | | |
| |I can follow precisely a complex multistep procedure | | |
| |when carrying out experiments, taking measurements, or | | |
| |performing technical tasks | | |
| | | | |
| |I can analyze the specific results based on | | |
| |explanations in the text. | | |
| | | | |
| |I can determine the meaning of symbols, key terms, and | | |
| |other domain-specific words and phrases as they are | | |
| |used in a specific scientific or technical context | | |
| | | | |
| |I can analyze how the text structures information or | | |
| |ideas into categories or hierarchies, demonstrating | | |
| |understanding of the information or ideas. | | |
| | | | |
| |I can analyze the author's purpose in providing an | | |
| |explanation, describing a procedure, or discussing an | | |
| |experiment in a text, identifying important issues that| | |
| |remain unresolved. | | |
| | | | |
| |I can integrate and evaluate multiple sources of | | |
| |information presented in diverse formats and media | | |
| |(e.g., quantitative data, video, multimedia) in order | | |
| |to address a question or solve a problem. | | |
| | | | |
| |I can evaluate the hypotheses, data, analysis, and | | |
| |conclusions in a science or technical text, verifying | | |
| |the data when possible and corroborating or challenging| | |
| |conclusions with other sources of information. | | |
| | | | |
| |I can synthesize information from a range of sources | | |
| |(e.g., texts, experiments, simulations) into a coherent| | |
| |understanding of a process, phenomenon, or concept, | | |
| |resolving conflicting information when possible. | | |
|Standards: |Learning Targets: |Topic/Unit: |Assessment Strategies: |
| | | | |
|Molecular biology explains living processes in terms of the |I can identify examples of compounds that are produced |Molecular biology |Please see Assessment Strategies for Unit 1: Cell biology |
|chemical substances involved. |by living organisms but can also be artificially | | |
| |synthesized. |Molecules to metabolism | |
|Carbon atoms can form four covalent bonds allowing a diversity| | | |
|of stable compounds to exist. |I can draw molecular diagrams of glucose, ribose, a |Water | |
| |saturated fatty acid and a generalized amino acid. | | |
|Life is based on carbon compounds including carbohydrates, | |Carbohydrates and lipids| |
|lipids, proteins and nucleic acids. |I can identify biochemicals such as sugars, lipids or | | |
| |amino acids from molecular diagrams. |Proteins | |
|Metabolism is the web of all the enzyme-catalyzed reactions in| | | |
|a cell or organism. |I can compare and contrast the thermal properties of |Enzymes | |
| |water with those of methane. | | |
|Anabolism is the synthesis of complex molecules from simpler | |Structure of RNA and DNA| |
|molecules including the formation of macromolecules from |I can compare and contrast modes of transport of | | |
|monomers by condensation reactions. |glucose, amino acids, cholesterol, fats, oxygen and |DNA replication, | |
| |sodium chloride in blood in relation to their |transcription, and | |
|Catabolism is the breakdown of complex molecules into simpler |solubility in water. |translation | |
|molecules including the hydrolysis of macromolecules into | | | |
|monomers. |I can describe at least one example of a benefit to |Cell respiration | |
| |living organisms of each property of water. |Photosynthesis | |
|Water molecules are polar and hydrogen bonds form between | | | |
|them. |I can describe the structure and function of cellulose | | |
| |and starch in plants and glycogen in humans. | | |
|Hydrogen bonding and dipolarity explain the cohesive, | | | |
|adhesive, thermal and solvent properties of water. |I can evaluate the scientific evidence for health risks| | |
| |of trans fats and saturated fatty acids. | | |
|Substances can be hydrophilic or hydrophobic. | | | |
| |I can explain why lipids are more suitable for | | |
|Monosaccharide monomers are linked together by condensation |long-term energy storage in humans than carbohydrates. | | |
|reactions to form disaccharides and polysaccharide polymers. | | | |
| |I can evaluate evidence and the methods used to obtain | | |
|Fatty acids can be saturated, monounsaturated or |the evidence for health claims made about lipids. | | |
|polyunsaturated. | | | |
| |I can use molecular visualization software to compare | | |
|Unsaturated fatty acids can be cis or trans isomers. |cellulose, starch and glycogen. | | |
| | | | |
|Triglycerides are formed by condensation from three fatty |I can determine body mass index by calculation or use | | |
|acids and one glycerol. |of a nomogram. | | |
| | | | |
|Amino acids are linked together by condensation to form |I can explain how proteins become denatured by heat or | | |
|polypeptides. |by deviation of pH from the optimum. | | |
| | | | |
|There are 20 different amino acids in polypeptides synthesized|I can draw molecular diagrams to show the formation of | | |
|on ribosomes. |a peptide bond. | | |
| | | | |
|Amino acids can be linked together in any sequence giving a |I can explain how most organisms use the same 20 amino | | |
|huge range of possible polypeptides. |acids in the same genetic code. | | |
| | | | |
|The amino acid sequence of polypeptides is coded for by genes.|I can sketch graphs to show the expected effects of | | |
| |temperature, pH and substrate concentration on the | | |
|A protein may consist of a single polypeptide or more than one|activity of enzymes and explain the patterns or trends | | |
|polypeptide linked together. |apparent in these graphs. | | |
| | | | |
|The amino acid sequence determines the three-dimensional |I can design experiments to test the effect of | | |
|conformation of a protein. |temperature, pH and substrate concentration on the | | |
| |activity of enzymes. | | |
|Living organisms synthesize many different proteins with a | | | |
|wide range of functions. |I can investigate factors affecting enzyme activity. | | |
| |(Practical 3) | | |
|Every individual has a unique proteome. | | | |
| |I can explain Crick and Watson’s elucidation of the | | |
|Enzymes have an active site to which specific substrates bind.|structure of DNA using model making. | | |
| | | | |
|Enzyme catalysis involves molecular motion and the collision |I can draw simple diagrams of the structure of single | | |
|of substrates with the active site. |nucleotides of DNA and RNA, | | |
| |using circles, pentagons and rectangles to represent | | |
|Temperature, pH and substrate concentration affect the rate of|phosphates, pentoses and bases. | | |
|activity of enzymes. |I can explain how Taq DNA polymerase may be used to | | |
| |produce multiple copies of DNA rapidly by the | | |
|Enzymes can be denatured. |polymerase chain reaction (PCR). | | |
| | | | |
|Immobilized enzymes are widely used in industry. |I can explain production of human insulin in bacteria | | |
| |as an example of the universality of the genetic code | | |
|The nucleic acids DNA and RNA are polymers of nucleotides. |allowing gene transfer between species. | | |
| | | | |
|DNA differs from RNA in the number of strands present, the |I can use a table of the genetic code to deduce which | | |
|base composition and the type of pentose. |codon(s) corresponds to which amino acid. | | |
| | | | |
|DNA is a double helix made of two antiparallel strands of |I can analyze Meselson and Stahl’s results to obtain | | |
|nucleotides linked by hydrogen bonding between complementary |support for the theory of semi-conservative replication| | |
|base pairs. |of DNA. | | |
| | | | |
|The replication of DNA is semi-conservative and depends on |I can use a table of mRNA codons and their | | |
|complementary base pairing. |corresponding amino acids to deduce the sequence of | | |
| |amino acids coded by a short mRNA strand of known base | | |
|Helicase unwinds the double helix and separates the two |sequence. | | |
|strands by breaking hydrogen bonds. | | | |
| |I can determine the DNA base sequence for the mRNA | | |
|DNA polymerase links nucleotides together to form a new |strand. | | |
|strand, using the pre-existing strand as a template. | | | |
| |I can explain the use of anaerobic cell respiration in | | |
|Transcription is the synthesis of mRNA copied from the DNA |yeasts to produce ethanol and carbon dioxide in baking.| | |
|base sequences by RNA polymerase. | | | |
| |I can explain lactate production in humans when | | |
|Translation is the synthesis of polypeptides on ribosomes. |anaerobic respiration is used to maximize the power of | | |
| |muscle contractions. | | |
|The amino acid sequence of polypeptides is determined by mRNA | | | |
|according to the genetic code. |I can analyze results from experiments involving | | |
| |measurement of respiration rates in germinating seeds | | |
|Codons of three bases on mRNA correspond to one amino acid in |or invertebrates using a respirometer. | | |
|a polypeptide. | | | |
| |I can describe changes to the Earth’s atmosphere, | | |
|Translation depends on complementary base pairing between |oceans and rock deposition due to photosynthesis. | | |
|codons on mRNA and anticodons on tRNA. | | | |
| |I can draw an absorption spectrum for chlorophyll and | | |
|Cell respiration is the controlled release of energy from |an action spectrum for photosynthesis. | | |
|organic compounds to produce ATP. | | | |
| |I can design experiments to investigate the effect of | | |
|ATP from cell respiration is immediately available as a source|limiting factors on photosynthesis. | | |
|of energy in the cell. |I can separate photosynthetic pigments by | | |
| |chromatograph. (Practical 4) | | |
|Anaerobic cell respiration gives a small yield of ATP from | | | |
|glucose. | | | |
| |Literacy Targets: | | |
|Aerobic cell respiration requires oxygen and gives a large | | | |
|yield of ATP from glucose. |Please see literacy targets for Unit 1: Cell biology | | |
| | | | |
|Photosynthesis is the production of carbon compounds in cells | | | |
|using light energy. | | | |
| | | | |
|Visible light has a range of wavelengths with violet the | | | |
|shortest wavelength and red the longest. | | | |
| | | | |
|Chlorophyll absorbs red and blue light most effectively and | | | |
|reflects green light more than other colors. | | | |
| | | | |
|Oxygen is produced in photosynthesis from the photolysis of | | | |
|water. | | | |
| | | | |
|Energy is needed to produce carbohydrates and other carbon | | | |
|compounds from carbon dioxide. | | | |
| | | | |
|Temperature, light intensity and carbon dioxide concentration | | | |
|are possible limiting factors on the rate of photosynthesis. | | | |
|Standards: |Learning Targets: |Topic/Unit: |Assessment Strategies: |
| | | | |
|A gene is a heritable factor that consists of a length of DNA |I can explain the causes of sickle cell anemia, |Genetics |Please see Assessment Strategies for |
|and influences a specific characteristic. |including a base substitution mutation, a change to the| |Unit 1: Cell biology |
| |base sequence of mRNA transcribed from it and a change |Genes | |
|A gene occupies a specific position on a chromosome. |to the sequence of a polypeptide in hemoglobin. | | |
| | |Chromosomes | |
|The various specific forms of a gene are alleles. |I can compare or contrast the number of genes in humans| | |
|Alleles differ from each other by one or only a few bases. |with other species. |Meiosis | |
| | | | |
|New alleles are formed by mutation. |I can use a database to determine differences in the |Inheritance | |
|The genome is the whole of the genetic information of an |base sequence of a gene in two species. | | |
|organism. | |Genetic | |
| |I can identify one specific base substitution that |modification and | |
|The entire base sequence of human genes was sequenced in the |causes glutamic acid to be substituted by valine as the|biotechnology | |
|Human Genome Project. |sixth amino acid in the hemoglobin polypeptide. | | |
|Prokaryotes have one chromosome consisting of a circular DNA | | | |
|molecule. |I can explain Cairns’ technique for measuring the | | |
| |length of DNA molecules by autoradiography. | | |
|Some prokaryotes also have plasmids but eukaryotes do not. | | | |
| |I can compare and contrast genome size in T2 phage, | | |
|Eukaryote chromosomes are linear DNA molecules associated with|Escherichia coli, Drosophila melanogaster, Homo sapiens| | |
|histone proteins. |and Paris japonica. | | |
| | | | |
|In a eukaryote species there are different chromosomes that |I can compare and contrast of diploid chromosome | | |
|carry different genes. |numbers of Homo sapiens, Pan troglodytes, Canis | | |
| |familiaris, Oryza sativa, Parascaris equorum. | | |
|Homologous chromosomes carry the same sequence of genes but | | | |
|not necessarily the same alleles of those genes. |I can use karyograms to deduce sex and diagnose Down | | |
| |syndrome in humans. | | |
|Diploid nuclei have pairs of homologous chromosomes. | | | |
| |I can use databases to identify the locus of a human | | |
|Haploid nuclei have one chromosome of each pair. |gene and its polypeptide product. | | |
| | | | |
|The number of chromosomes is a characteristic feature of |I can explain how non-disjunction can cause Down | | |
|members of a species. |syndrome and other chromosome abnormalities. | | |
| | | | |
|A karyogram shows the chromosomes of an organism in homologous|I can analyze studies showing how age of parents | | |
|pairs of decreasing length. |influences chances of non-disjunction. | | |
| | | | |
|Sex is determined by sex chromosomes and autosomes are |I can describe methods used to obtain cells for | | |
|chromosomes that do not determine sex. |karyotype analysis e.g. chorionic villus sampling and | | |
| |amniocentesis and the associated risks. | | |
|One diploid nucleus divides by meiosis to produce four haploid| | | |
|nuclei. |I can draw diagrams to show the stages of meiosis | | |
| |resulting in the formation of four haploid cells. | | |
|The halving of the chromosome number allows a sexual life | | | |
|cycle with fusion of gametes. |I can explain inheritance of ABO blood groups. | | |
| | | | |
|DNA is replicated before meiosis so that all chromosomes |I can explain how red-green color blindness and | | |
|consist of two sister chromatids. |hemophilia are examples of sex-linked inheritance. | | |
|The early stages of meiosis involve pairing of homologous | | | |
|chromosomes and crossing over followed by condensation. |I can explain inheritance of cystic fibrosis and | | |
| |Huntington’s disease. | | |
|Orientation of pairs of homologous chromosomes prior to | | | |
|separation is random. |I can explain the consequences of radiation after | | |
| |nuclear bombing of Hiroshima and accident at Chernobyl.| | |
|Separation of pairs of homologous chromosomes in the first | | | |
|division of meiosis halves the chromosome number. |I can construct Punnett grids for predicting the | | |
| |outcomes of monohybrid genetic crosses. | | |
|Crossing over and random orientation promotes genetic | | | |
|variation. |I can compare and contrast predicted and actual | | |
| |outcomes of genetic crosses using real data. | | |
|Fusion of gametes from different parents promotes genetic | | | |
|variation. |I can analyze pedigree charts to deduce the pattern of | | |
| |inheritance of genetic diseases. | | |
|Mendel discovered the principles of inheritance with | | | |
|experiments in which large numbers of pea plants were crossed.|I can analyze the use of DNA profiling in | | |
| |paternity and forensic investigations. | | |
|Gametes are haploid so contain only one allele of each gene. | | | |
| |I can explain how gene transfer to bacteria using | | |
|The two alleles of each gene separate into different haploid |plasmids makes use of restriction endonucleases and DNA| | |
|daughter nuclei during meiosis. |ligase. | | |
| | | | |
|Fusion of gametes results in diploid zygotes with two alleles |I can discuss the potential risks and benefits | | |
|of each gene that may be the same allele or different alleles.|associated with genetic modification of crops. | | |
| | | | |
|Dominant alleles mask the effects of recessive alleles but |I can explain the production of cloned embryos produced| | |
|co-dominant alleles have joint effects. |by somatic-cell nuclear transfer. | | |
| | | | |
|Many genetic diseases in humans are due to recessive alleles |I can design an experiment to assess one factor | | |
|of autosomal genes, although some genetic diseases are due to |affecting the rooting of stem-cuttings. | | |
|dominant or co-dominant alleles. | | | |
| |I can analyze examples of DNA profiles. | | |
|Some genetic diseases are sex-linked. The pattern of | | | |
|inheritance is different with sex-linked genes due to their |I can analyze data on risks to monarch butterflies of | | |
|location on sex chromosomes. |Bt crops. | | |
| | | | |
|Many genetic diseases have been identified in humans but most | | | |
|are very rare. |Literacy Targets: | | |
| | | | |
|Radiation and mutagenic chemicals increase the mutation rate |Please see literacy targets for Unit 1: Cell biology | | |
|and can cause genetic diseases and cancer. | | | |
| | | | |
|Gel electrophoresis is used to separate proteins or fragments | | | |
|of DNA according to size. | | | |
| | | | |
|PCR can be used to amplify small amounts of DNA. | | | |
| | | | |
|DNA profiling involves comparison of DNA. | | | |
|Genetic modification is carried out by gene transfer between | | | |
|species. | | | |
| | | | |
|Clones are groups of genetically identical organisms, derived | | | |
|from a single original parent cell. | | | |
| | | | |
|Many plant species and some animal species have natural | | | |
|methods of cloning. | | | |
| | | | |
|Animals can be cloned at the embryo stage by breaking up the | | | |
|embryo into more than one group of cells. | | | |
| | | | |
|Methods have been developed for cloning adult animals using | | | |
|differentiated cells. | | | |
|Standards: | |Topic/Unit: |Assessment Strategies: |
| |Learning Targets: | | |
|Evolution occurs when heritable characteristics of a species | |Evolution and |Please see Assessment Strategies for |
|change. |I can explain the development of melanistic insects in |biodiversity |Unit 1: Cell biology |
| |polluted areas. | | |
|The fossil record provides evidence for evolution. | |Evidence for evolution | |
| |I can compare and contrast the pentadactyl limb of | | |
|Selective breeding of domesticated animals shows that |mammals, birds, amphibians and reptiles with different |Natural selection | |
|artificial selection can cause evolution. |methods of locomotion. | | |
| | |Classification of | |
|Evolution of homologous structures by adaptive radiation |I can explain the changes in beaks of finches on Daphne|biodiversity | |
|explains similarities in structure when there are differences |Major. |Cladistics | |
|in function. | | | |
| |I can explain the evolution of antibiotic resistance in| | |
|Populations of a species can gradually diverge into separate |bacteria. | | |
|species by evolution. | | | |
| |I can classify one plant and one animal species from | | |
|Continuous variation across the geographical range of related |domain to species level. | | |
|populations matches the concept of gradual divergence. | | | |
| |I can identify the features of bryophyta, | | |
|Natural selection can only occur if there is variation among |filicinophyta, coniferophyta and angiospermophyta. | | |
|members of the same species. | | | |
| |I can identify the features of porifera, cnidaria, | | |
|Mutation, meiosis and sexual reproduction cause variation |platylhelmintha, annelida, mollusca, arthropoda and | | |
|between individuals in a species. |chordata. | | |
| |I can identify the features of birds, mammals, | | |
|Adaptations are characteristics that make an individual suited|amphibians, reptiles and fish. | | |
|to its environment and way of life. | | | |
| |I can construct dichotomous keys for use in identifying| | |
|Species tend to produce more offspring than the environment |specimens. | | |
|can support. | | | |
| |I can read cladograms including humans and other | | |
|Individuals that are better adapted tend to survive and |primates. | | |
|produce more offspring while the less well adapted tend to die|I can reclassify the figwort family using evidence from| | |
|or produce fewer offspring. |cladistics. | | |
| | | | |
|Individuals that reproduce pass on characteristics to their |I can analyze cladograms to deduce evolutionary | | |
|offspring. |relationships. | | |
| | | | |
|Natural selection increases the frequency of characteristics | | | |
|that make individuals better adapted and decreases the |Literacy Targets: | | |
|frequency of other characteristics leading to changes within | | | |
|the species. |Please see literacy targets for Unit 1: Cell biology | | |
| | | | |
|The binomial system of names for species is universal among | | | |
|biologists and has been agreed and developed at a series of | | | |
|congresses. | | | |
| | | | |
|When species are discovered they are given scientific names | | | |
|using the binomial system. | | | |
| | | | |
|Taxonomists classify species using a hierarchy of taxa. | | | |
| | | | |
|All organisms are classified into three domains. | | | |
| | | | |
|The principal taxa for classifying eukaryotes are kingdom, | | | |
|phylum, class, order, family, genus and species. | | | |
| | | | |
|In a natural classification, the genus and accompanying higher| | | |
|taxa consist of all the species that have evolved from one | | | |
|common ancestral species. | | | |
| | | | |
|Taxonomists sometimes reclassify groups of species when new | | | |
|evidence shows that a previous taxon contains species that | | | |
|have evolved from different ancestral species. | | | |
| | | | |
|Natural classifications help in identification of species and | | | |
|allow the prediction of characteristics shared by species | | | |
|within a group. | | | |
| | | | |
|A clade is a group of organisms that have evolved from a | | | |
|common ancestor. | | | |
| | | | |
|Evidence for which species are part of a clade can be obtained| | | |
|from the base sequences of a gene or the corresponding amino | | | |
|acid sequence of a protein. | | | |
| | | | |
|Sequence differences accumulate gradually so there is a | | | |
|positive correlation between the number of differences between| | | |
|two species and the time since they diverged from a common | | | |
|ancestor. | | | |
| | | | |
|Traits can be analogous or homologous. | | | |
| | | | |
|Cladograms are tree diagrams that show the most probable | | | |
|sequence of divergence in clades. | | | |
| | | | |
|Evidence from cladistics has shown that classifications of | | | |
|some groups based on structure did not correspond with the | | | |
|evolutionary origins of a group or species. | | | |
|Standards: |Learning Targets: |Topic/Unit: |Assessment Strategies: |
| | | | |
|Species are groups of organisms that can potentially |I can classify species as autotrophs, consumers, |Ecology and conservation|Please see Assessment Strategies for |
|interbreed to produce fertile offspring. |detritivores or saprotrophs from a knowledge of their | |Unit 1: Cell biology |
|Members of a species may be reproductively isolated in |mode of nutrition. |Species, communities, | |
|separate populations. |I can set up sealed mesocosms to try to establish |and ecosystems | |
| |sustainability. (Practical 5) |Energy flow | |
|Species have either an autotrophic or heterotrophic method of | | | |
|nutrition (a few species have both methods). |I can test for association between two species using |Carbon cycling | |
| |the chi-squared test with data obtained by quadrat | | |
|Consumers are heterotrophs that feed on living organisms by |sampling. |Impacts of humans on | |
|ingestion. | |ecosystems | |
| |I can recognize and interpret statistical significance.| | |
|Detritivores are heterotrophs that obtain organic nutrients | |Biodiversity | |
|from detritus by internal digestion. |I can construct quantitative representations of energy |conservation | |
| |flow using pyramids of energy. | | |
|Saprotrophs are heterotrophs that obtain organic nutrients | |Climate change | |
|from dead organisms by external digestion. |I can distinguish between energy flow in ecosystems and| | |
| |cycling of inorganic nutrients and between the | | |
|A community is formed by populations of different species |continuous but variable supply of energy in the form of| | |
|living together and interacting with each other. |sunlight and the finite and limited supply of nutrients| | |
| |in an ecosystem . | | |
|A community forms an ecosystem by its interactions with the | | | |
|abiotic environment. |I can construct a diagram of the carbon cycle. | | |
|Autotrophs obtain inorganic nutrients from the abiotic | | | |
|environment. |I can estimate carbon fluxes due to processes in the | | |
| |carbon cycle. | | |
|The supply of inorganic nutrients is maintained by nutrient | | | |
|cycling. |I can analyze data from air monitoring stations to | | |
| |explain annual fluctuations. | | |
|Ecosystems have the potential to be sustainable over long | | | |
|periods of time. |I can explain the threats to coral reefs from | | |
| |increasing concentrations of dissolved carbon dioxide. | | |
|Most ecosystems rely on a supply of energy from sunlight. | | | |
| |I can analyze correlations between global temperatures | | |
|Light energy is converted to chemical energy in carbon |and carbon dioxide concentrations on Earth. | | |
|compounds by photosynthesis. | | | |
| |I can evaluate claims that human activities are or are | | |
|Chemical energy in carbon compounds flows through food chains |not causing climate change. | | |
|by means of feeding. | | | |
| |I can examine the distribution of one animal and one | | |
|Energy released from carbon compounds by respiration is used |plant species to illustrate limits of tolerance and | | |
|in living organisms and converted to heat. |zones of stress. | | |
| | | | |
|Living organisms cannot convert heat to other forms of energy.|I can identify and describe local examples to | | |
| |illustrate the range of ways in which species can | | |
|Heat is lost from ecosystems. |interact within a community. | | |
| | | | |
|Energy losses between trophic levels restrict the length of |I can explain the symbiotic relationship between | | |
|food chains and the biomass of higher trophic levels. |Zooxanthellae and reef-building coral reef species. | | |
| | | | |
|Autotrophs convert carbon dioxide into carbohydrates and other|I can analyze a data set that illustrates the | | |
|carbon compounds. |distinction between fundamental and realized niche. | | |
| | | | |
|In aquatic ecosystems carbon is present as dissolved carbon |I can use a transect to correlate the distribution of | | |
|dioxide and hydrogencarbonate ions. |plant or animal species with an abiotic variable. | | |
| | | | |
|Carbon dioxide diffuses from the atmosphere or water into |I can estimate the conversion ratio in sustainable food| | |
|autotrophs. |production practices. | | |
| | | | |
|Carbon dioxide is produced by respiration and diffuses out of |I can discuss one example of how humans interfere with | | |
|organisms into water or the atmosphere. |nutrient cycling. | | |
| | | | |
|Methane is produced from organic matter in anaerobic |I can compare and contrast pyramids of energy from | | |
|conditions by methanogenic archaeans and some diffuses into |different ecosystems. | | |
|the atmosphere or accumulates in the ground. | | | |
| |I can analyze a climograph showing the relationship | | |
|Methane is oxidized to carbon dioxide and water in the |between temperature, rainfall and the type of | | |
|atmosphere. |ecosystem. | | |
| | | | |
|Peat forms when organic matter is not fully decomposed because|I can construct Gersmehl diagrams to show the | | |
|of acidic and/or anaerobic conditions in waterlogged soils. |inter-relationships between nutrient stores and flows | | |
| |between taiga, desert and tropical rainforest. | | |
|Partially decomposed organic matter from past geological eras | | | |
|was converted either into coal or into oil and gas that |I can analyze data showing primary succession. | | |
|accumulate in porous rocks. | | | |
| |I can investigate the effect of an environmental | | |
|Carbon dioxide is produced by the combustion of biomass and |disturbance on an ecosystem. | | |
|fossilized organic matter. | | | |
| |I can describe the intended and unintended effects of | | |
|Animals such as reef-building corals and mollusca have hard | the introduction of cane toads in Australia and one | | |
|parts that are composed of calcium carbonate and can become |other local example of the introduction of an alien | | |
|fossilized in limestone. |species. | | |
| | | | |
|Carbon dioxide and water vapor are the most significant |I can discuss the trade-off between control of the | | |
|greenhouse gases. |malarial parasite and DDT pollution. | | |
| | | | |
|Other gases including methane and nitrogen oxides have less |I can analyze the case study of the impact of marine | | |
|impact. |plastic debris on Laysan albatrosses and one other | | |
| |named species. | | |
|The impact of a gas depends on its ability to absorb long wave| | | |
|radiation as well as on its concentration in the atmosphere. |I can analyze data illustrating the causes and | | |
| |consequences of biomagnification. | | |
|The warmed Earth emits longer wavelength radiation (heat). | | | |
| |I can evaluate eradication programmes and biological | | |
|Longer wave radiation is absorbed by greenhouse gases that |control as measures to reduce the impact of alien | | |
|retain the heat in the atmosphere. |species. | | |
| | | | |
|Global temperatures and climate patterns are influenced by |I can analyze a case study of the captive breeding and | | |
|concentrations of greenhouse gases. |reintroduction of an endangered animal species. | | |
| | | | |
|There is a correlation between rising atmospheric |I can analyze the impact of biogeographic factors on | | |
|concentrations of carbon dioxide since the start of the |diversity limited to island size and edge effects. | | |
|industrial revolution 200 years ago and average global | | | |
|temperatures. |I can analyze the biodiversity of two local communities| | |
| |using Simpson’s reciprocal index of diversity. | | |
|Recent increases in atmospheric carbon dioxide are largely due| | | |
|to increases in the combustion of fossilized organic matter. | | | |
| |Literacy Targets: | | |
|The distribution of species is affected by limiting factors. | | | |
| |Please see literacy targets for Unit 1: Cell biology | | |
|Community structure can be strongly affected by keystone | | | |
|species. | | | |
| | | | |
|Each species plays a unique role within a community because of| | | |
|the unique combination of its spatial habitat and interactions| | | |
|with other species. | | | |
| | | | |
|Interactions between species in a community can be classified | | | |
|according to their effect. | | | |
| | | | |
|Two species cannot survive indefinitely in the same habitat if| | | |
|their niches are identical. | | | |
| | | | |
|Most species occupy different trophic levels in multiple food | | | |
|chains. | | | |
| | | | |
|A food web shows all the possible food chains in a community. | | | |
| | | | |
|The percentage of ingested energy converted to biomass is | | | |
|dependent on the respiration rate. | | | |
| | | | |
|The type of stable ecosystem that will emerge in an area is | | | |
|predictable based on climate. | | | |
| | | | |
|In closed ecosystems energy but not matter is exchanged with | | | |
|the surroundings. | | | |
| | | | |
|Disturbance influences the structure and rate of change within| | | |
|ecosystems. | | | |
| | | | |
|Introduced alien species can escape into local ecosystems and | | | |
|become invasive. | | | |
| | | | |
|Competitive exclusion and the absence of predators can lead to| | | |
|reduction in the numbers of endemic species when alien species| | | |
|become invasive. | | | |
| | | | |
|Pollutants become concentrated in the tissues of organisms at | | | |
|higher trophic levels by biomagnification. | | | |
| | | | |
|Macroplastic and microplastic debris has accumulated in marine| | | |
|environments. | | | |
| | | | |
|An indicator species is an organism used to assess a specific | | | |
|environmental condition. | | | |
| | | | |
|Relative numbers of indicator species can be used to calculate| | | |
|the value of a biotic index. | | | |
| | | | |
|In situ conservation may require active management of nature | | | |
|reserves or national parks. | | | |
| | | | |
|Ex situ conservation is the preservation of species outside | | | |
|their natural habitats. | | | |
| | | | |
|Biogeographic factors affect species diversity. | | | |
|Richness and evenness are components of biodiversity. | | | |
|Standards: |Learning Targets: |Topic/Unit: |Assessment Strategies: |
| | | | |
|Essential nutrients cannot be synthesized by the body, |I can describe processes occurring in the small |Human |Please see Assessment Strategies for |
|therefore they have to be included in the diet. |intestine that result in the digestion of starch and |Physiology |Unit 1: Cell biology |
| |transport of the products of digestion to the liver. | | |
|Dietary minerals are essential chemical elements. | |Digestion and | |
| |I can use dialysis tubing to model absorption of |absorption; nutrition | |
|Vitamins are chemically diverse carbon compounds that cannot |digested food in the intestine. | | |
|be synthesized by the body. | |The heart and the blood | |
| |I can construct an annotated diagram of the digestive |system | |
|Some fatty acids and some amino acids are essential. |system. | | |
| | |Functions of the liver | |
|Lack of essential amino acids affects the production of |I can identify tissue layers in transverse sections of | | |
|proteins. |the small intestine viewed with a microscope or in a |Defense against | |
| |micrograph. |infectious diseases | |
|Malnutrition may be caused by a deficiency, imbalance or | | | |
|excess of nutrients in the diet. |I can explain the production of ascorbic acid by some |Gas exchange | |
|Appetite is controlled by a centre in the hypothalamus. |mammals, but not others that need a dietary supply. | | |
| | |Neurons and synapses | |
|Overweight individuals are more likely to suffer hypertension |I can explain the cause and treatment of | | |
|and type II diabetes. |phenylketonuria (PKU). |Hormones, homeostasis, | |
| | |and reproduction | |
|Starvation can lead to breakdown of body tissue. |I can explain how a lack of Vitamin D or calcium can | | |
|Nervous and hormonal mechanisms control the secretion of |affect bone mineralization and cause rickets or | | |
|digestive juices. |osteomalacia. | | |
| | | | |
|Exocrine glands secrete to the surface of the body or the |I can explain the breakdown of heart muscle due to | | |
|lumen of the gut. |anorexia. | | |
| | | | |
|The volume and content of gastric secretions are controlled by|I can explain why cholesterol in blood is an indicator | | |
|nervous and hormonal mechanisms |of the risk of coronary heart disease. | | |
|. | | | |
|Acid conditions in the stomach favor some hydrolysis reactions|I can determine the energy content of food by | | |
|and help to control pathogens in ingested food. |combustion. | | |
| | | | |
|The structure of cells of the epithelium of the villi is |I can use databases of nutritional content of foods and| | |
|adapted to the absorption of food. |software to calculate intakes of essential nutrients | | |
| |from a daily diet. | | |
|The rate of transit of materials through the large intestine | | | |
|is positively correlated with their fibre content. |I can explain the reduction of stomach acid secretion | | |
| |by proton pump inhibitor drugs. | | |
|Materials not absorbed are egested. | | | |
| |I can explain dehydration due to cholera toxin. | | |
|The contraction of circular and longitudinal muscle of the | | | |
|small intestine mixes the food with enzymes and moves it along|I can explain Helicobacter pylori infection as a cause | | |
|the gut. |of stomach ulcers. | | |
| | | | |
|The pancreas secretes enzymes into the lumen of the small |I can identify exocrine gland cells that secrete | | |
|intestine. |digestive juices and villus epithelium cells that | | |
| |absorb digested foods from electron micrographs. | | |
|Enzymes digest most macromolecules in food into monomers in | | | |
|the small intestine. |I can explain the causes and consequences of jaundice. | | |
|Villi increase the surface area of epithelium over which | | | |
|absorption is carried out. |I can describe the dual blood supply to the liver and | | |
| |differences between sinusoids and capillaries. | | |
|Villi absorb monomers formed by digestion as well as mineral | | | |
|ions and vitamins. |I can explain William Harvey’s discovery of the | | |
| |circulation of the blood with the heart acting as the | | |
|Different methods of membrane transport are required to absorb|pump. | | |
|different nutrients. | | | |
| |I can describe pressure changes in the left atrium, | | |
|The liver removes toxins from the blood and detoxifies them. |left ventricle and aorta during the cardiac cycle. | | |
| | | | |
|Components of red blood cells are recycled by the liver. |I can explain the causes and consequences of occlusion | | |
| |of the coronary arteries. | | |
|The breakdown of erythrocytes starts with phagocytosis of red | | | |
|blood cells by Kupffer cells. |I can identify blood vessels as arteries, capillaries | | |
| |or veins from the structure of their walls. | | |
|Iron is carried to the bone marrow to produce hemoglobin in | | | |
|new red blood cells. |I can identify the chambers and valves of the heart and| | |
| |the blood vessels connected to it in dissected hearts | | |
|Surplus cholesterol is converted to bile salts. |or in diagrams of heart structure. | | |
| | | | |
|Endoplasmic reticulum and Golgi apparatus in hepatocytes |I can explain the use of artificial pacemakers to | | |
|produce plasma proteins. |regulate the heart rate and the use of defibrillation | | |
| |to treat life-threatening cardiac conditions. | | |
|The liver intercepts blood from the gut to regulate nutrient | | | |
|levels. |I can explain the causes and consequences of | | |
| |hypertension and thrombosis. | | |
|Some nutrients in excess can be stored in the liver. | | | |
| |I can measure and interpret the heart rate under | | |
|Arteries convey blood at high pressure from the ventricles to |different conditions. | | |
|the tissues of the body. | | | |
| |I can interpret systolic and diastolic blood pressure | | |
|Arteries have muscle cells and elastic fibres in their walls. |measurements. | | |
| | | | |
|The muscle and elastic fibres assist in maintaining blood |I can map the cardiac cycle to a normal ECG trace. | | |
|pressure between pump cycles. | | | |
| |I can analyze epidemiological data relating to the | | |
|Blood flows through tissues in capillaries. |incidence of coronary heart disease. | | |
| | | | |
|Capillaries have permeable walls that allow exchange of |I can explain the causes and consequences of blood clot| | |
|materials between cells in the tissue and the blood in the |formation in coronary arteries. | | |
|capillary. | | | |
| |I can describe Florey and Chain’s experiments to test | | |
|Veins collect blood at low pressure from the tissues of the |penicillin on bacterial infections in mice. | | |
|body and return it to the atria of the heart. | | | |
| |I can describe the effects of HIV on the immune system | | |
|Valves in veins and the heart ensure circulation of blood by |and methods of transmission. | | |
|preventing backflow. | | | |
| |I can draw a diagram to show the structure of an | | |
|There is a separate circulation for the lungs. |alveolus and an adjacent capillary. | | |
| | | | |
|The heart beat is initiated by a group of specialized muscle |I can explain the causes and consequences of lung | | |
|cells in the right atrium called the sinoatrial node. |cancer and emphysema. | | |
| | | | |
|The sinoatrial node acts as a pacemaker. |I can identify external and internal intercostal | | |
| |muscles, and diaphragm and abdominal muscles as | | |
|The sinoatrial node sends out an electrical signal that |examples of antagonistic muscle action. | | |
|stimulates contraction as it is propagated through the walls | | | |
|of the atria and then the walls of the ventricles. |I can monitor ventilation in humans at rest and after | | |
| |mild and vigorous exercise. (Practical 6) | | |
|Structure of cardiac muscle cells allows propagation of | | | |
|stimuli through the heart wall. |I can explain the secretion and reabsorption of | | |
| |acetylcholine by neurons at synapses. | | |
|Signals from the sinoatrial node that cause contraction cannot| | | |
|pass directly from atria to ventricles. |I can explain the blocking of synaptic transmission at | | |
| |cholinergic synapses in insects by binding of | | |
|There is a delay between the arrival and passing on of a |neonicotinoid pesticides to acetylcholine receptors. | | |
|stimulus at the atrioventricular node. | | | |
| |I can analyze oscilloscope traces showing resting | | |
|This delay allows time for atrial systole before the |potentials and action potentials. | | |
|atrioventricular valves close. | | | |
| |I can explain the causes and treatment of Type I and | | |
|Conducting fibres ensure coordinated contraction of the entire|Type II diabetes. | | |
|ventricle wall. | | | |
| |I can describe the testing of leptin on patients with | | |
|The heart rate can be increased or decreased by impulses |clinical obesity and explain reasons for the failure to| | |
|brought to the heart through two nerves from the medulla of |control the disease. | | |
|the brain. | | | |
| |I can explain the causes of jet lag and use of | | |
|Epinephrine increases the heart rate to prepare for vigorous |melatonin to alleviate it. | | |
|physical activity. | | | |
| |I can explain the use in IVF of drugs to suspend the | | |
|Normal heart sounds are caused by the atrioventricular valves |normal secretion of hormones, followed by the use of | | |
|and semilunar valves closing causing changes in blood flow. |artificial doses of hormones to induce superovulation | | |
| |and establish a pregnancy. | | |
|The skin and mucous membranes form a primary defense against | | | |
|pathogens that cause infectious disease. |I can discuss William Harvey’s investigation of sexual | | |
| |reproduction in deer. | | |
|Cuts in the skin are sealed by blood clotting. | | | |
| |I can annotate diagrams of the male and female | | |
|Clotting factors are released from platelets. |reproductive system to show names of structures and | | |
| |their functions. | | |
|The cascade results in the rapid conversion of fibrinogen to | | | |
|fibrin by thrombin. |I can describe the roles of FSH, LH, estrogen and | | |
| |progesterone in the menstrual cycle. | | |
|Ingestion of pathogens by phagocytic white blood cells gives | | | |
|non-specific immunity to diseases. |Literacy Targets: | | |
| | | | |
|Production of antibodies by lymphocytes in response to |Please see literacy targets for Unit 1: Cell biology | | |
|particular pathogens gives specific immunity. | | | |
| | | | |
|Antibiotics block processes that occur in prokaryotic cells | | | |
|but not in eukaryotic cells. | | | |
| | | | |
|Viruses lack a metabolism and cannot therefore be treated with| | | |
|antibiotics. | | | |
| | | | |
|Some strains of bacteria have evolved with genes that confer | | | |
|resistance to antibiotics and some strains of bacteria have | | | |
|multiple resistance. | | | |
| | | | |
|Ventilation maintains concentration gradients of oxygen and | | | |
|carbon dioxide between air in alveoli and blood flowing in | | | |
|adjacent capillaries. | | | |
| | | | |
|Type I pneumocytes are extremely thin alveolar cells that are | | | |
|adapted to carry out gas exchange. | | | |
| | | | |
|Type II pneumocytes secrete a solution containing surfactant | | | |
|that creates a moist surface inside the alveoli to prevent the| | | |
|sides of the alveolus adhering to each other by reducing | | | |
|surface tension. | | | |
| | | | |
|Air is carried to the lungs in the trachea and bronchi and | | | |
|then to the alveoli in bronchioles. | | | |
|Muscle contractions cause the pressure changes inside the | | | |
|thorax that force air in and out of the lungs to ventilate | | | |
|them. | | | |
|Different muscles are required for inspiration and expiration | | | |
|because muscles only do work when they contract. | | | |
| | | | |
|Neurons transmit electrical impulses. | | | |
|The myelination of nerve fibres allows for saltatory | | | |
|conduction. | | | |
| | | | |
|Neurons pump sodium and potassium ions across their membranes | | | |
|to generate a resting potential. | | | |
|An action potential consists of depolarization and | | | |
|repolarization of the neuron. | | | |
| | | | |
|Nerve impulses are action potentials propagated along the | | | |
|axons of neurons. | | | |
| | | | |
|Propagation of nerve impulses is the result of local currents | | | |
|that cause each successive part of the axon to reach the | | | |
|threshold potential. | | | |
| | | | |
|Synapses are junctions between neurons and between neurons and| | | |
|receptor or effector cells. | | | |
| | | | |
|When presynaptic neurons are depolarized they release a | | | |
|neurotransmitter into the synapse. | | | |
| | | | |
|A nerve impulse is only initiated if the threshold potential | | | |
|is reached. | | | |
| | | | |
|Insulin and glucagon are secreted by β and α cells of the | | | |
|pancreas respectively to control blood glucose concentration. | | | |
| | | | |
|Thyroxin is secreted by the thyroid gland to regulate the | | | |
|metabolic rate and help control body temperature. | | | |
| | | | |
|Leptin is secreted by cells in adipose tissue and acts on the | | | |
|hypothalamus of the brain to inhibit appetite. | | | |
| | | | |
|Melatonin is secreted by the pineal gland to control circadian| | | |
|rhythms. | | | |
| | | | |
|A gene on the Y chromosome causes embryonic gonads to develop | | | |
|as testes and secrete testosterone. | | | |
| | | | |
|Testosterone causes pre-natal development of male genitalia | | | |
|and both sperm production and development of male secondary | | | |
|sexual characteristics during puberty. | | | |
| | | | |
|Estrogen and progesterone cause pre-natal development of | | | |
|female reproductive organs and female secondary sexual | | | |
|characteristics during puberty. | | | |
| | | | |
|The menstrual cycle is controlled by negative and positive | | | |
|feedback mechanisms involving ovarian and pituitary hormones. | | | |
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