Abstract Template



High Efficiency Transit Oriented Development inCarbondale, IllinoisbyLucas ShubertB.S., Southern Illinois University, 2012A.A.S., St. Louis Community College, 2010A.S., Belleville Community College, 2006A.A., Belleville Community College, 2006A Design ThesisSubmitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for theMaster of ArchitectureDepartment of ArchitectureIn the Graduate School atSouthern Illinois University CarbondaleAugust 2013AbstractCommittee Chairperson: Shannon McDonaldEfficient ease of access for all residents of Carbondale and the promotion of commercial growth throughout the public areas of the city are the driving forces behind this project. This design thesis proposes a new multi-modal transportation hub, an automated parking garage, and new commercial development in the center of Carbondale, Illinois; it also includes several new systems that complement them. The most complex of these is a personal rapid transit (PRT) system that connects downtown Carbondale with the SIUC campus and a large portion of the surrounding area. Notable pieces of the surrounding area include a series of green spaces that deserve to be connected by dedicated pedestrian and bicycle pathways. This project also intends to create an efficient balance of power production and consumption, in a high-traffic and public space, by harvesting many different forms of potential energy. For example, the full potential of solar energy collection and conversion of kinetic energy into electricity has not yet been fully realized. Creating a model for place-driven ingenuity is the goal of this research. This has been accomplished by combining functional public transit with new, interesting destination spaces that operate as sustainably as possible in a small city within a rural setting.Table of ContentsPart I: Research and AnalysisChapter 1: Introduction to the Research ......................................................1Chapter 2: Statement of Purpose ................................................................3Chapter 3: Project Background ....................................................................4Chapter 4: Problem Statement ....................................................................7Chapter 5: Literature Review .......................................................................15Chapter 6: Response to the Problem ...........................................................XXChapter 7: Research Methodologies ...........................................................XXChapter 8: Case Studies ..............................................................................XXChapter 9: City Analysis ...............................................................................XXChapter 10: Site Analysis .............................................................................XXChapter 11: Preliminary Conclusions ...........................................................XXPart II: The Stages of Architectural DesignChapter 12: Code Analysis of Programmatic Elements ...............................XXChapter 13: Conceptual Design ...................................................................XXChapter 15: Schematic Design ....................................................................XXChapter 14: Energy Modeling ......................................................................XXChapter 16: Design Development ................................................................XXChapter 17: Building Systems ......................................................................XXChapter 18: Project Evaluation …………………………………………….......XXChapter 19: Bibliography .............................................................................XXChapter 20: Appendix ..................................................................................XXPart IResearch and Analysis Chapter 1Introduction to the ResearchThis research describes and analyzes all relevant conditions in and around Carbondale, Illinois related to the design of new buildings and public transit systems. It begins with a broad description of the recognized problems—namely inefficient, to the point of unused, public transit and a disjointed downtown area. This research then analyzes the region and city to find the best site for new high efficiency transit oriented development to solve these problems. Cases with similar traits to this design project are studied to help deduce the best way to make the chosen site as functional as possible. Vehicular and pedestrian traffic, storm water runoff, solar orientation, noise, existing building use, etc., within the site are then examined in the interest of creating a new small city downtown environment.From there, this research drives the creative solution for the problems defined above. City codes and programmatic requirements are observed and calculated to help define the limitations, size, and shape of the combined spaces. The architectural process, based on information provided by this research, then moves through typical phases: conceptual design, schematic design, and design development. The design of the building is based heavily on function and connection between the included transit systems – PRT, rail, and bicycle. The exterior form, composition, and rhythm of the building are driven by the nature of its programmatic requirements. The type of structure chosen is based on the knowledge of typical local building methods for the size and type of building mixed with some unique geometry and interesting materials. Active and passive building systems are then researched, analyzed, and implemented along with energy modeling based on methods described by the AIA. A final set of presentation documents are also included to aid in future research related to these topics.Chapter 2Statement of PurposeThe purpose of this design thesis research is to explore building and planning practices along with new technological systems that can provide insight into the future design of spaces with longer lives and lower life-cycle costs than the status quo by using materials and construction methods that are intended to last. This design is also conscious of energy usage, by striving for zero energy design and making it a perpetual goal. Hypothetical energy production and consumption are measured and balanced as well as possible through simulation and careful design. This design will contribute to the overall aesthetic of and connect to its surroundings. It is intended to improve the quality of life in the city of Carbondale.Chapter 3Project BackgroundThis design thesis is the descendent of previous research based on the development of a PRT system within Carbondale, Illinois—specifically within the SIUC campus. The goal of that research was to compare the benefits and detriments of both the current fixed-route shuttle system and something different.Figure 3.1. Carbondale and Its Existing Transportation Conditions.Figure 3.1 shows the greater Carbondale, Illinois area. The city is broken up in pieces based on use. Uses include residential, business, SIUC campus, and parks/green spaces. This map shows the importance of the SIUC campus to the greater Carbondale area. While the zoning usage on this map is someone generalized, residential areas generally lay south of Illinois Route 13 to the east and west of SIUC campus. The piece of Carbondale north of Route 13 is mostly commercial. These zones have dramatically different transit needs.The commercial half of the city has more shared destinations and paths than the residential half, making its transit demands lower. Residential areas have more, smaller streets that are used more frequently by those who live there, making efficient design of programmed routes very difficult. The large SIUC campus portion of Carbondale is much more problematic to connect through transit and transportation paths than residential and commercial areas. It is much more densely populated and used in a completely different way, making transit design to and from campus very tedious.Points of Interest The greater Carbondale area can justifiably be simplified into three major destination areas: the historic downtown ‘strip,’ the sprawling corridor along Highway 13, and the SIUC campus (see Figure 3.1). Historic downtown is in many ways the center of the city. The Carbondale Civic Center, City Hall, and Amtrak station are located on adjacent blocks along with a string of small businesses along Route 51, forming the ‘strip.’ The land along Highway 13 through Carbondale has almost completely become, as commercial interests have developed throughout the years, a string of strip malls, big box stores, and franchise restaurants. Its resultant current state is approximately two miles of unlinked destinations which are only realistically accessible my vehicle. This entire corridor could be serviced by two PRT lines following Highway 13 on its north and south. There is typically ample space on both sides of the highway for the addition of new PRT lines. However, due to the number of intersections these lines would encounter, it would be more efficient to remove them from grade to prevent liability, as Robbert Lohmann has stated.Elevated Paths New infrastructure like elevated roads, PRT lines and walkways would undoubtedly be a major undertaking for Carbondale, or any small city for that matter. Therefore, the benefits and detriments would have to be weighed very closely. There is also an opportunity for using the existing elevated walkways over Route 51 (noted on Figure 9) as a combination of PRT lines as well as walking/biking paths.Campus Connections Within the SIUC campus, there are four ways to get around: walking, bicycling, vehicle, and Saluki Express shuttle. Pedestrian means and bicycle are generally the most efficient way to travel from point to point throughout the campus, using the existing sidewalks and paths. However, due to Carbondale’s and the SIUC campus’s low building density over a large area, walking and bicycling to the campus usually create a time cost over other ways to get there. Access to a terminal destination by Saluki Express shuttle or private vehicle is uncommon on the campus. Vehicular travel is also mitigated by a lack of available parking and the nature of Lincoln Drive meandering around the perimeter of about half the campus cutting off access to its interior. Connection between the major (and minor) points of interest and destinations could be improved greatly by a series of PRT lines. Figure 9 conceptually shows where these new lines could be placed within the SIUC campus. Most of the proposed PRT lines follow existing roads and paths, in an effort to limit potential capital costs. In areas where a series of intersections are unavoidable, the proposed lines would either be raised off the ground or travel beneath the grade (depending on the cost).Figure 3.1. Connections between points of interest within the SIUC campus,provided by SIUC parking division.Chapter 4Problem StatementThe first problem to be addressed by this design thesis is overcoming the limitations of the current transportation systems available within the city. As previously stated, public transit connecting the SIUC campus to the rest of Carbondale is currently limited to the Saluki Express shuttle system and the pay-to-ride Jackson County Mass Transit. Using the figures of 10 vehicles transporting 500 people per hour per day by Masdar City’s current PRT system, it can be stated that a similar system could hypothetically handle the peak monthly ridership per hour of approximately 264 on the Saluki Express (Masdar City 2013).Private Transportation Based on the relatively high, when weighed against available public transit options, population of Carbondale, private modes are clearly the most prevalent form of transportation. The most glaring problem with being heavily reliant upon private transportation is that a common one experienced by countless universities and small cities the world over—parking.Parking challenges are handled differently by SIUC campus and the city of Carbondale. SIUC chooses to create desperately high demand for parking within its campus by creating scarcity. It then charges all students and residents for the chance to use it. This policy could potentially be very successful if used in conjunction with efficient public transit. However, that transit option does not yet exist. The city handles parking in a completely different way—by supplying drivers with an overwhelming amount of paved area. The results are a city in which there is no shortage of public parking, but at the same time little demand for public transit. Parking garages are uncommon in Carbondale; and currently, the only operational one serves Memorial Hospital. The only one existing on the SIUC campus was recently removed as per the proposed campus master plan.Carbondale, being a university community, has a portion of residents who do not have access to their own vehicle. For example, students from foreign countries may not feel the need for private transportation, having previously lived in an area where it is less common. SIUC students from large metropolitan areas, like Chicago may also be accustomed to readily available public transit including light rail—something that does not exist in Carbondale. These students, therefore, can find themselves in need of reliable public transit.Public Transit Public transit within Carbondale exists in two forms: a public shuttle system called the Saluki Express, and a pay-to-ride shuttle system available to all county residents called Jackson County Mass Transit. Of these two options, the Saluki Express (described in greater detail below) is vastly more popular and can be used by anyone with an SIUC student ID. It is the primary component of Carbondale’s combined transportation potential. The shuttles themselves range from 40-60 passengers and arrive at specific destinations along pre-determined routes. Public transit on a regional level also serves Carbondale in the form of passenger rail lines from New Orleans to Chicago and a daily commuter bus line to St. Louis.Pedestrian & Bicycle Walking and biking are two very popular ways to get around the city. Raised walkways over Route 51 connect the SIUC dormitory and cafeteria buildings with the central campus. Existing designated bicycle paths are noted on Figure 5. “Based on community input received, there is a call…for improved pedestrian connections citywide (CCP 2010).” These methods of travel are perhaps the least demanding, economically, for which to create safe pathways. Therefore, the proposed campus master plan, shown in Figure 4, within the CCP has included several new pedestrian pathways.Figure 4.1. Proposed SIUC campus master plan (CCP 2010).Connectivity is the other major problem being addressed It refers to a series of conditions that are unsatisfied in Carbondale presently. They include various aspects of access, travel time, and cost.Handicapped Accessibility The SIUC campus itself is almost completely accessible. However, the city is less accommodating to wheelchairs due to a number of factors. The first is the topography of the region. Much of the paved parking area off of the SIUC campus is uneven or its primary access includes stairs. Also, due to the nature of Carbondale’s growth, slowly and outwardly from the city center, much of the older development remains noncompliant with ADA standards.Relating to transportation, accessibility is handled by the Saluki Express with wheelchair accessible entrances on all the shuttles. Also, the stops along its routes are at locations where disabled persons can easily reach them. SIUC and Carbondale have a long and early history of accessibility.Last Mile Situation The last mile situation in Carbondale is an issue that has seemingly not been considered by those analyzing and designing travel around the city. The Saluki Express routes, as displayed in Figure 5, connect many points of interest throughout Carbondale. However, there is a high probability that a great deal of time must be allowed for one to switch routes to reach a particular destination. Travel time, therefore, becomes a limiting factor for Saluki Express riders.The last mile outside the SIUC campus is not limited by proximity to or amount of parking, but instead by the number of destinations per given area. The difference is that while on SIUC campus one might travel to an intermediate destination, like a parking lot of at a shuttle stop, and from there travel to one of several equidistant terminal destinations. Throughout the rest of Carbondale there are very few intermediate destinations, creating a larger travel time between terminal destinations.Under-Serviced Areas Based on the information in Figure 5, several areas in the city of Carbondale and within the SIUC campus are under-serviced by the Saluki Express. For example, the noted residential areas northwest and southeast of the SIUC campus have zero Saluki Express routes traveling through them. Residents in these areas can live over a mile from the nearest Saluki Express stop. One mile is not a physically daunting distance for a commuter to walk before catching a ride, but it does create a time cost that riders must plan around. In fact, Smart Location-Option 3 of the Neighborhood Development portion of LEED specifies in order to achieve the credit: a “1/4 mile walk distance of bus and/or streetcar stops, or within a ? mile walk distance of bus rapid transit stops, light or heavy rail stations (USGBC 2013).” The greater Carbondale area could be serviced more evenly by distributing existing shuttles on more varied routes.The northern end of the city can also be seen as under-serviced by the Saluki Express, as shown on Figure 5. However, this area is neither residential, nor a series of commercial destinations. The Southern Illinois Airport is another area in the region that would need better transit connection to the city and SIUC campus if it were to become an integral part of the regional economy.The second problem involves linking and redeveloping a fragmented small city downtown by creating new spaces and connecting non-complementary areas with functional pathways.Inter-Connectivity Connection between transportation systems within a city is vital to successful and efficient use by commuters, students, employees, and residents alike. Modal connections between private vehicles and Saluki Express shuttle routes are very limited within the SIUC campus. Outside the campus, only a few routes have stops within or near parking areas, as depicted in Figure 5 above.Inter-connectivity between Carbondale’s existing transportation systems could hypothetically allow a commuter to travel to Carbondale, either by train, bus, or private vehicle, and then transfer to a Saluki Express shuttle, Jackson County Mass Transit shuttle, or car pool before reaching a terminal destination. However, without dramatic redesign of these systems’ routes and time tables, this kind of commuter usage would be an inefficient use of time.Saluki Express Since the Saluki Express is the primary component of public transit in Carbondale, analyzing its various costs for later comparison to more efficient systems is a worthwhile endeavor. The Saluki Express system is a series of shuttles operating on pre-determined routes throughout Carbondale and the SIUC campus. A typical fleet size of approximately 20 shuttles multiplies the cost of driver compensation, maintenance, coordination, and management. The shuttles themselves are rented from a local company and run on diesel fuel.Another cost associated with the Saluki Express is its interaction on the same grade using the same roads as vehicular traffic, creating the potential for dangerous contact for riders. The only ways to avoid this risk are by removing the shuttles from ground level or creating separation from existing pathways.Over-Serviced Areas Any stop along a transit line that almost never has potential riders can be considered over-serviced. Over-servicing of a given area by the Saluki Express is something that must be avoided in the interest of cost efficiency. As displayed by the ridership data in Figure 7, over-servicing is a common occurrence along the South route of the Saluki Express. For example, five or fewer riders embarked or disembarked during two stops per three different times at four destinations. And less than 20 riders used the shuttle system in during the same window of time. Similar results are likely prevalent along one or all of the other Saluki Express routes. These outcomes further express the most recognizable problem with a fixed route shuttle as being inconsistent ridership.Another form of over-service by the Saluki Express is the placement of overlapping routes arriving at the same destinations at the same times, as can be followed in real time at siuc.. While these routes lead different directions away from similar stops, they miss chances to allow riders to transfer between lines and still arrive at their destinations. This kind of change to the routes can lead to a greater time cost for riders. However, it could serve as a compromise between more evenly distributed routes and travel time.Energy Challenges Energy conservation relating to transportation is something that has yet to be addressed in Carbondale. Saluki Express transit fuel costs include diesel fuel and coal. Diesel fuel must be supplied to operate the shuttles day to day. Coal is burned at a plant within the SIUC campus to supply heat and electricity for operations, maintenance, and lighting at stops along the routes. SIUC’s power plant has employed a circulating fluidized bed combustion boiler for the last sixteen years; and it is currently conducting research concerning alternative energy resources like biomass for heating campus boilers (Coal Research Center 2013). These traditional energy production systems are common throughout Southern Illinois. However, according to Robbert Lohmann of 2getthere, a personal rapid transit design company, they result in a higher operational cost than automated systems which also produce some of the energy they consume.Chapter 5Literature ReviewSustainable Transportation Planning by Jeffrey Tumlin This book asserts the idea that sustainable urbanism is the most important factor in developing sustainable cities in the near future. It also claims that while most planning disciplines have begun to work together due to new worldwide initiatives to meet sustainability challenges, transportation planning has not. This book attempts to remedy this problem by modernizing the practice by giving clear instructions for new and better concepts. These tools learned from reading this book were useful through most of the design process.Methods for planning in urban environments of all shapes and sizes are provided within this book, as are all of the concepts required to achieve a ‘sustainable’ community. It discusses everything from inter-modal transportation, to variable pricing based on demand and location of system users, to planning bicycle-oriented green pathways, to design of road and railways based on service level, etc. It is a contemporary book that addresses issues which have only begun to gain momentum in recent years. Some examples of this include performance measurement and the relationship between improved public health and the relationship between cities with up-to-date sustainable transportation systems. These concepts are all reinforced by accurate sources, useful case studies, and sharp diagrams. However, the case studies are possibly lacking in detail in some areas, such as adding depth into what can be immaterial concepts. The most effective tool the author used while writing this book is probably the ability to use plain language while discussing a subject this is typically very esoteric.The Urban Oasis by Roxanne Warren This book attempts to define greenways and describe how they can be intertwined with urban settings, reducing or eliminating the need for suburban sprawl. It also attempts to define their function within the urban fabric as environmentally friendly connections between points of interest. Since this thesis includes the beginnings of connections to potential greenways in Carbondale, albeit on a smaller scale than is typically viewed in The Urban Oasis, there are a number of useful ideas and models within this book.The first part of this book is a macro-summary of perceived reasons for the historical separation between the urban and the rural. It goes on to attempt to understand the conflict between the supposed benefits and detriments (as understood in a general sense) of these two types of living conditions. Some examples of this include views of efficient cars versus larger, older models and compact development. From there, it moves on to the idea of intermingling systems and their impact on the setting around them. For example connections between pedestrian zones and rail lines can be a serious challenge, which directly pertains to this design thesis. The difference between a village/city relationship and a city/suburb is then explained. The biggest difference being that a suburb can exist independently of its city, while a village cannot. The last chapter of the book is an observation by the author that planning should not intrude on those it is meant to serve, but rather make their lives easier.Ungers: The Dialectic City by Oswald Mathias Ungers & Stefan Vieths The author, Stefan Vieths, analyzes and comments on a portion of O. M. Ungers’ career as an architect in Germany. This book is an intriguing attempt to engage the problem of designing in various urban settings and “in the new voids born with the generalized industrial cities” (Ungers 1997). The book is generally based around a series of competitions Ungers’ office participated in and won in Germany, creating a perfect environment to document several approaches which pertain to the urban context. Eight projects are introduced and examined thoroughly from beginning to end. Intricate methodologies are applied and studied in each case. The cities involved include Magdeburg, Neuss Hammefeld, Berlin, Koln, and Rostock, providing a plethora of conditions and analogous situations. The work of Ungers has developed into masterful collection, growing beyond the ideals of modernism or post-modernism. Three of his most well-known buildings are the German Museum of Architecture and the Galeria of Frankfurt, and the Polar Research Institute.Powering the Future by Robert B. Laughlin This book provides insight from a Nobel Laureate in Physics about the current conditions and imminent outcomes of the state of energy production and consumption on a global scale. It is useful in ascertaining general knowledge of various modern energy technologies and how they function. The author asserts that global warming is not actually taking place, as popular opinion dictates, and there is enough fossil fuel for at least the next two centuries. Given these two estimations, today’s energy analysts should focus on different problems.The book as a whole is a guide to energy issues for the uninformed, as viewed through the eyes of a physicist. The author enthusiastically studies subjects such as thermal storage, solar and nuclear power, garbage incineration, among others. He gives multiple examples per chapter about both untapped potential that exists in the world today as well as more bleak situations that should be addressed. For example he assumes that once fossil fuels have almost been consumed by man and scarcity grows, energy will become more expensive. The tone of the book seems to change from optimistic to pessimistic almost as regularly as the subject matter and schemes related to it. However, Dr. Laughlin’s work can easily be seen as a useful tool to fuel one’s imagination and for expand ones impressions of new forms of energy usage.Powering the Dream by Alexis Madrigal This book tells the story of the history and ideals of ‘green’ technology in the United States of America throughout recent centuries. Learning how to improve upon the past is a very useful tool for designing systems with age-old conditions and requirements. This book covers many popular energy-related issues. It moves in somewhat chronological order through the various projects and decades.The first part of the book studies the various forms of forward thinking green technology and futurist ideals, the first example of which is the TED conferences that take place throughout the world every year to discuss existing and potential methods of minimizing potential world problems through planning and technology. As with much of this book, the next portion is a history lesson about the ‘first green-technology futurist.’ After that, it moves on to commentary on a series of views of the modern world as a potential utopia given the right amount and use of future technology.The next part of the book is about past attempts, both successful and unsuccessful, at creating ‘sustainable’ sources of energy for day-to-day use by all. These forms of energy production include steam power versus electricity, wind power to pump water, the story of petroleum’s triumph over other forms of energy production, wave motors, and compressed air.The third part of the book discusses ‘what might have been.’ The unsuccessful undertakings noted within this section include a story about a means of moving electricity across the United States that never got off the ground, the beginning and end of solar hot water heaters, the quick rise and fall in popularity of solar homes, the Solar Energy Research Institute, the idea of Luz, and the parable of the study of microorganisms as an energy source.The last two sections of the book are a study in present and future green technology. Various forms of new and interesting innovations like thermodynamics and transcendentalism are discussed and revealed as promising lessons from the past that can be used as tools in the future. More specifically, some of these future advances listed are Google’s RE < C Challenge, Nuclear Power’s impact on current green technology, inexpensive turbines, the return of compressed air, innovative software, and environmentalism.Future Transport in Cities by Brian Richards This book is not technical in nature. Instead it paints a picture of the current transportation designs and conditions all over the world. The purpose of the book is to provide insight about various cultures and their relationship to a particular transportation scheme. There is an emphasis on designing to reduce traffic volume and its detrimental effects on pedestrian traffic. This idea is pivotal to this design thesis in that its goal is to reduce private and public vehicular traffic and replace it with a personal rapid transit system. This book explains the best examples from around the world through diagrams and illustrations from their architects.The book begins by attempting to describe the current world-wide public transit situation—including both its high and low points. Similar to The Urban Oasis, Future Transport in Cities notes a generally poor relationship between high volumes of automobile and pedestrian traffic. This idea carries over to the relationship between residential and commercial areas. The next subject of the book is a summary of existing public transit systems, optimistically looking at some of the most effective systems to be found. It also claims that rail lines, somewhat disused over the last decades, have recently experienced a rebirth in urban settings. From there this book moves into the future, prescribing systems that deserve to be investigated and implemented in “the future city.” These systems are typically a second step based on the most successful systems that exist today.The rest of the book contains commentary on the overall design of prospective cities, assuming that (if planners are to follow the instructions of this book) a movement toward a strong city core will once again be the goal. The best way to reach this goal is to make use of the new transport technology listed within. This notion applies to most current forms of transportation, including cars, bikes, personal rapid transit, and light rail. While this book is not necessarily a guide for implementing them, the ideas summarized by this book are interesting and even entertaining.Fundamentals of Personal Rapid Transit by Jack H. Irving This book, although somewhat dated (1968) as a source of information about new technology, describes several ideals behind well-functioning personal rapid transit systems. The information within the book ranges from very technical to guiding rules. Basically the more technical the information is, the less accurate it remains 50 years later. But, the guidelines found within are still soundly constructed and communicated. Technical information includes things like the optimal slope of a PRT guideway, as it rises from grade level to an elevation. While this is a useful starting point, this information is based off of a set of variables (such as the power of the vehicles involved) that is constantly changing, and therefore must be scrutinized. However, there are many beneficial concepts in this book, which are just as true today as they were when it was written. For example, the author states that a PRT system will always be most effectively used when it connects to multiple modes of transportation—an important piece of this design thesis.Give the City Back to the People by George W. Jernstedt & Tom K. Phares This book discusses situations involved with large-scale issues found in urban planning. While urban planning itself is only peripherally connected to this thesis, some valuable traits of it are included. The conditions addressed in this book tend to be on a scale larger than that of a small city like Carbondale, but principles still apply to this design thesis.The specific focus of this book is the idea of changing existing cities with advanced public transit systems and far-reaching pedestrian pathways for the better. Normally this weighty subject is communicated very technically and esoterically. However in this case, it is written in a way which makes it available to a more general audience. A large portion of this book alludes to the author’s part in the design of a “horizontal elevator.” This type of system is not popular in the United States; but, it is more prevalent in other countries, such as France. The public transit systems in Atlanta, San Francisco, and Washington D.C. are also debated in great detail. Their shortcomings, which result in unduly low ridership, are discussed. The end of the book is an account of Americans’ former infatuation with public transit, such as trolleys and passenger rail followed by a contrast between then and now, the most glaring of which being reliance on privately owned transportation over public. The greatest lesson this book teaches is that public transit is not a foreign concept to the people of the United States, but rather a sum of antiquated systems that has simply not managed to re-earn its place in the mainstream mindset of most modern cities.Small City Transit by U.S. Department of Transportation This collection of articles depicts a wide range of transportation systems. Each of them is described as succeeding or failing based a set of clearly defined issues. While some of the articles are subjective in nature, they still provide insight of which future designs and this thesis may take advantage. Most of the cases studied in this report are based around typical public transit systems, such as bus lines or fixed route shuttle systems. While this design thesis is intended to be a step past those modes, learning from their flaws is certainly useful.Transparency: Literal and Phenomenal by Colin Rowe This article is a somewhat pedantic review of two different interpretations of the idea of transparency in both art and architecture. The author begins by describing, in a somewhat roundabout manner, his definitions of transparency. First, there is the literal form—clear glass displayed in a visibly bounded form. The second type of transparency is that which is phenomenally perceived through less obvious means. His example to illustrate these two types of transparency begins with examples of cubist art and then transitioned into architecture. The first example of literal transparency is one of Picasso’s paintings showing clearly defined boundaries forming abstract shapes that most viewers will almost certainly all discover similarly. His example of phenomenal transparency is a painting by Braque, which similarly depicts various shapes. These shapes, however, are not formed by blatant boundaries. They are instead phenomenally transparent because they do not actually exist unless perceived as part of the painting as a whole.These qualities of transparency readily lend themselves to architecture in countless forms. An example given in the article is that of the various fa?ades of the Bauhaus. Some faces of the buildings are completely glazed, creating a sense of literal transparency. Meanwhile, the form of the buildings can create a sense of phenomenal transparency if one is approaching from a certain angle. These concepts can be employed in this design thesis in a number of ways. Firstly, planning the site of the project heavily involves the use of boundaries and axes. Together these can form literal and phenomenal form. Also, the new buildings proposed in this thesis will inherently include transparency—both literal and phenomenal.Chapter 6Response to ProblemHigh efficiency transit options are studies in an effort to determine how best to respond to the problem of existing low functioning public transit. Eventually, the research led to the choice of developing a PRT system throughout Carbondale. Development of the system began on the SIUC campus and spread from there to connect downtown, various residential and commercial areas, and Southern Illinois Airport.Car Share One means of efficient public transit is a car share system. There are countless forms of car shares in operation around the world. One such system exists to alleviate peak time commuter traffic around Washington, DC called the Slug Line. This system is essentially a car pool, but the passengers and driver are usually strangers. The potential passengers generally wait in line at a pre-determined location while drivers form of a queue of their own in an effort to gain the number of people needed to travel along the high occupancy vehicle lanes. This model could only be applied to Carbondale in a limited way, if parking was free or more accessible for carpoolers within the SIUC campus.Another popular form of car share found in dozens of cities and universities throughout the world is administered by a company called Zipcar. This system is designed to relieve traffic in densely populated areas by allowing users to arrive at an intermediate destination by private vehicle, public transit, or pedestrian means and then reserving a vehicle to reach a terminal destination (Zipcar 2013). What makes Zipcar different from a car rental company is its infrastructure, wherein a user pays a monthly rate, giving him or her access to any vehicle at any Zipcar station available by swiping a card over the vehicle’s windshield (Zipcar 2013). Per hour and per day rental rates at the University of Illiniois, the nearest population center using Zipcar, are high compared to typical mass transit prices in Southern Illinois (Zipcar 2013). Basically, Zipcar presents an option for less expensive, need-based vehicle usage. This system could potentially function in a small city like Carbondale, using one or two stations to serve the area.Automated Transit Networks (ATN) Energy conservation has traditionally not been a primary concern in public transit systems outside of large cities in the U.S. However, concerning the development of modern systems, energy management is a paramount. Aside from lower operational costs than traditional systems and quicker travel times, energy efficiency is a fundamental feature of ATN. The purpose of an ATN is to provide efficient service with operational cost that is as low as possible. ATN is a blanket term for many different forms of efficient transportation, the most common form of which has become personal rapid transit. Personal Rapid Transit (PRT) Of the automated transit systems available for development within a small city setting, PRT seems to be the optimal choice. The current ideas governing PRT design are the result of what has turned into decades of development....in the 1960’s, the popularity of the private car and the degree of congestion on the roads in the United States, led the department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD) to seek out alternative ideas for transport, from their research institutions, which would still hold on to the basic idea of using small individual vehicles. (Richards 2001 124)From that research to William Alden’s first attempts at miniature cars out of his Massachusetts corporation, the future of efficient transportation systems began heading toward PRT’s current state of continual development (Richards 2001 124-125). Alden’s most lasting achievement in the early stages of PRT research was that of switching station design and its potential for quickly moving small automated vehicles operating independently within a very close proximity to one another (Richards 2001 125). Over the course of decades, the idea of PRT has transformed into a functional system constantly being tested and currently constructed in developing cities. A modern PRT ideally consists of a fleet of automated vehicles, powered by a renewable energy source, traveling from point-to-point on pre-determined paths separate from vehicular traffic. PRT offers the travel time convenience of private transportation as well as more efficient operations costs than traditional public transit.According to Robbert Lohmann, the annual cost of a shuttle system like Saluki Express is between 3.3 and 4 million dollars, assuming the cost per bus of 80-100 dollars per hour multiplied by typical hours of operation. He goes on to state that estimated cost is too high for the system’s number of passengers. It is very difficult to design routes that can handle the peak number of riders without over compensating throughout the rest of the day. This cost/usage imbalance further illustrates the point that a fixed route shuttle system is ill suited for situations where the number of riders can vary greatly. Therefore an automated system, possibly similar to the case studies below, would greatly improve transportation conditions in Carbondale.Chapter 7Research MethodologiesSome of the variables to be tested are traffic density by all forms of transportation as well as pedestrians in Carbondale, Illinois. Other variables include energy requirements of transportation hubs and production capacity of gasification and solar harvesting devices. Each is tested through many methods of research. For example, pedestrian density is measured through a digital simulation of transportation around Carbondale. It is also researched quantitatively Simulation Modeling Simulation modeling is vital in the investigation of both ridership and energy consumption requirements. Studies of capacities for various modes of transportation including light rail, bus, shuttle, personal rapid transit, automobile, and bicycle rental are carried out through digital and analog simulation. Travel time for these modes is also studied and compared with one another through various paths and between various destinations around Carbondale.Case Studies Case studies of existing city-wide transportation systems and their functionality provide valuable insight. While the parameters vary from one location to the next, variables tend to remain constant. These variables include ridership availability, user interest, distances to be traveled, available energy production resources, and the amount of potential funding.Qualitative Research Qualitative research is an integral piece of this body of research. While avoiding assumption, things like satisfaction with current transportation conditions in Carbondale are useful in the design process. One piece of this research is a survey about the positivity or negativity of the perception by users of the SES. Other qualitative research includes proximity studies of available public transportation modes and their relationship to densely populated areas in Carbondale.Quantitative Research Quantitative research concerning current transportation system capacities and energy production and consumption methods is readily available and provides a starting point for improvement through design. This is a very technical aspect of the research and the primary means of gathering information concerning power requirements. It is also used to calculate further knowledge from the collected data.Correlational Research Correlational research is carried out by studying the common movements and destinations of people around Carbondale and on the SIUC campus. These commonalities can be carried over into the energy side of this thesis by placing production points when they will benefit most the design. Information was gathered by comparing and contrasting successful transportation solutions with those of Carbondale and changing the pertinent variables.Experimental Research Experimental research is employed in this thesis research by testing situations involving travel time. The researcher tests drive times to various destinations in and around Carbondale and then compares them to proposed systems. Another form of experimental research used involves the process of gasification on a small scale and measuring the amount of available power that can be generated. Chapter 8Case StudiesMasdar City Masdar City, Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates was founded in 2006 as a commercial center with a very specific goal in mind—to develop a sustainable technology and renewable energy research center and use the knowledge it creates in its own infrastructure (Masdar City 2013). In fact, Masdar City translates from Arabic to Source City (Farussi 2011). The harsh desert climate of the region has taught many harsh lessons to its inhabitants over the centuries, one of which being that sustainable living is not a catch phrase, but a reality. It is for this reason that, even though Abu Dhabi controls eight percent of global oil reserves, it “has enough hydrocarbon reserves at current production levels to last 100 years (Masdar City 2013).” Masdar City is being developed in one of the wealthiest nations as well as in the world in an environment that rewards sustainable practices, making it a seemingly ideal technology laboratory and its development over the next decade, until 2025 according to the Khaleej Times, integral to the future of energy-related technology.Figure 8.1. Sustainability model for Masdar City (Masdar City 2013).Figure 8.1 shows a conceptual model for sustainable urban design, one to which Masdar City is attempting to adhere throughout its development and operation (Masdar City 2013). Each of the six inputs below must be intertwined as shown, including transportation planning and management. Perhaps the most important transportation-related fact about Masdar City is its adjacency to the Abu Dhabi International Airport. That, mixed with its focus on being a pedestrian friendly community, can possibly lead to the complete elimination of private vehicles (Masdar City 2013). Designers are following several strategies, including making “walking and self-propelled transport…the most convenient forms of transportation to many destinations within the city (Masdar City 2013).” Strategies as simple as shaded walks and pathways and as complex as electric transit systems will be integrated to this end (Masdar City 2013). The system being developed will function on a series of levels, starting with light rail and mass transit lines that connect the city itself with nearby population centers (Masdar City 2013). For easy travel within the city, studies of personal rapid transit and freight rapid transit that offer the comfort of private transportation with public transit efficiency are being conducted (Masdar City 2013).2getthere was selected to supply the PRT system for Masdar’s first phase, in which it connects the Masdar Institute of Science and Technology (2getthere 2013). The system features 10 PRT and 2 freight rapid transit (FRT) vehicles operating underground on a 1.2 kilometer track accessing 5 stations (2getthere 2013). The vehicles are powered by lithium-phosphate batteries, with a range of as much as 60 kilometers, that are recharged when the vehicle reaches a station (2getthere 2013). Even though this system currently only serves 500 people per hour per day, eventually the city plans to have 3,000 PRT vehicles making 130,000 trips per day (2getthere 2013). A fleet of that size would not be necessary in Carbondale, but the vehicles and their operation methods could readily function there.University of Michigan The University of Michigan (UM) is a large campus setting adjacent to a small city. While the developed area around UM is larger than Carbondale, transportation systems within both are of the same scope. UM has a very successful transit system of buses that is widely used by residents and students alike. Large buses are commonly full of and lined up waiting to be used at multiple stop within campus. This system is, of course, not as cost effective as an electric system composed of more compact units. But it shows initiative to develop functional mass transit on a large university campus.Morgantown Morgantown is a small West Virginia City with a population of about 30,000, according to the 2010 census, which is similar to that of Carbondale. The student population at West Virginia University (WVU), located within Morgantown, is almost twice that of SIUC. Another similarity between Morgantown and Carbondale is that both are the economic centers of their respective regions due to the related universities. Morgantown and Carbondale also share similar demographic income levels, with as much as fifteen percent of the population living below the poverty line (City Data 2013).WVU has been employing an operational PRT system since 1975; it is currently in a period of continual operation that has lasted for over 30 years (Wright 2005). It is difficult to derive the effects on economic and population growth, and usage rates of other transportation systems a functioning PRT system has had on the area. WVU’s initial demand for a new kind of reliable public transportation was spurred by its expansion, which was complicated by the topography of the mountainous region around Morgantown (Anderson 1996). Like Morgantown, Carbondale will be challenged by space limitations in developing new transportation systems. However, Carbondale’s limitations are caused by the existence of previous development instead of topography.The electric vehicles within the PRT system are pods which are about 15 feet long, with a designed capacity of 20 people (Wolfe 2005). A fleet of 73 vehicles, which can travel up to 30 miles per hour, carry approximately 15,000 passengers per typical school day (WVU 2013). While the system is completely automated, the vehicles operate on rails set into separated pathways (WVU 2013). The system is free for Mountaineers (WVU students and personnel), and costs 50 cents per ride for the public (WVU 2013). The system includes only 8.2 miles of track that connect five stations throughout Morgantown and the WVU campuses (WVU 2013). The system outlined above can potentially lend its principle design characteristics to Carbondale and SIUC. A new system of PRT tracks and stations suggest a considerable capital cost. However, operational cost in Carbondale should be lower than that of the Morgantown PRT because of the flatter topography and more temperate weather of the Southern Illinois region. Another way to reduce operational cost would be to eliminate the electrified rail within the tracks in lieu of guided navigational systems that have advanced with PRT technology.Heathrow International Airport Heathrow Airport is one of the busiest in the world. Therefore, its managers decided to implement the first wholly commercial PRT system ever when they hired Ultra PRT to design a system that could fit into the existing infrastructure within the airport (Ultra Global PRT 2013). Having been in use for several years now, the current system includes 3.8 kilometers of one-way guideway connecting three stations (Ultra Global PRT 2013). Even though this is a relatively small system, when compared with Morgantown and the potential of Masdar City, it still manages to move 800 passengers a day; it has carried over 700,000 passengers and autonomously driven one million miles (Ultra Global PRT 2013).Figure 8.2. Typical infrastructure required for Heathrow pod to operate (Ultra Global PRT 2013).Figure 8.2 shows a typical section of the infrastructure required for the PRT system at Heathrow moving over the parking lot to which it eventually connects travelers. This form of low-impact construction carrying a pollution-free mode of cheap public transit is ideal for the context of Carbondale. This system, while not complex in plan, is very effective on a number of levels. Perhaps the most effectively executed piece is safety. Opportunities for human error have been minimized by redundant systems, including closed-circuit television and two-way communication in all pods and self-monitoring that identifies possible maintenance issues with the vehicle before they can become a reality (Ultra Global PRT 2013).Chapter 9City AnalysisRegional Development Illinois was originally settled by the Illini tribe of Native Americans. The state of Illinois is currently, as it was by the first wave of French explorers, named after this tribe. The population of the Southern Illinois region is the result of the immigration of several demographics from the eastern United States throughout the 1700’s. Immigration along the Mississippi River led to the development of St. Louis, MO. After the French and Indian War, Anglo-American settlers from the foothills of Kentucky to the southeast as well as German settlers made the greatest impact on the culture of the region during this time. These two demographics have, perhaps, left the most extensive cultural impression on the region. It was in fact some of the descendants of these peoples that would later found Carbondale. One important note about the area is its nickname-Little Egypt, earned by the surrounding cities including Cairo and Thebes. The joining of the Ohio and Mississippi Rivers and the area’s geographic location south of newly developing Chicago led early settlers to recognize geographic similarities between Southern Illinois and Egypt.Founding Carbondale Since its beginning, transportation has been an integral part of Carbondale’s development. Carbondale, Illinois was originally founded as a direct result of adjacency to pre-existing rail lines. The founding of the city was noted in 1852, 96 miles southeast of St. Louis, Missouri, as three men, Daniel Harmon Brush, John Asgill Conner, and Dr. William Richart earmarked 360 acres of railroad land for the founding of a new town (Explore Carbondale 2013). This southern Illinois site, on the northern edge of what is now the Shawnee National Forest, was chosen because of its geographical relationship between the nearby population centers of Marion, Murphysboro, Makanda, and De Soto (Explore Carbondale 2013). In 1854, the town’s first train ran through from New Orleans to Chicago on Independence Day (Explore Carbondale 2013). Steady use of this main north-south line would remain constant for the next 159 years. On the other hand, the east-west rail line connecting Marion and Murphysboro (the initial reason for the location of the town) has fallen into disuse use over the last century. For most of its first century, though, Carbondale served as a “mercantile and transport center (Explore Carbondale 2013).”Southern Illinois University Carbondale (SIUC) Southern Illinois College was founded in 1866, making Carbondale an educational center in the region (Explore Carbondale 2013). It was later transformed into Southern Illinois Normal University in 1874 when Carbondale won the bid for a teaching school (Explore Carbondale 2013). This school, over the next century and a half has both shaped and influenced Carbondale. At the time, it “gave the town a new industry, new citizens, and a model school of supplement the public grade schools (Explore Carbondale 2013).” The name of the school was changed to Southern Illinois University in 1947, a result of its research contributions (Explore Carbondale 2013). SIUC has since become the “prime motivating force” in Carbondale’s economy, education, and culture in Southern Illinois (Explore Carbondale 2013). It has, therefore, become a hub of various transportation conditions and needs linked to its dense student population of around 20,000. Commuter parking is commonly unavailable within half a mile of the destination within campus; and public transportation options are limited to a shuttle ography The regional topography of Carbondale is generally flatter than that of the foothills of the Ozarks to the south. However, it is hillier than the agricultural prairies found in the center of the state. Walking and biking are both completely viable options for Carbondale residents and SIUC students alike. Floodplains are sparse in the region; and in none exist in Carbondale city limits. Figure 3 below depicts the study area of the Carbondale Comprehensive Plan enacted in 2010. Among other pieces of information on the map are the locations of 100-year and 500-year floodplains. These floodplains are only a consideration on the northern side of the city, away from SIUC campus. They also have little or no bearing on the rail lines.Figure 9.1. Floodplains and city limits around Carbondale (CCP 2010).Climate The climate of Carbondale is, like the rest of Southern Illinois, temperate. There are four distinct seasons with dramatic variations in temperature, humidity, wind, and precipitation. Climactic variables can change from day to day almost as dramatically as season to season in the area. According to , per year the average temperature shift is approximately from 87 degrees to 20 degrees Fahrenheit, about one third of the days have precipitation, and 45 inches of rain fall. The regional climate’s primary effects on transportation are the possibilities of overwhelming heat and humidity in the summer and freezing rain and snow in the winter on pedestrians, bicyclists, and commuters.Figure 9.2. Climatic data of Carbondale.Demography According to the 2010 census, Carbondale has a population of 25,902; and it is the 20th largest city outside of the Chicago metropolitan area in Illinois. The 2000 census claims there were 2,152 people per square mile spread throughout 11,005 housing units. It also states that the ethnicities composing that population were mostly white, about one quarter African American, while a much smaller portion is Asian, Native American and Latino. Nearly half the population of Carbondale was composed of individuals, while only about 22 percent were married couples (U.S. Census 2000).Poverty Jackson is the only county in Southern Illinois whose majority population is not impoverished. That fact, more than any other, lends to the idea its stature as ‘the capital of Southern Illinois.’ The 2000 Census states that 21 percent of the population of Carbondale was below the poverty line; and the median income of the majority of the population was slightly above the poverty line. Efficient public transportation design in sparsely populated low-income cities can be difficult. It is, therefore, not surprising that Carbondale currently has many problems in this area. Rampant poverty also means that there are less vehicle owners in the area, making functional transit necessary.Crime The rate of crime in Carbondale is very high, compared to other cities. It is only safer than 4 percent of the cities in the U.S. and had 1,721 crimes last year, 286 of which were violent (Neighborhood Scout 2013). Every resident of Carbondale has a 1 in 91 chance of being the victim of a crime (Neighborhood Scout 2013). A heightened sense of danger felt by city residents can easily lead to unwillingness to partake in public transportation.Atmosphere All of the above factors (topography, climate, demography, poverty, and crime) are combined to create the ‘atmosphere,’ or overall feeling, of Carbondale in its current state. The most defining of which is the energy of its college-aged populous. Throughout the last few decades, as SIUC students have gained a reputation for progressive activism, new development in the center of Carbondale has slowed down and stagnated. New retail and commercial areas have sprawled to the east along Highway 13, several miles from the historic downtown and SIUC campus along Route 51. Essentially, the steady process of commercial disconnected new from old. This splitting of points of interest has increased resident dependence on private transportation around the city, shifting focus away from public transportation.Carbondale Comprehensive Plan (CCP) Since June of 2010, the Carbondale Comprehensive Plan has been enacted as a……framework for guiding future development, redevelopment, and community enhancement in the city and its planning area over the next 20 years and beyond. The purpose of [the plan] is to establish a vision, along with realistic goals and achievable strategies, that residents, business and land owners, major institutions, civic groups, members of advisory committees, and public officials…will support…in the years ahead. (Plan Review Committee (PRC) 2013)The foci of the plan include an overview of the city and area community, general land use and expansion potential, safety and mobility concerns, housing conditions, economic development, and implementation (PRC 2013). Of these areas of emphasis, mobility and expansion potential directly pertain to surveying existing and possibly developing new transportation modes. One “Strategic Recommendation” is the creation of a Thoroughfare Plan, which will allot ample right-of-way for vehicular as well as pedestrian modes of travel on a more thoughtful grid (PRC 2013).One important item that has arisen since the establishment of the CCP is the development of the Southern Illinois Airport campus northwest of the city in conjunction with a satellite branch of the SIUC campus. Construction of a new SIUC building, the Transportation Education Center, has spurred interest by various parties within the local government concerning how best to utilize the remaining 900 acres adjacent to an airport and transportation-related school. A federal grant has recently been acquired by the Southern Illinois Airport pertaining to this very development, according to the Southern Times. In order for the new development in this area, shown in Figure 4, to reach its full potential, it must be readily accessible by public transit.Site Selection The original choice for the site was adjacent to the SIUC campus, at the intersection of South Illinois Avenue and East Grand Avenue. This location was selected because it is a very busy intersection that deserves a more thoughtful design in the interest of efficiency and safety. From there the probable location of the site began to shift north along the rail line, into downtown. Figure 9.1 shows some of the conceptual analysis involving the relationship of the site to its surroundings.Figure 9.1. Site analysis sketches.However the choice of the final site location is a result of several factors, one of which being that it has already been chosen as by the Carbondale Comprehensive Plan, which is currently in effect since June 22, 2010. It is the site being considered as the location of a new train station. This thesis attempts to use the existing plans of the Carbondale City Council to create a project with potential to be developed. Another reason for the final site choice is its proximity to the downtown commercial area of Carbondale.Figure 9.2 shows the area of Carbondale that is generally considered to be the downtown business district. The areas highlighted in orange are blocks full of successful businesses that regularly attract pedestrian and vehicular traffic. The blocks highlighted in red are areas that are almost or completely vacant, including developed green spaces. The red blocks quickly became candidates for the site for this project, due to their potential to connect the two halves of downtown. Figure 9.2. Vacant blocks within successful commercial blocks.Figure 9.3. Final site choice within successful commercial blocks.The final site choice, shown in Figure 9.3 (highlighted in green), is located at the intersection of South Illinois Avenue (IL Route 51) and East Walnut Street (Highway 13) in the center of downtown Carbondale, Illinois. This site has since proven to be ideal for the programmatic requirements of this project. It has a relatively high volume of vehicular traffic, making it a suitable location for a multi-modal transit hub stemming from an automated parking garage. It was also chosen due to its prime position to connect the east and west sides of the rail line with a pedestrian underpass.Chapter 10Data AnalysisData has been collected concerning both transportation conditions and energy requirements for the proposed project. This data shows that the current transportation modes in Carbondale are functional, but inefficient. It also shows that the cost of an electrical PRT system would require more initial capital and less operation cost than a traditional diesel bus system. In the case of Carbondale the shuttle system is the SES, making the operations cost even higher than most because the buses are rented.Figure 2. Official ridership data issued by Saluki Express.Figure 2 shows detailed SES ridership data over a twelve month period in riders per hour. The peak number of riders per hour during the 2011 school year was approximately 264. This number is an average, but it shows that, of the over 20,000 students attending SIUC, only about 1% of them are riding the SES during its normal hours of operation. That ridership percentage could be much higher, even by maintaining the use of the existing SES. It would be very difficult for the costs of an underused shuttle service to be justified.The cost of a public transit system can be broken down into two major pieces: travel time and energy. In this case, both of these costs can be reduced by employing an automated system that uses smaller, electric powered units. There is also the potential to increase ridership due to greater efficiency of service. It is difficult to tell how many potential transit riders are lost due to a less efficient system operating over the same groups of destinations.Figure 3. Collected ridership & drive time data.Figure 3 shows the riders per hour of the South route of the SES. The data was collected by riding the route at various times of day and counting passengers as they embarked and disembarked. Travel time was also measured in the interest of comparing driving times of public and private transportation along predestined routes. This route only passes through parts of SIUC campus and south of it. This data shows some of the imperfections of the SES. For example, one stop along the South route picked up 4 people during stops. Qualitatively, that means that stop is greatly over-serviced and the cost of sending a shuttle there greatly outweighs the convenience benefits of the users getting on and off there. Of course, the intention of a shuttle service is to pick up passengers at a somewhat convenient destination. But at what point is the price of operating like that outweigh its usefulness.Data concerning the quantities of energy that would need to be produced and consumed to maintain a various types of small city transit systems can be gathered. This research can compare the amount of power required to run buses, shuttles, private automobiles, and PRT pods over a long period of time. It can also simulate the amount of power that can be produced by various potential renewable systems within the design. Those amounts can be compared through cost to the price of operating the existing SES and Jackson County Mass Transit system.Chapter 11Preliminary ConclusionsApplication A functioning PRT system in Carbondale, such as the one in Morgantown, West Virginia could potentially tie the disjointed small city back together. Ideally, it would have a substantially lower operating cost while moving a far greater capacity of riders more quickly than the existing public transit systems. It could also serve a model for sustainable energy in transportation that could be reproduced in similar small cities. Figure 10 shows the beginning point of the commutes of the participants of a 2010 transportation survey, a great deal of which land outside of the range of a hypothetical PRT system within Carbondale (Corcoran 2010). Therefore, a PRT system would only serve them if an intermediate parking area were provided.Figure 10. Origins of daily commuters for student, faculty, and staff(Corcoran 2010).If the PRT system throughout Carbondale were further connected to surrounding population centers by larger scale transportation systems, it could possibly spur a revitalization of the currently economically depressed Southern Illinois region. The addition of a completely new mode of public transit would undoubtedly require a concentrated effort by the Carbondale City Council, SIUC administration, and Carbondale’s citizens together to ever be realized. Perception Southern Illinois, being a generally sparsely populated region, has established dependency upon private vehicular transportation as a response by its inhabitants to the sprawling nature of rural development. Over time, this reliance on one’s own means has led to a general distaste for public transit, as can be inferred from the information gathered by a campus transportation survey. The overwhelming majority of survey-takers drove alone, while less than 10 percent of the over 4,000 responding student, faculty, and staff admitted to commuting on the Saluki Express (Corcoran 2010). If any paradigmatic shift in transportation mode is going to take place there, this perception must first be altered.Part IIThe Stages of Architectural DesignChapter 12Code Analysis of Programmatic ElementsProgrammatic Elements Planned new development within downtown Carbondale, Illinois includes the Carbondale Transit Center to replace the existing passenger rail station (operated by Amtrak), street front development, off-street public parking in the form of an automated parking garage, and two new pedestrian and bicycle connections across rail lines and a busy main street. This program is divided into four (4) major components which are then broken into their respective elements and projected special requirements. Each entry below also includes a brief description of its functions.Code Analysis There are three typologies of buildings involved in this project: a transit hub, street front commercial development, and a parking garage. Each type of building requires different conditions be satisfied and references its own set of code conditions. In the case of the Carbondale Transit Center, code analysis has been carried out and applied to every relevant programmed space. Each space within the building is then classified by its occupancy use to determine its load and separation requirements. Classification of small spaces is typically based on adjacency and access. References are made to the 2003 International Building Code (Carbondale’s version), which contributed to the determination of occupancy loads, construction type, and egress conditions. Reading This Program The bold numbers throughout this program either indicate projected space allowances, measured in square feet, or the application of a building code to that space. Space allowances are listed in green, whereas code application is shown in blue. And the numerical references in parentheses indicate the section of IBC 2003 being referenced.Building Area Totals The following totals are estimations of the major pieces of the project.? Transportation Center 19900 + New Development 26000 + Parking Garage 49815? The total estimated square footage of this entire project is projected to be: 86878? In addition to these spaces, the new connections will include approximately: 11500Carbondale Transit Center The proposed multi-modal hub serving Carbondale and certain connected areas consists of the following primary spaces. Transportation modes supported by this building include heavy rail, personal rapid transit (PRT), and bicycle. Since the building will be open to the public at all times, private spaces must be made independently secure for times when the building is open but not staff is present.? Total Building Area: 19338 @ 75% Plan Efficiency Rating? Construction Type: IIIAWhere a building is equipped throughout with an approved automatic sprinkler system in accordance with?Section 903.3.1.1, the value specified in Table 503 for maximum height is increased by 20 feet (6096 mm) and the maximum number of stories is increased by one story (504.2).? Separation Requirements: 1 hour separation with automatic fire-extinguishing system between all occupancy classifications (302.3.2) and incidental use areas (302.1.1).? Occupancy Classification: Separated Mixed Occupancies (302.3)? Incidental Use Areas (302.1.1): Spaces which are incidental to the main occupancy shall be separated or protected, or both, in accordance with Table 302.1.1 or the building shall be classified as a mixed occupancy and comply with?Section 302.3.? Total Building Occupancy: 433? Level of Exit Discharge: Main Level/Ground FloorAssembly Group A-3 Separation (303.1) Assembly Group A occupancy includes, among others, the use of a building or structure, or a portion thereof, for the gathering together of persons for purposes such as civic, social or religious functions, recreation, food or drink consumption or awaiting transportation.? Area: 7100 ? 75% Plan Efficiency Rating = 8875? Allowable Height and Building Area: The building occupancy separation around the A-3 use group will be of construction type IIIA, limiting the separation to 3 stories, 65 feet of height, and 14,000 square feet per floor (Table 503).? Total Occupant Load: 286 occupants? Plumbing Fixtures Required: 1 water closet, 1 lavatory, 1 drinking fountain, 1 service sinkLobby The lobby of the transportation center is the focal point of the building. It is a two-story atrium, surrounded on two sides by a mezzanine, which connects all major areas and encompasses the waiting area.The atrium floor area is permitted to be used for any approved use where the individual space is provided with an automatic sprinkler system in accordance with?Section 903.3.1.1 (404.2). A smoke control system shall be installed in accordance with?Section 909 (404.4). The interior finish of walls and ceilings of the atrium shall not be less than Class B with no reduction in class for sprinkler protection (404.7).? Occupant Load: 3000 ÷ 15 per occupant = 200 occupants2200 Main Level Waiting Area The waiting area is a shared space that serves both the PRT station and the rail platform by providing a place for riders of both modes to wait for their rides.700 Rail Platform Ramp Access to the rail platform is available both through the Transportation Center interior and from the exterior directly.100 Platform Vestibule The rail platform access point is a high traffic area during periods of embarkation and disembarkation.500 Toilets Public toilets are located adjacent to the lobby and waiting area.1500 (5) Egress Stairs The central egress stair connects the mezzanine, main level, lower level, and roof level to the exterior. A remote egress stair connects the mezzanine and main level to the exterior.300 (3) Elevators The elevator, adjacent to the central egress stair, connects the mezzanine, main level, and lower level.200 Bicycle Rental An automated bicycle rental kiosk inside the lobby of the transportation center creates the potential to serve commuters leaving their cars at the parking garage before reaching their terminal destination.Building Entrances Vestibules are located at the three major access points to the multi-modal center to reduce heating and cooling loads.100 South Illinois Avenue Vestibule The main entrance of the building faces west, toward South Illinois Avenue, presenting zero energy design challenges concerning evening western sunlight. This is managed by exterior shading systems, fa?ade orientation, and glazing materials.100 Walnut Street Vestibule A connection to the Walnut Street overpass from the transportation center is located on the second floor of the north face of the transportation center. 100 Downtown Pathway Vestibule The downtown pathway connects to the transportation center underground from the south side of the building.PRT Station PRT stations are the access points to the PRT lines. Usually, the most important element of a typical station within this system’s design is the geometry of the approach and exit paths. While most stations are minimally designed to lower capital cost, some require access from multiple stories or are adjacent to a challenging intersection.The central PRT station, adjacent to the rail station, presented different design challenges than the rest of the stations. First, it serves as the focal point of the system by creating interest in those passing by through its architectural form. Second, is designed to handle a larger amount of PRT riders waiting for their pod to arrive. Also, the central PRT station is designed to accommodate the existing high speed rail by accessing a raised PRT line on the 2nd story.? Occupant Load: 1300 ÷ 15 per occupant = 86 occupants300 PRT Platform Vestibule This vestibule is the connection between the upper level PRT line and the interior of the building.1000 Upper Level Waiting Area This is a short-term waiting area intended for PRT users. It is an open balcony that gives relief to the lobby below.Mercantile Group M Separation (309.1) Mercantile Group M occupancy includes, among others, buildings and structures or a portion thereof, for the display and sale of merchandise, and involves stocks of goods, wares or merchandise incidental to such purposes and accessible to the public.? Area: 4420 ? 75% Plan Efficiency Rating = 5525? Allowable Height and Building Area: The building occupancy separation around the M use group will be of construction type IIIA, limiting the separation to 4 stories, 65 feet of height, and 18,500 square feet per floor (Table 503).? Total Occupant Load: 120 occupants? Plumbing Fixtures Required: 1 water closet, 1 lavatory, 1 drinking fountain, 1 service sink3600 Speculative Retail Spaces (2) Two rental spaces are available adjacent to the lobby of the transportation center. They are intended to serve occupants of the transportation center waiting areas as well as the street front they face.? Occupant Load: 3600 ÷ 30 per occupant = 120 occupants320 Employee Toilets (4) 1 men’s and 1 women’s accessible toilet is provided in each retail space.500 Storage Rooms (2) One large storage space, which includes a service sink, is provided for each retail space.Business Group B Separation (304.1) Business Group B occupancy includes, among others, the use of a building or structure, or a portion thereof, for office, professional or service-type transactions, including storage of records and accounts.? Area: 4400 ? 75% Plan Efficiency Rating = 5500? Allowable Height and Building Area: The building occupancy separation around the B use group will be of construction type IIIA, limiting the separation to 5 stories, 65 feet of height, and 19,000 square feet per floor (Table 503).? Total Occupant Load: 31 occupants? Plumbing Fixtures Required: 2 water closets, 1 lavatory, 1 drinking fountain, 1 service sinkPrivate Areas It is necessary to include areas for the employees to maintain operations of both the passenger rail station and PRT system. The employees who occupy these spaces will be the most frequent users of the building, throughout its life. These spaces demand physical adjacency to and a clear view of their respective transportation lines.600 Passenger Rail Staff Office (4) Based on operation procedures of the current passenger rail system, staffing is partially handled by one (1) employee within the station and one (1) or two (2) who employees who arrive on and depart on the train.? Occupant Load: 600 ÷ 100 per occupant = 6 occupants450 PRT System Staff Offices (3) While one of the main focuses of a PRT system is the reduction of operational costs, employees are required to manage and maintain the lines and pods. Three (3) offices are provided for permanent staff who will work during typical office hours.? Occupant Load: 450 ÷ 100 per occupant = 4 occupants600 PRT Control Room A large, open work room includes the hardware required for daily operation and surveillance of the PRT system and vehicles running within it. This room is designed to be staffed by 3 people during normal operation hours.? Occupant Load: 600 ÷ 100 per occupant = 6 occupants200 Information The reception area includes an information desk that might or might not be staffed during normal hours of operation. For security reasons, an overhead gate is provided to close the reception desk to the public when it is not being staffed. This is due to the fact that the lobby and waiting areas are intended to function at all times.150 Break Area A small break area is provided for the full-time staff of the transportation center.? Occupant Load: 150 ÷ 15 per occupant = 10 occupants200 Employee Toilets Private accessible toilets are provided for the staff.200 Janitor (2) Janitor closets are provided in the main and lower levels.500 Storage Storage space is provided in the lower level, adjacent to the mechanical space.1500 Mechanical Ample mechanical space is provided in the lower level? Occupant Load: 1500 ÷ 300 per occupant = 5 occupantsStreet Front Development Several connected blocks around the current train station are essentially vacant and in desperate need of redevelopment. This project will include proposed space for future commercial infill development adjacent to the new greenway in line to be developed east of the Amtrak rail line. The goal of these new commercial and office spaces is for the consumers and employees to make full and regular use of the adjacent transportation center.12000 Speculative Retail Spaces (10) New commercial space around the downtown of Carbondale is an important aspect of this new transportation focused development. The success of the businesses that occupy these spaces is intended to spur the future development of the remaining vacant blocks around this project’s site.2000 Mechanical Ample mechanical space is provided in the basement portions of the new rental spaces.2000 Storage Storage space is provided as a standard portion of the rental space.20000 ? 70% Plan Efficiency Rating = 26000Automated Parking Garage In order for the PRT system to function at the desired level to alleviate traffic and create efficient access to the entire city, connected parking has been provided. The parking garage serves as an intermediate destination for travelers intending to change their transportation mode to PRT, rail, or bicycle before reaching their final destination.36000 Parking Spaces 120 public parking spaces are provided throughout four levels of parking garage. The efficiency of this parking garage is necessarily low due to the relatively high level of circulation required to serve the single lane of stalls.2400 Egress Stairs (8) Two (2) remote egress stairs connect all four floors of the parking garage.800 Elevators (8) Two elevators adjacent to the egress stairs accessibly connect all four floors of the parking garage.400 Mechanical/Janitor Mechanical/janitor rooms are adjacent to the elevators on the roof level.36900 ? 65% Plan Efficiency Rating = 4981511500 New Connections Connecting the major components of this project involves a manipulation of several existing systems. The connections themselves allow pedestrian, bicycle, and PRT traffic to move over or under existing right-of-ways and rail lines.7500 Downtown Pathway The Downtown Pathway is a new major connection point that passes beneath the rail line. It affords pedestrian, bicycle, and PRT access from east to west by creating an open, well lit underground passageway. It also connects to the transportation center on its south face on the lower level.4000 Main Street Overpass The Main Street Overpass will grant pedestrian, bicycle, and PRT access across a busy three-lane highway by allowing all three modes to move over it. It will also serve as a new symbolic gateway into Carbondale, by creating an opportunity to arouse commuter interest in the PRT system as the elevated pods travel back and forth upon it.Chapter 13Conceptual DesignUpon reaching a certain level of understanding from months of research, conceptual design of the project within the chosen site begins. The very first steps of design begin with laying out the major components of the project on the site in the form of three different schemes, shown in Figures 13.1, 13.2, and 13.3. This phase is the most difficult portion of designing this project—starting with a flat, empty site (essentially a blank slate), knowing all of the pieces that would eventually need to be included.Figure 13.1. Site plan scheme 1.Figure 13.1 shows the original layout for theFigure 13.2. Site plan scheme 2.Figure 13.2 shows Figure 13.3. Site plan scheme 3.Anchor Points At this point, there are only four certainties involved. The first is an elevated PRT/bicycle overpass somewhere on the north side of the site that will create a connection to the new greenway that the city of Carbondale is planning on the east side of the rail line. The second is a pedestrian/bicycle pathway which will move under the rail line and connect the east and west halves of the site. While this piece of the project is very important within the site, it will also have much more wide spread consequences as a major connection point between the successful blocks of downtown. The third anchor point is that the northwest corner of the site will have, by far, the most exposure to vehicular traffic. At this point of the process, that fact implies the lobby of the train station will face that direction. This idea eventually changes further into the process, but it’s important at the moment. The fourth is that the parking garage must become a strong north-south axis in order to allow other structures on the site to the east of it. Another realization about the parking garage is that it must be automated, in this case, to allow two hundred vehicles to park within it in just two levels.Chapter 14Schematic DesignAt this stage of the design process, pieces of the project begin to take a more definite shape. For example, the positions of the buildings within the site are basically fixed, leaving some opportunity to change them further along. Important design decisions are made at this stage concerning the Carbondale Transit Center. The general position of the PRT guideway is determined, running north and south over the rail line, connected to the east side of the Carbondale Transit Center.The most prevalent change in this building from the conceptual stage is the facing of the rounded atrium portion. It houses the two volume space over the lobby and waiting areas. Since it is the focal point of the building and the grandest entrance, it now faces south toward the majority of the site toward the automated parking garage. Figure 14.1 shows a small scale model of the site at this point, with the peripheral buildings as masses most of the pavement differentiated. The automated parking garage is two stories with no levels below ground, making its form drastically larger than the others around it. Figure 14.2 shows alternate forms of the Carbondale Transit Center being explored. Figure 14.1. Small scale model of schematic site.Figure 14.2. Alternate building forms for the Carbondale Transit Center.Figure 14.3. Basic Structure of the Carbondale Transit Center.Structure Countless other decisions are made at this stage relating to all aspects of the Carbondale Transit Center. First, a steel structure is selected and then a model of the building, shown in Figure 14.3, is assembled. 5” slab on deck floors is selected as the structure between floors. The slab beneath the central lobby is heated by a geothermal system. The materials are selected based on the form and aesthetic of the building, its systems, and efficiency. Materials The three primary exterior building materials are brick, composite metal panels making up a rainscreen system, and high reflectance glazing. The first rendition of the of an exterior sun shade system around the atrium glazing is shown in Figure 14.4. Figure 14.5, similarly, shows the first version of the commercial face on the northwest corner.Figure 14.4. Atrium shading device during schematic design.Figure 14.5. Northwest fa?ade of commercial rental spaces.Chapter 15Energy ModelingThis project is designed in the interest of balancing energy production and consumption as much as possible, while maintaining its original goals. This is a very ambitious goal for any project in a temperate climate, such being the case in southern Illinois. The most glaring problem with the idea of a zero energy design in a temperate climate at Carbondale’s latitude is that ample shading and some form of cooling is required in the summer, even more than heating in the winter.Figure 15.1. Psychrometric chart and general climate data for the project site, created in Climate Consultant.Figure 15.1 shows the psychometric chart for the site. From this chart, one can deduce that there is too much latent heat for an interior space to maintain a comfortable environment year-round. Therefore, air-conditioning (which requires a great deal of energy) must be used for several weeks to accommodate a temperature that is generally accepted as comfortable. Inversely, the chart also shows that during winter months (namely January & February) a great deal of energy must be spent in the interest of heating an internal space.Upon arriving at these realizations, the pursuit of a zero energy building quickly turned into that of a highly efficient building. There are three general methods of combating a high amount of energy consumption in a building—on-site energy production, clever geometry, and efficient materials.Energy Production This project includes two systems that convert a form of energy into electricity. The first system converts light into electricity through a massive array of 750 polycrystalline photovoltaic (PV) panels. They cover the long, narrow north-to-south roof of the parking garage. Panels are used in this case instead of film because they are more efficient and are easier to repair/replace. The roof of the parking garage is an opportune location for an array, because PV panels are generally best kept away from pedestrian and vehicular traffic due to the tremendous amount of heat and reflective light they produce.The other power production system in this project converts kinetic energy into electricity through a series of devices in along the rail line. Figure 15.3 shows an example of this type of device, invented by researchers from Stony Brook University in New York (Ridden 2012). This device can reliably convert railway vibrations into Watts of electrical power (Ridden 2012). Over the course of this train station’s life, that power will counter-act a tremendous amount of energy load.Figure 15.3. This device is capable of harvesting energy from vibrations in train tracks (Ridden 2012).Energy Consumption An accurate representation of the amount of energy consumed is generally measured by the amount of electricity spent during one annual cycle of the building’s life. This way, the loads created by heating, cooling, lighting, and equipment are all factored in. With general planning information, an estimate of the overall energy loads of the building is simulated using a program called Integrated Environmental Solutions Virtual Environment (IESVE). Figure 15.4 shows a simplified model of the Carbondale Transit Center in its schematic form which is then submitted to IESVE.Figure 15.4. Simplified model of Carbondale Transit Center.Building material selection is an integral part of this simulation. However since only the trial version of the software is being used, some options are limited. These include material selection. The materials selected in the schematic design phase are tested and changed where advantageous. Figure 15.5 shows the estimated energy consumption of the Carbondale Transit Center given the simplified geometry of the above model, specified materials, space usage, and systems involved.The test results show that this building is not on track for the Architecture 2030 Challenge, due to an over-use of building energy. This problem is most likely due to the fact that the building will operate 168 hours a week, using power all of that time. Another problem with this estimate is that it does not include any energy production taking place to counter-act consumption.Figure 15.5. Results of IES VE simulation.Chapter 16Design DevelopmentThe final stage of development leaves the project in a somewhat finished form. There is, of course, always room to improve upon an academically designed project. However, the design has reached a deeply complex level. The plans and elevations of the Carbondale Transit Center are satisfactorily resolved and features throughout the site are thoroughly developed. The site, as a whole, has a feel of an existing project that is able to function as intended. The Downtown Underpass is realized in a manner that realistically connects the east half of the site to both the Carbondale Transit Center and the west half of the site (read automated parking garage). The PRT guideway is now accompanied by an elevated bicycle path that safely crosses East Walnut Street to the north. The series of figures below, Figures 16.1 through 16.17, graphically describe the most developed version of this project.Figure 16.1. Site plan.Figure 16.2. First floor plan.Figure 16.3. First floor isometric.Figure 16.4. Second floor plan.Figure 16.5. Second floor isometric.Figure 16.6. South elevation.Figure 16.7. North elevation.Figure 16.8. West elevation.Figure 16.9. East elevation.Figure 16.10. Southeast bird’s eye perspective.Figure 16.11. Northeast perspective.Figure 16.12. Northwest perspective.Figure 16.13. Southwest perspective.Figure 16.14. Downtown Underpass perspective.Figure 16.15. Lobby perspective.Figure 16.16. Rail ramp perspective.Figure 16.17. PRT ramp perspective.Chapter 17Building SystemsFire Protection The building includes an automated fire suppression system.Mechanical The mechanical system of the building is a centrally located core which stems from the large mechanical space in the basement up to the 2nd floor, through a central chase.Electrical The electrical system of the Carbondale Transit Center is partially powered by sources discussed in Chapter 14: Energy Modeling.Storm Water Runoff There are several systems, details shown in Figures 17.1, 17.2, and 17.3, within and around the project that are intended to reduce the amount of storm water that escapes the site of the Carbondale Transit Center.Figure 17.1. Green roof detail.Figure 17.2. Permeable pavement detail.Figure 17.3. Rain garden detail.Exterior Sun Shades There are several forms of exterior sun shades on the south and west faces of the building.Figure 17.1. Exterior sun shade on typical south facing windows.Figure 17.2. Exterior sun shade on upper half of atrium glazing.Figure 17.3. Awning over lower half of atrium glazingFigure 17.4. Awning over commercial spaces.Chapter 18Project EvaluationOral Defense This project was very complex and every piece of the final plan required some form of design compromise. The idea of a PRT system connecting Carbondale and the SIUC campus created intrigue and interest in those attending the oral defense. There was acceptance of the need for a better form of public transit. The intersection of the existing rail line and a proposed PRT system and the intention to connect a fragmented downtown commercial area led to immediate understanding of the site selection by the audience. The following images are the three pieces of the final presentation board combined. There were three pieces, one on the left, top right, and bottom. The final size of the board is six feet tall and twelve feet wide.Figure 21.1. Presentation boards presented at oral defense.Architectural Critique The architecture of the Carbondale Transit Center was seen as aesthetically pleasing and functional within its site. However, the language and rhythm of the building as viewed in elevation were perhaps too mixed or unrelated. There were a few potential circulation issues in the plan view that were pointed out. These were, however, not code related. Rather, they were subjective Figure 21.2. Images of presentation model presented at oral defense.Final Thoughts The overall result of this project was very satisfying. It communicated all of the intended information that was initially envisioned at the conceptual stage. The goals of the project were clearly presented and pursued to an acceptable end. Of course, no thesis project should ever be seen as complete, having solved all inherent problems which stem from it.Chapter 19BibliographyPrimary Sources2getthere. 2013. “Masdar PRT Application.” Last modified 2012. Accessed January 15. 2getthere.eu/?page_id=10.Explore Carbondale. 2013. “History of Carbondale.” Accessed January 15. ci.carbondale.il.us/node/110.Irving, J. H.?Fundamentals of Personal Rapid Transit. Lexington, MA: Heath, 1978. Print.Laughlin, Robert B.?Powering the Future: How We Will (eventually) Solve the Energy Crisis and Fuel the Civilization of Tomorrow. New York: Basic, 2011. Print.Masdar City. 2013. “About Masdar.” Last Modified 2011. Accessed January 15. masdarcity.ae/en/86/about-masdar.Mitchell, William J., Chris Borroni-Bird, and Lawrence D. Burns.?Reinventing the Automobile: Personal Urban Mobility for the 21st Century. Cambridge, MA: Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 2010. Print.Plan Review Committee. 2013. “City of Carbondale Comprehensive Plan.” Accessed January 15. , Brian.?Future Transport in Cities. London: Spon, 2001. Print.Small City Transit.?Washington, D.C.: U.S. Dept. of Transportation, Urban Mass Transportation Administration, Office of Service and Methods Demonstrations, 1976. Print.Squires, Graham.?Urban and Environmental Economics: An Introduction. Abingdon, Oxon: Routledge, 2013. Print.Tumlin, Jeffrey.?Sustainable Transportation Planning. Hoboken, N.J: Wiley, 2012. Print.Ultra Global PRT. 2013. how-it-worksWarren, Roxanne.?The Urban Oasis: Guideways and Greenways in the Human Environment. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1998. Print.West Virginia University. 2013. “Facts about the PRT.” Last modified February 16, 2012. Accessed January 15. transportation.wvu.edu/prt/facts_about_the_prt.Secondary SourcesAnderson, Edward J. 1996. “Some lessons from the history of personal rapid transit.” Last modified September 21, 2009. Accessed January 15, 2013. faculty.washington.edu/jbs/itrans/history.htm.Corcoran, Kevin, Jonathan Dyer, Edward Halerewicz, Jr., and Mathew McIndoo. 2010. “Southern Illinois University Carbondale Campus Transportation Survey: Results and Geographic Analysis.” Student generated research, presented Spring 2010.Farussi, Federico. 2011. “Smart Cities VS Stupid Men.” GH Network. Retrieved January 15, 2013.Finizio, Gino. Architecture and Mobility: Tradition and Innovation. Skira, 2007. Print.Ridden, Paul. 2012. “Award-Winning Device Harvests Energy from Railway Vibrations.” Accessed November 24, 2013. mechanical-motion-rectifier-railroad-energy-harvester/25223.Jernstedt, George W., and Tom K. Phares.?Give the City Back to People: New Mobility Can Make Our Cities a Joy Again. Bolivar, PA: Cityscope & Mobility, 1994. Print.Madrigal, Alexis.?Powering the Dream: The History and Promise of Green Technology. Cambridge, MA: Da Capo, 2011. Print.Neighborhood Scout. 2013. “Crime rates for Carbondale, IL.” Accessed January 15. il/carbondale/crime.Richards, Brian. 2001. Future Transport in Cities. New York: Spon Press.Sperling, Daniel, Deborah Gordon, and Arnold Schwarzenegger.?Two Billion Cars: Driving toward Sustainability. Oxford, England: Oxford UP, 2009. Print.U.S. Green Building Council. 2013. “LEED: Neighborhood Devlopment: Smart Location.” Accessed January 15. , O. M., and Vieths, S. Ungers: The Dialectic City. Milan, Italy: Skira Editore, 1997. Print.Wolfe, Billy. 2005. “PRT Cram” The Daily Athenaeum. November 10.Wright, Jeff. 2005. “PRT Sets Trends across the Globe, Transports Thousands at WVU.” The Daily Athenaeum, November 10.Zipcar. 2013. “rates & plans.” Last modified 2012. Accessed January 15. 20AppendixFigure 3.1Figure 4.1Figure 8.2. Typical infrastructure required for Heathrow pod to operate (Ultra Global PRT 2013). ................
................

In order to avoid copyright disputes, this page is only a partial summary.

Google Online Preview   Download