CHAPTER 16: INCREASING THE EFFECTIVENESS OF PROBLEM ...



CHAPTER 16

INCREASING THE EFFECTIVENESS OF PROBLEM SOLVING DISCUSSIONS

Chapter Summary

This chapter explores the complexity of effective and efficient problem-solving groups, specifically addressing their characteristics, processes, member responsibilities, and presentation.

Transition from the 12th Edition

New to Chapter 16 is “Public Hearing”, an addition to the section “When Discussion Goes Public”, as well as the inclusion of revised examples and recommendations for problem-solving groups.

Chapter Outline

Introduction (p. 306): Effective problem solving discussions will result in effective decision making, therefore it is important to learn the characteristics, steps, and formats of effective problem solving discussions, as well as the responsibilities shared by discussion leaders and members.

I. Characteristics of effective problem solving discussions (pp. 306-310).

A. A problem solving discussion is a structured dialogue among a group of individuals who influence one another in order to develop a solution for an identified difficulty.

B. A problem solving goal is a future state of affairs desired by enough members of the group to motivate the group to work toward its achievement.

1. Discussion of the problem clarifies the goal.

2. As goals are made more clear, commitment to the achievement of such goals increases.

C. “Effective” group size will depend on the number of members necessary to ensure quality discussion.

1. As the size of the group increases, so does the difficulty to manage quality discussion.

2. The best group size depends on the goal, however for most problems, five to seven members is sufficient.

D. Group cohesiveness refers both to the degree of attraction members have to one another as well as the goal.

1. The higher the cohesiveness, the more likely the success of the group.

2. There are multiple factors contributing to cohesiveness, including attractiveness to goal, freedom of opinion, and celebration of accomplishments.

E. Yet another characteristic of problem solving groups are their inherent rules and norms—prescribed behaviors and shared expectations for group interaction.

1. Rules and norms are established to help the group achieve cohesiveness, and eventually a solution.

2. Rules and norms are either explicitly agreed upon (usually rules) or implicitly understood (usually norms).

F. An often understated characteristic, the group’s working environment plays a significant role in the discussion process.

1. Work space should be comfortable, both in temperature and size.

2. Work space should provide necessary resources for discussion and solution.

3. Work space should facilitate interaction, including furniture and seating arrangements.

II. The Problem solving discussion process—problem identification, problem analysis, solution requirements, potential solutions, solution comparison, and solution implementation. (p. 310-314).

A. Defining the problem—developing a formal written statement of the problem using the following guidelines.

1. The problem should be stated as a question.

2. The problem must contain only one central idea.

3. Specific and precise language must be used to describe the problem.

4. Problems must be identified as questions of fat, value, or policy.

a. A question of fact is concerned with truth or falsity, and group members examine the validity of evidence to reach a conclusion.

b. A question of value is concerned with subjective judgments of right and wrong, and group members use societal and personal norms to reach a conclusion.

c. A question of policy is concerned with the correct or necessary action needed to solve a problem, and group members depend both on related facts and values to reach a conclusion.

B. Analyzing the problem—discovering as much as possible about the problem, through multiple research methods, and then sharing information amongst group members.

C. Determining solution criteria—using the new-found understanding of the problem to develop a test for possible solutions.

D. Identifying possible solutions—tapping into the creativity of the group to generate potential solutions, through methods such as brainstorming.

E. Evaluating solutions—comparing alternative solutions to the established test criteria in order to determine both the weight of the criteria and the accuracy of the solution.

F. Making a decision—the process of choosing among the solution alternatives.

1. The expert opinion method: relying on the member with the most expertise to make the decision.

2. The average group opinion method: relying on the average of group rankings to make a decision.

3. The majority rule method: deciding on a majority vote.

4. The unanimous decision method: deliberation until all members believe in a single solution.

5. The consensus method: deliberation until members can agree on a single solution, though all may not believe it is the best.

G. Implementation and monitoring—occasionally, groups are responsible for carrying out the solution and overseeing its progress, and thus will continue use of the problem solving process.

III. Leader responsibilities (pp. 315-318).

A. Preparing for the meeting.

1. Prepare the agenda, making sure it is appropriate for the length of the meeting.

2. Decide who should attend.

3. Arrange location and time based on the agenda.

4. Distribute agenda ahead of time so that members can prepare.

5. Speak with participants prior to the meeting to better understand their positions and goals.

B. Leading the discussion.

1. Review and modify the agenda per suggestion of group members to ensure that the group is working on relevant items, and to give members a sense of control.

2. Provide task direction and manage interpersonal dynamics in order to facilitate productive group discussion.

3. Monitor the time so that the group stays on schedule.

4. Monitor conflicts and intervene as needed.

5. Periodically check to see if the group is ready to make a decision, so as to avoid unnecessary discussion.

6. Implement the group’s decision rues.

7. Before ending the meeting, summarize the decisions, task responsibilities, and future steps that have been planned.

8. Ask the group to decide if and when another meeting is needed.

C. Following up.

1. Review the discussion outcomes and process; reflection means learning from past experiences to promote future success.

2. Prepare and distribute a summary of discussion outcome.

3. Repair damaged relationships through informal conversations.

4. Follow up with participants to see how they are progressing on items assigned to them.

IV. Member Responsibilities (pp. 318-319).

A. Preparing for the Meeting.

1. Study the agenda, considering it as an outline for discussion preparation.

2. Study the minutes from the previous discussion (if applicable) to prepare for the next.

3. Prepare for your contributions—doing the necessary research in order to become more informed on the topic.

4. List questions related to the agenda in need of answering.

B. Participating in the Discussion.

1. Listen attentively in order to compliment others’ contributions to the discussion.

2. Stay focused.

3. Ask questions.

4. Play devil’s advocate in order to ensure a topic has been fully discussed.

5. Monitor your contributions so as not to be dominating nor subordinate.

6. Take notes.

C. Following Up.

1. Review and summarize your notes.

2. Evaluate your effectiveness.

3. Review decisions.

4. Communicate progress by informing others of the groups progress/decision.

5. Follow up the meeting by completing any assignments received.

6. Review the official minutes and compare them to own notes.

V. When the decision goes public—providing information for the listening audience (pp. 319-321).

A. A symposium is a discussion in which a limited number of participants present individual speeches, after which participants discuss what was said and take questions from the audience.

1. Symposiums are often characterized by long, sometimes unrelated speeches that take up the allotted time, deleting participant interaction and audience questions.

2. Due to their difficulty, symposiums are more effective at shedding light on or explaining various aspects of a problem.

B. A panel discussion is a problem solving discussion in front of an audience, where after formal discussion the audience is encouraged to question the participants.

C. A town hall meeting is an event in which a large number of people who are interested in a topic are convened to discuss, and at times decide, an issue.

1. Includes a leader, who announces the rules for discussion, introduces the issue, and generally directs the flow of the discussion.

2. Due to the large number of participants, town hall meetings rely on strict turn taking and rules of order to ensure discussion remains focused and representative.

D. A public hearing is a meeting of an elected or appointed government group for the purpose of explaining a pending charge in policy, answering questions, and receiving public comments.

Lecture Ideas

1. A group that wields immense power through its decisions, but ironically overlooked as a “decision making group”, is the jury. Kacy Miller, in “Following the leader, of 6 or 12” (2005, National Law Journal, 27.21), discusses the impact of group dynamics on the decision making process of strangers. For Miller, how these strangers interact as a group will influence the decision they render. As a class, use Miller’s article to discuss the state of jury decision making, its power, and its implications. How does the jury relate to the groups discussed in the book? How does the definition of a problem solving discussion relate to a jury?

2. Another decision making group not commonly considered as such are disaster relief teams. Because these teams are dispersed throughout the world and exist to give aid to those in need, these groups must absolutely work together. How do these teams fit into the model of decision making groups? What can organizational teams learn from disaster relief teams? Vice versa? Visit International Relief Teams at for an idea of the work that disaster teams accomplish.

3. In their article “When what you know is not enough: Expertise and gender dynamics in task groups” (2004, Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 30.12), Melissa C. Thomas-Hunt and Katherine W. Phillips discuss the relationship between gender differences, perceived expertise versus actual expertise, and decision-making. They found, as expected, women having less influence when perceived as experts, while men had more influence when perceived as experts. Using the article, discuss the impact of gender roles on group decision making. What possible negative effects can come from this type of behavior?

Discussion Questions

1. What is the real benefit to group decision making? Why is it necessary? Why do we leave our most important decisions to group decision making, which is often time composed of people we do not know?

2. Groupthink refers to the tendency of group members to share assumptions, usually leading to mistakes in decision making. Knowing this, what can be done to avoid groupthink? Should it be prevented? Are there instances when groupthink is positive? Explain.

3. Based on the probable gender/cultural differences found when two or more people come together, what types of stereotyping might interfere with a group’s ability to communicate?

4. There are many types of power. When you hear the word power, what comes to mind? Would society consider power as predominantly good or predominantly bad? Why? What is the role of power in group decision making?

Class Activities

Activity #16.1: Agenda Setting & Leadership

Give groups the following agenda worksheet. The worksheet is designed to simulate a group decision-making environment, using a familiar subject.

WORKSHEET: Agenda Setting

AGENDA

1. Problem: What shall we do about leadership in the group?

2. Analysis:

I. What responsibilities would the leader have?

II. What style of leadership does our situation require?

III. What method of selection is best for our group?

IV. What criteria shall we use to determine leadership decisions?

3. Possible solutions:

• No formal leader?

• Revolving leadership?

• Majority vote?

• Voluntary?

4. Determine the best solution, making sure to apply the above criteria.

Activity #16.2: Group Consensus Exercise(s)

Select 5-6 students to participate in a group exercise and distribute the following worksheet(s). Have the group discuss the worksheet, instructing them to reach absolute consensus for each item. While the group deliberates, instruct the rest of the class to observe and evaluate the group’s effectiveness at decision-making. When the group has completed the worksheet, discuss class observations and group reasons. (Worksheet 1 is taken from Rokeach’s “Stability and Change in American Value Priorities.”)

Worksheet 1: Ranking Life’s Values

Rank the following in their order of importance.

_____ A comfortable life _____ Family security

_____ An exciting life _____ Freedom

_____ A sense of accomplishment _____ Happiness

_____ A world at peace _____ Inner harmony

_____ A world of beauty _____ Mature love

_____ Equality _____ National security

_____ Pleasure _____ Salvation

_____ Social recognition _____ Self respect

_____ Wisdom _____ True friendship

Worksheet 2: Ranking the Professional Prestige

Rank the following by their level of prestige

_____ Firefighter _____ Physical Therapist

_____ Farmer _____ Air Traffic Controller

_____ Doctor _____ Journalist

_____ Police Officer _____ Television Star

_____ Teacher _____ Nurse

_____ Clergy _____ Construction Worker

_____ Garbage Collector _____ Hair Stylist

_____ Truck Driver

Activity #16.3: Role Playing

Select 5-6 students to participate in a group exercise. Selected students should sit in a circle at the center of the room, with the remainder of the class seated around them. Give the group a topic to discuss, such as “Should medical testing be conducted on animals.” Allow the group to get comfortable discussing with each other, and the audience to create an initial impression of the group. After a few minutes, instruct the group to finish up with their discussion and give them a new topic. Before the group begins, give each member a name tag or hat (hats work better). Individuals cannot see their own tags, only other’s. On the tags is written personal information or qualities, such as “bossy,” “new hire,” or “retiring in two weeks.” Instruct the group to discuss their new topic, keeping in mind what is written on their partners’ tags. Instruct the audience to observe the new interactions. When the group has finished, as a class, discuss the differences between the first and second discussions, and the implications of individual roles in group decision making.

Activity #16.4: Fact, Value, Policy (Worksheet)

Worksheet: Fact, Value, Policy

Identify the following questions as questions of fact, value, or policy.

1. Is it appropriate to choose Supreme Court Justices based on background factors such as gender, race, and ethnicity?

2. Should employees of the federal government be allowed to strike?

3. Do volcanic eruptions contribute to global warming?

4. Is the death penalty morally wrong?

5. Should women be allowed to participate in all combat positions?

6. Does the Nielsen rating accurately reflect the average American?

7. What are the long terms environmental effects of war?

8. Does life begin at conception?

9. Should suburbanites be allowed to burn their leaves?

10. Is recycling by the individual consumer making a substantial contribution to saving the environment?

Glossary of Key Terms

agenda: an organized outline of the items that need to be covered during a meeting.

average group opinion method: accepting the alternative receiving the highest average ranking as the choice.

brainstorming: an uncritical, nonevaluative process of generating alternatives by being creative, suspending judgment, and combining or adapting the ideas of others.

cohesiveness: the degree of attraction that members have to one another and to the problem solving goal.

consensus method: deliberating until all members of the group find an acceptable solution, one they can support and are committed to helping implement.

decision making: the process of choosing among alternatives.

expert opinion method: asking the group member who has the most expertise to make the final choice.

ground rules: prescribed behaviors designed to help the group meet its goals and conduct its conversations.

majority rule method: selecting the alternative that receives the majority of votes (50% + 1)

norms: shared expectations for the way that group members will behave during discussions.

panel discussion: a problem solving discussion in from of an audience.

problem solving discussion: a structured dialogue among individuals who

interact with and influence one another in order to develop a plan that will overcome an identified difficulty.

problem solving goal: a future state of affairs desired by enough members of the group to motivate the group to work toward its achievement.

public hearing: a meeting of a elected or appointed government group for the purpose of explaining a pending charge in policy (or a new policy), answering questions, and receiving public comments.

questions of fact: questions concerned with discovering what is true or to what extent something is true.

questions of policy: questions that concern what course of action should be taken or what rules should be adopted in order to solve a problem.

questions of value: questions that concern subjective judgments of what is right, moral, good, or just.

symposium: a discussion in which a limited number of participants present individual speeches of approximately the same length dealing with the same subject, then discuss their reactions to what others have said and answer questions from the audience.

town hall meeting: an event in which a large number of people who are interested in a topic are convened to discuss, and at times decide, an issue.

unanimous decision method: deliberating until every member of the group believes that the same solution alternative is the best.

working environment: a physical setting that is conveniently located for most members, has a comfortable temperature, and has enough space appropriate for the size and work of the group.

Test Questions

Chapter 16

Multiple Choice

1. A structured dialogue among individuals who interact with and influence one another for the purpose of achieving a goal is called a _________________.

a. discussion prompt

b. channel of communication

c. problem-solving discussion

d. information exchange

ANS: c SEE PAGE 306

2. If a group is discussing the future state of affairs that has brought its members together, then it is discussing ______________.

a. resources

b. power

c. assets

d. goals

ANS: d SEE PAGE 307

3. The optimum number of members in a group is determined by __________.

a. member expertise

b. the group’s goal

c. the number of volunteers

d. the available resources

ANS: b SEE PAGE 307

4. A __________ group is more likely to thoroughly generate ideas, because of its ability to bring different but relevant knowledge to the discussion.

a. heterogeneous

b. homogeneous

c. standardized

d. systematic

ANS: a SEE PAGE 307

5. If a group’s members are attracted to each other, and to the group’s goal, then it can be characterized as ______________.

a. complementary

b. corresponding

c. compatible

d. cohesive

ANS: d SEE PAGE 307

6. Shared expectations for the way that group members will behave during discussion are called _______________.

a. standards

b. laws

c. rules

d. norms

ANS: d SEE PAGE 308

7. Prescribed behaviors designed to help the group meet its goals are called ________________.

a. standards

b. laws

c. rules

d. norms

ANS: c SEE PAGE 308

8. Expecting that all members will work to solve the assigned problem would be characterized as a __________, while expecting that members will not interrupt each other would be characterized as a __________.

a. rule; norm

b. norm; rule

c. standard; law

d. law; standard

ANS: b SEE PAGE 308

9. The __________ is generally considered the ideal seating arrangement for group discussion.

a. circle

b. square

c. triangle

d. rectangle

ANS: a SEE PAGE 309

10. In order to accurately define a problem, a group must __________.

a. create an agenda for discussion of the problem

b. elect a group leader who understands the problem

c. develop a clear understanding of the problem through research

d. divide the problem into workable sections

ANS: c SEE PAGE 310

11. The organization of a group’s problem solving discussion depends on correctly identifying __________.

a. the type of question being addressed

b. the member with the weakest discussion skills

c. the group’s overall goal

d. the limitations of group power

ANS: a SEE PAGE 311

12. Asking “Is the death penalty wrong?” is a question of __________.

a. fact

b. value

c. policy

d. definition

ANS: b SEE PAGE 311

13. Asking “Is there life on other planets?” is a question of __________.

a. fact

b. value

c. policy

d. definition

ANS: a SEE PAGE 311

14. Asking “Should academic institutions receive more government funding?” is a question of __________.

a. fact

b. value

c. policy

d. definition

ANS: c SEE PAGE 311

15. Solution criteria are selected based on __________.

a. their feasibility

b. the expert opinion of the group leader

c. what group members determine is appropriate

d. what research has suggested is critical to the problem

ANS: d SEE PAGE 312

16. When solving a problem, if a group asks the member who has the most expertise to make the final decision, then the group has implemented the __________ method of decision making.

a. average group opinion

b. unanimous decision

c. expert opinion

d. majority rule

ANS: c SEE PAGE 313

17. If a group continues to deliberate until every member of the group believes the same solution is best, then the group has implemented the __________ method of decision-making.

a. average group opinion

b. unanimous decision

c. expert opinion

d. majority rule

ANS: b SEE PAGE 313

18. If a group continues to use the problem solving process to determine how action will be taken and who will be responsible for the solution, then it is in the __________ stage.

a. investigation

b. inquiry

c. inspection

d. implementation

ANS: d SEE PAGE 314

19. A discussion leader’s principal responsibility is to __________.

a. learn the names of all group members

b. determine the best solution for the problem

c. plan and run an effective meeting

d. mediate interpersonal conflicts

ANS: c SEE PAGE 315

20. A group member’s principal responsibility is to __________.

a. prepare for the meeting

b. participate in the discussion

c. follow-up with the discussion

d. all of the above

ANS: d SEE PAGE 318

True-False

21. Typically, a group’s size is proportionate to the complexity of its goal.

ANS: T SEE PAGE 307

22. Groups are more effective, and more efficient, when composed of individuals with similar backgrounds and expertise.

ANS: F SEE PAGE 307

23. Though all members enter the group with pervious life experiences, it is reasonable that the group will develop its own rules and norms.

ANS: T SEE PAGE 308

24. Seating arrangement within a group’s working environment does not significantly affect discussion.

ANS: F SEE PAGE 308

25. A group should allocate less time to the defining stage, and more to the solution stage, if it is going to find an effective solution.

ANS: F SEE PAGE 310

26. Sharing information with others in the group is an ethical responsibility that comes with participating in a problem solving discussion.

ANS: T SEE PAGE 312

27. Discussing solution criteria before discussing the actual solution will most likely lead to disagreement amongst group members.

ANS: F SEE PAGE 312

28. According to the average group opinion method, deliberation continues until an acceptable solution is found, one that all members can support though they may not believe it is the best.

ANS: F SEE PAGE 313

29. Effective group leaders maintain an awareness of what the group needs at a specific time in order to facilitate productive discussion.

ANS: T SEE PAGE 315

30. An individual group member should monitor his/her contributions so as not to appear like a bully dominating the discussion.

ANS: T SEE PAGE 319

Additional Resources

Assessing key traits. (2000). Association Management, 52(1), 22.

International Relief Teams. (2003). Retrieved March 2005, from

Klob, J. A. (1998). The relationship between self-monitoring and leadership in

student project groups. The Journal of Business Communication, 35(2), 264-283.

McNamara, C. (2005). Group decision making and problem solving. Retrieved

March 2005, from



Miller, K. (2005, January 31). Following the leader, of 6 or 12. National Law

Review, p. S1.

Rehling, L. (2004). Improving teamwork the awareness of controversial styles.

Business Communication Quarterly, 67(4), 475.

Rokeach, M., & Ball-Rokeach, S. J. (1989). Stability and change in American value priorities. The American Psychologist, 44(5), 775.

Thomas-Hunt, M. C., & Phillips, K. W. (2004). When what you know is not

enough: Expertise and gender dynamics in task groups. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 30(12), 1585.

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