Early Middle Ages



The Middle AgesEarly Middle Ages 500 – 1000 CEpetty kingdoms take over from RomeHigh Middle Ages 1000 – 1300 CEculture flourishesLate Middle Ages 1300 – 1492 CEfamine, plague, war, & printing pressEarly Middle AgesOften referred to as the Dark AgesAssumes that the culture of Rome was the most sophisticatedWhen Rome fell to the barbarians, civilization collapsedRecent research claims that this isn’t soByzantine EmpireAlthough Rome lost political power, its influence remained in language, law, and Latin cultureThe Eastern Roman Empire, based in Constantinople (formerly Byzantium), still existedStrategically located in the middle of the trade routesConstantinople was a religious centre for the Eastern Orthodox church, home of the patriarchThe church remained powerful in both Rome and Constantinople and both vied for supremacyEmperor Justinian (ruled 527-565) tried to reunite the empire in the name of ChristianityOutlawed paganism anyone who was not Christian, especially those who believed in many godsAlso modified the laws of the empire by codifying them into “Justinian’s Code” Defined property law, heredity law, and dispute settlementsLegacy can be seen in our own legal systemJustinian married Theodora, a former actress, who was a strong and powerful womanThe Iconoclast ControversyChristians were divided as to whether icons of Mary, Joseph, and the Saints were acceptableMany believed they had spiritual powerOther felt they broke the 3rd Commandment about “graven images”It was forbidden, in 730, and many artistic works were destroyedIn 787, this edict was reversed and is still celebrated in the Eastern Orthodox ChurchWarriors and WarbandsIn Western Europe the barbarians arrived(i)Celtic PeopleGauls in Belgium and FranceBritons in UK and IrelandBretons in Brittany, FranceSent out raiding parties to get loot (warband society)Leadership were all on horsebackThe closer your kinship to the leader, the better off you wereWeak paid allegiance to the strong(ii)Germanic PeopleMost numerous, modelled warband society after the CeltsIncluded, Goths (Ostrogoths and Visigoths), Franks, Vandals, Angles, Saxons, etc.(iii) Slavic PeopleThe Wends were the strongest, settled in eastern GermanyThe Spread of ChristianityIn 500, Christianity had not been accepted by many in RomeBy 1000, all of modern Europe was ruled by Christian doctrineThe Church amassed huge tracts of land, was exempt from taxesPriests took on many roles, especially in outlying areas By allying themselves with the Church, kings were aided in securing their ruleBy allying themselves with kings, the Church received gifts of land and other benefitsConversion to Christianity by force was the normMonks and Monastaries evolved100s of Monastaries were formed as retreats from the worldthese became the centres of educationMonastic Code of silence, poverty, chastity, and obedience Canonization or the declaration of SainthoodBecame popularPeople devoted to their faith were candidates for sainthoodIlluminated Manuscripts (means ‘written by hand’) were writtenAll works had to be copied by handOnly the rich could afford booksMonks and nuns did most of the workIncluded ornate drawings and gold leafThe Merovingians (named for mythical leader, Meroveus)The FranksClovis I was the first to unite the Frankish tribes (by assassinating the other leaders)He converted to Christianity and got the support of the bishopsExpanded his kingdomKingdom became known as FranciaSalic Law was the codeAssigning a value to everything and everyoneWrongdoer must pay the victim or the victim’s family (see p 507)Trial by oath (others sweared a defence) or trial by ordeal (a ‘test’ was administered—God would protect the innocent)Great churches were builtProduced fine glass, ivory carvings, and delicate jewelryRuled for 300 yearsRuler slowly lost power and aristocratic families gainedThe Carolingians (named for the Latin word for Charles)Charles Martel was from one of these aristocratic familiesBecame the most powerful leader through military victory (719)Pushed back Muslim invaders, south of the Pyrenees which divide France and SpainRewarded his followers by giving them church landsHis son, Pepin the Short, followed himLots of church reform followed; the church was getting too ‘worldly’Pepin officially deposed the last Merovingian king (with the Pope’s help)He secured the “Papal States” for the popePepin’s sons, Carloman and CharlesCarloman died and Charles became known as “Charles the Great” or “Charlemagne”He was a successful military general who defeated the Saxons, the Avars, the Bretons, the Bavarians, and many Slav peopleHe helped Pope Leo III get back his position after being exiledSo, Leo crowned Charles “Emperor of the Romans” on Christmas Day, 800Solidified the relationship between the Frankish kings and the papacyBecame the Holy Roman Empire for the next 700 yearsCharlemagne created schoolsLatin textbooks were created and standardizedA new form of handwriting was developedBy focusing on education, there were lots of educated administrators around the empireLatin was the universal languageCharles gave his empire to his sone LouisHe continued his father’s practicesHis 3 sons fought for powerLed to civil warIn 843, the Treaty of Verdun was signedDivided the empire in 3Invasions from the Vikings, Magyars, and Saracens weakened the divided empireIberiaSpain and PortugalIn Roman days, this was agricultural landWealthy seniores with slaves and semi-free peasants working the landStrong Christian traditionsVisigoths invaded in 409 CEEstablished a capital at Toledo and ruled for 300 yearsThe Moors arrived from North Africa in 711They were Islamic but left the Christians alone for a whileMuslims later tried to suppress ChristianityChristians began to assimilate into the Islamic cultural traditionsCharlemagne reconquered the peninsula from the Muslim “infidels”Muslims were pushed back to the southern part of Granada where they stayed until 1492The British IslesWhen the Romans left, Britain was invades by Angles and Saxons, among othersMany native Britons fled west and north into Wales, Cornwall, and ScotlandThis is where the legend of King Arthur fits in8 independent kingdoms were establishedThe Anglo-Saxons organized local gov’t in a way that is still used todayBoroughs were grouped into Shires led by a Shire Reeve (Sheriff)The Vikings began invading in the 9th and 10th centuriesThey were beaten back by King Alfred the GreatAlfred gathered scholars and opened schoolsHe encouraged literacy Christianity arrived in England in the 600sIreland was never occupied by the Romans and remained untouched until the Vikings arrived in the 700sChristianity arrived with Patrick in the 5th centuryMany monasteries were established The High Middle Ages Social UpheavalLocal lords ruled the areas around their wooden castles‘Primogeniture’ was introduced eldest son inherited everythingprevented division of wealth and the lessening of powerled to future generations of disinherited younger sonspeasants were under the direct control of their local lordthey lost freedomall farmers became serfs3. church lost some control as lords became more powerfulthey fought over land and were often plundereddisputes lasted for generationsFeudalismthis term is often used to describe the social organization of the High Middle Agesnot entirely accurate“feudalism” means a system whereby land is given by an overlord to a vassal in return for military servicelords, in turn, insisted that the vassal provide more military service, attend court, pay dues, and accept their judgement with regards to inheritance Three Estateshistorians now argue that there was a 3 class (estate) system: clergy, nobles, and peasantsmedieval historians believed these ‘estates’ (status) were ordained by God especially important in Francereality was even more complex than both of these termspeople could be members of overlapping social groupsWars and Conflictscampaign after campaign was launched by the ruling elite, all over Europeattempted to control the frontiers in Italy, Spain, the Holy Land, England, Ireland, etc.castles were built to show power and they became the focus of all military campaignsChurch officials were involved, as they wanted to exert power in their realmIn 1054, the Pope and the Patriarch fought over who was in charge of “Christendom”They excommunicated each otherThis led to a schism and permanent division between Roman Catholic and Eastern OrthodoxWar of Investitures (1075-1122)Began between Pope Gregory VII and Holy Roman Emperor Henry IVIt was custom for the Emperor to invest new bishops and abbotsGregory felt this looked as though the secular leaders controlled the clergyGregory changed the rules and Henry became angryTheir supports foughtGregory excommunicated Henry so Henry gave in and legend says he was forced to stand in the snow for 3 days as penanceIn 1122, the new emperor and pope made a compromise where they would share investiture honoursNorman ConquestsThe Normans lived in Northern France and converted to ChristianityThere were continuous feuds between the Normans and the local population despite intermarriageDuke William united the territoryHis cousin, King Edward the Confessor of England died childless, in 1066William believed that he had a claim to this throne, so he raised an army and crossed the English ChannelKing Harold (who had already claimed the throne) was waitingJust before William arrived, Vikings were set to attack at York (in the north)Harold turned his army north and routed the Vikings on 25 September 1066Harold turned back to the south and met William on 14 October 1066 for the Battle of HastingsHarold was killed and his army decimatedWilliam was crowned William I of England, otherwise known as “William the Conqueror”William’s crossbows, unseen in England, may have proven too powerful for Harold and his menThe “Bayeux Tapestry” (69 m x 50 cm) records the entire Norman Conquest and is considered the best source of info about the tactics and equipment usedProvides insights into clothing, architecture, culture, and shipsNormans quickly strenghtened their position in EnglandThey built 500 castles and ruled for 300 yearsDomesday BookCompiled by King William in 1086 to determine the value of EnglandEach district provided an account of all properties, tenants, livestock, water, timber, etcUsed to determine what was owed to the king! Plantagenet Conflicts“Plantagenet” was the nickname for King Henry II (1154) and his descendents)comes from the habit of using the broom plant to improve huntingThomas Becket was appointed Archbishop of Canterbury (highest official in England) by Henry IIBecket refused to be controlled by the king, and the friendship was ruinedPower struggle lasted 8 yearsHenry’s followers felt that the king wanted Becket assassinatedHe was slaughtered in the middle of a service at Canterbury CathedralThe religious citizens were shocked at Becket was canonizedHenry did public penance and gave up his plans to force the clergy to his sideKing John was the fifth son of Henry II but he outlived all his brothers to become kingOne brother was Richard the Lion-Heart (popular king)King John was a poor leader who listened to bad adviceHis use of extortion and other abuses created unrest amongst the noblesIn 1215, John was forced, by the noblemen, to sign the Magna Carta (Great Charter) Foundation of the British Constitution and part of the Canadian constitutionKing is subject to the law, just like those he rulesAll free men are entitled to be judged by their peers (led to the jury system)The Crusades This will be covered in the seminars (pages 536-538)New Economic GrowthIn the early Middle Ages people left the cities to avoid the warbandsThe High Middle Ages brought some stability and securityTowns and CitiesA new urban culture formed as the need for markets and trade grewPopulation grew due to warmer climate, longer growing seasons, healthier population, which led to higher fertility ratesIn northern Italy, towns grew as a means to feed the Crusaders who kept passing throughTrade increased and banks sprang upVillages became towns and towns became citiesBy 1300, Paris and Rome had populations of 100 000 while London and Florence stood at 75 000Still smaller than ConstantinopleCities were protected by wallsA community with a cathedral was called a ‘city’ while all others were called boroughs or burgsAs cities grew, and buildings sprang up outside the walls, another wall was builtMedieval cities grew in concentric circlesGuildsOrganizations of artisans, craftspeople, merchants, professionalsEstablished standards, and apprenticeship programsAristocratic guilds (tanners, goldsmiths) often controlled civic gov’t Masters of the merchant guilds in urban centres patronized the arts and churches and helped gain self-governmentSome cities became so powerful they became independent from the monarchsthese ‘communes’ kept nobles out of the day-to-day activitiesGuilds adopted patron saints, led processions, organized festivals, and staged playsThe Late Middle AgesCharacterized by disasters and a breakdown of order The PlagueBy 1300, the climate cooledShortened growing season led to a shortage of foodPeople were vulnerable to diseaseIn 1346, the bubonic plague spread through AsiaCarried by rats and fleas1347-48, it reached Europekilled between 1/8 and ? of the populationthe wealthy left the cities to escape the disease (many died anyway)the poor, in wooden buildings, were the worst hitmany superstitious people believed that this was a punishment from Godpeople either became more pious (religious) or more frivolouscultural and artistic expression were profoundly influencedthe use of a skeleton (as death) in artwork, drama, & music became commonmonuments to the dead were createda wave of anti-Semitism spread through Europe and Jews were persecutedthey were blamed for the plaguemany were burned to deaththe Pope threatened to ex-communicate those who persecuted Jews but no one listenedJews were driven out of many countries Following the plague new social practices emergedPopulation growth slowed as people put off marriage and child-rearingThere were severe labour shortages in the fields This led to the creation of labour saving technology (better farm implements)People lost faith in the church because prayer had not stopped the plaguePeople began to direct their loyalties to their country rather than the church (nationalism)Took 150 years to recover economicallyCities were abandoned, towns shrankFood prices slumped while the price for manufactured goods roseThe cost of farm labour rose as did the wages of craftspeopleThe rich found themselves richer because there were fewer to inheritEconomic power shifted from urban centres to the countrysideCity guilds were so restrictive that it was easier for people to establish shops in the villages and small townsThese towns and villages grew and prosperedLandlords found it more profitable to rent their land to peasants Landlords competed for tenants because unused land benefited no onePeasants took on a more prominent role in rural lifeLandlords didn’t like their loss of status so they petitioned the king to pass laws in their favourWage freezes were put in placeKing Richard II (age 14) imposed a poll tax (a tax on everyone)The peasantry’s discontent led to rebellion (The Peasants’ Revolt)Marched to London, killed some Flemish merchants, destroyed a royal palace, and beheaded 2 of the king’s advisors in the Tower of LondonRichard persuaded the peasants to go home with promises of reformThe reforms never happened and the leaders were killedFirst popular rebellion in English historySimilar rebellions took place throughout EuropeAlthough unsuccessful, they were signs of an unstable social order2. Commerce and TradeA strong middle class emergedSome merchant families were so powerful they were like aristocracyMedicis of Florence, Fuggers of Augsburg, GermanyBanks reappeared in 12th C. ItalyMoneychangers began to invest their clients money for profit1494 Pacioli wrote the first accounting explanationTo standardize monetary systems the Carolingians established this system12 pennies = 1 shilling (a solidus or s.)20 shillings = 1 pound (a libra or ?)used in England until 1971Changes in WarfareThe recipe for gunpowder was written down by Roger Bacon, in 1254 (first European)Changed the ways wars were conductedNo longer one man against anotherBullets, cannon balls, and planting gunpowder under city walls to blow them upPrior to gunpowder, sieges could easily be won by the defenders, if they had enough food and waterGunpowder shifted the advantage to the attackerIncreased power of monarchies because they could keep their barons in checkLarger cannons, & muzzle-loading muskets paved the way for European colonial dominationHundred Years’ WarBitter rivalries between the royalties of England and FranceLasted for 116 years, beginning in 1337Sieges, raids, sea battles, land battles, and tense trucePlantagenet monarchs ruled England and parts of FranceThey were descendants of William the Conqueror who had come from FranceIntermarriage also made these 2 monarchies relatedWar was to determine who should control all of France1337 Edward III of England challenged Philip of France Edward was only 24English soldiers were professionals whereas the French were only vassals doing their 40 days a yearEngland gained the upper hand1346 Battle of Crécy Edward’s son, The Black Prince (also Edward) became a legend at age 161347 English captured Calais and then the plague arrived1356 Black Prince won at the Battle of PoitiersCaptured King John II of FranceA treaty was signed in 1360 to ransom the king and give England control of Gascony1369 nobles of Gascony were frustrated with being under English controlFrench cut off supply lines and English withdrew to the coast in 13951415 King Henry V of England won the Battle of Agincourt1420 English were at the gates of Paris and the French surrenderedFrench king, Charles VI signed a treatyHenry could rule all lands he had conqueredHenry married Charles’ daughterCharles’ son (known as the Dauphin, also called Charles) was disinherited1422 both Charles VI and Henry V diedHenry’s 9-month-old son became Henry VI of both countriesThe Dauphin tried to reclaim his throne but failedFrance was almost entirely in English control1429 17-year-old Joan of Arc led an army that beat the English at Orléans Gave the Dauphin the momentum to reclaim his throne as Charles VII of FranceWithin 20 years, the English were driven out of FranceThe Printing PressMovable type was invented by Johannes Gutenberg in 1453At this time there were about 30 000 books in all of EuropeBy 1500, there were 12 million!Literacy and learning were within reach of everyoneAs more and more books were printed, writers and professional readers could make a livingChristine de Pisan wrote about the role of women in medieval societyFirst feminist historian!Writers began to write in the vernacular, rather than LatinGeoffery Chaucer wrote “The Canterbury Tales”Other classics included:Sir Gawain and the Green KnightThe Book of Margery Kempe (autobiography)Revelations of Divine Love, by Julian of NorwichThe Divine Comedy, by Dante (1314)These writers inspired Shakespeare and others The ChurchStruggle between Church and state continuedPope Boniface VIII declared that kings had to get his approval to raise taxes on clergy (1294)He was arrested and imprisoned by King Philip IV of FranceDied shortly after releaseThe Pope moves to AvignonThe new pope (Clement V) supported French interestsOther countries were suspiciousPope Gregory XI moved back to Rome in 1378People remained skepticalThe Great SchismWhen Gregory XI died, and Italian pope was electedThe French cardinals protestedA second pope was elected and set up in AvignonAll other countries took sides2 popes claimed to be the Vicar of Christnot resolved until 1417 40 years laterCouncil of Constance400 church leaders got together in 1414 and negotiated for 3 yearselected Martin V who was acceptable to allalso asked to introduce reforms were unsuccessfuleliminate heresysome Christians were actually questioning the Church!John Wycliffe teacher at Oxford until 1378He questioned and spoke about ‘transubstantiation’Catholic belief that the bread and wine at communion doesn’t just represent the body and blood of Christ, it is Christ’s body and bloodHe had many followers who became known as ‘mumblers’They were repressed in England but…Some students were from Prague and they took this idea homeJan Hus started a movement that the Church and the Czech monarchy couldn’t containIndulgencesA fundraiser for the ChurchIf you give money or time to the Church your sins will be forgivenBy carrying out good works, penance was doneRaising money for a new cathedral was also acceptableSome monks or friars became ‘pardoners’They kept a commission and passed on the rest of the money to headquartersReformers were critical of this practiceInquisitionsCourt system for suppressing hereticsPope Innocent IV said that torture and starvation could be used to get people to confess to heresy (1252)Penalties ranged from prayer to life imprisonmentThose who ‘relapsed’ could be burned at the stake (Joan of Arc)Spanish Inquisition began in 1478Quickly got out of control, even the Pope and monarch couldn’t contain the Great InquisitorUnofficially targeted Muslims and Jews1492, Jews were given a choice: convert to Christianity or leaveThis ended years of religious tolerance that had existed in SpainSociety and GovernmentFoundation of democratic institutions began to take rootEngland was key to these developmentsJustices of the peace were appointed to take care of petty crimeAlso acted as a lobby for royal interests in the communitySheriffs acted as intermediaries between the communities and the royal government at WestminsterParliaments were first assembled by Edward I to get the opinion of the people and make sure that there was no dissentSimilar meetings were held in Spain, France and the Holy Roman EmpireIn England there were 2 bodies; the Lords and the CommonsLords wealthy nobles and bishopsCommons knights from each shire and representatives from each city and boroughAlthough they didn’t sit in the same meetings, the members did mingle and socialize outside of the meetingsPetitions made by the Commons had to be given assent by the Lords before going to the monarch, who accepted or rejected itNot truly democratic! This was still an era of monarchsEurope was constantly plagued by civil unrest and warsWar of the Roses (1455-1485) EnglandHouse of York and House of Lancaster fought for the throneWon by Henry Tudor (Lancaster) who became Henry VIIHis appointed many advisors from the nobility which led to a peaceful periodIn Spain, Isabella of Castile married Ferdinand of Aragon, bringing peace to SpainUnity was strengthened by the riches of their overseas empire ................
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