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American Literature: Context projectThe Gilded Age, Asher and JonathanIntroduction?The Gilded Age, the period of growth and massive wealth and inequality from the 1870s to the turn of the century, changed America and changed American literature. After a Civil War which devastated the South but spurred on Northern business, the dream of Lincoln, that people would live and work independent lives on their own homesteads, was destroyed. At a time of great urban growth and the rise of the city in American life,?industrialisation?led to huge wealth at the top and terrible work conditions at the bottom. Blacks, promised equality, were denied it. Politicians became corrupt on a wave of campaign donations. However, it was not all gloom and doom. Muckraking journalists exposed corruption. Writers like Henry James began to focus on the new female experience, and black literature entered its nascent growth, as did American culture in general.???Economic growth and inequality?What do?I?care about the law??Ain’t?I got the money? The public be damned.?-JP Morgan to a reporter???Mark Twain and Charles Dudley Warner christened the age when their satire, ‘The Gilded Age: A Tale of Today’ was published in 1873, castigating the focus on wealth and the corruption of the age. It was the dazzling wealth and crippling poverty of the Gilded Age which pervaded every area of American life. By 1890, 1% of the population owned over 25% of the country’s wealth. Between the end of the Civil War and 1900, the transformation of America from an agrarian society of farmers and villages into an industrial society of tycoons and factories created a class of super-rich businessmen who got rich through building up huge monopolies in different areas called ‘trusts’. These included John D. Rockefeller’s Standard Oil and Andrew Carnegie’s steel business. (J.P. Morgan, the pre-eminent banker of the age, merged Carnegie’s business with other steel companies to create US Steel, the first billion-dollar trust.) America’s supercharged growth rested largely on the development of railroads which bridged the great span of a continent and sped up business considerably. Chicago grew from a tiny fur-trapping village in 1830 to a serious metropolis because of its position at the junction of multiple railway lines. It was joined in its growth by many other cities which ballooned in size over the period, like Los Angeles, whose population quintupled in the twenty years from 1880 to 1900.???Far from Jefferson’s ‘all men are created equal’, many of America’s new capitalists believed that, through luck and talent, they deserved their wealth, and promoted a simplified Darwinian ‘survival of the fittest’ mentality. However, not everybody agreed that all was well with the American system.?The Jungle, written in 1904 by Upton Sinclair, detailed the appalling conditions of those working in the meatpacking industry by following the life of a Lithuanian immigrant living and working in Chicago. Sinclair’s novel captured the experience of many poor immigrants who were flooding into America from Eastern and Southern Europe. However, despite his Socialist intentions, the main effect of the novel was to create anxiety about the cleanliness of the meat industry among American consumers.???Political Corruption?It could probably be shown by facts and figures that there is no distinctly native American criminal class except Congress.?Mark Twain,?Puddn’head?Wilson’s New Calendar?Just as the dream of an equal America evaporated in the 1880s, so did American political integrity. In Twain and Dudley Warner’s novel, one of the main characters, a young woman, travels to Washington to become a lobbyist, and pushes for assistance from congressmen to sell her family’s land. The storyline reflected the growing political corruption of the age, as the money of big business flooded into the system. In the cities, political ‘machines’, sophisticated and very powerful party?organisations, ruled the roost. The infamous Democratic machine Tammany Hall in New York consolidated power for their backers and built support among the city’s Irish immigrant population.???Meanwhile, corruption infested even the top levels of American government. Twain and Dudley Warner would have been aware of the Credit Mobilier scandal which first came to attention in 1872, when it became apparent that Credit Mobilier of America, the company behind the construction of the Union Pacific railroad, had bribed congressmen. The increasing corruption associated with Ulysses S. Grant’s presidency generated many literary reactions. Henry Adams, a direct descendant of Presidents John Adams and John Quincy Adams, penned his 1880 novel?Democracy, about a dishonest Midwestern Senator, to complain about what he saw as the immorality of the ever-growing West.????Change for women?The latter half of the 19th?Century in America saw the emergence of a more independent modern woman among the urbane upper classes, but also saw an increased emphasis on public propriety and morality from women as men struggled to adjust to change in gender relations. In polite society, women were free to go out and enjoy the pleasures of city life with their husbands, including the flourishing opera. The new craze for cycling also captured female attention. The cartoons of Charles Dana Gibson?popularised?this ‘New Woman’ as the ‘Gibson girl’, breezily independent and modern, and Henry James’ Isabel Archer in?The Portrait of a Lady?presented 1880s readers with a strident female protagonist who believed in her own autonomy in a world of tradition.???Nonetheless, as American literature of or about the Gilded Age makes clear, the old patriarchal mores continued to rule an elite where etiquette and decorum mattered more than ever. It was this clash between the old and the new which Edith Wharton observed years later in?The Age of Innocence?(1920), in which the most modern of women, Ellen?Olenska, finds herself unable to free herself from the constraints and strict moral straightjacket of 1870s New York society.The Great DepressionWhat was The Great Depression??By Asgharali?The Great Depression was an economic depression that effected the whole world and lasted from 1929 through to the late 1930’s??The Great Depression was a result of the stock market crash in 1929 which kicked off a chain of events that led to the greatest economic depression the US had ever seen, the stock market crash itself too place on October 24th 1929, a day known as ‘Black Thursday’. On this day 16 million shares of stock were sold by investors who had lost faith in the economy??Despite assurances from President Herbert Hoover and other leaders that the crisis would run its course, matters continued to get worse over the next three years. By 1930, 4 million Americans looking for work could not find it; that number had risen to 6 million in 1931.???What was the effect of The Great Depression???There was a new deal that aided the recovery from the Great Depression which was a series of programs and projects instituted during the Great Depression by President Franklin D. Roosevelt that aimed to restore prosperity to Americans. When Roosevelt took office in 1933, he acted swiftly to stabilise the economy and provide jobs and relief to those who were suffering. Over the next eight years, the government instituted a series of experimental New Deal projects and programs, such as the CCC, the WPA, the TVA, the SEC and others, that aimed to restore some measure of dignity and prosperity to many Americans. Roosevelt’s New Deal fundamentally and permanently changed the federal government’s relationship to U.S. citizens.??Before the Great Depression, the US was an economic and industrial powerhouse of the world however by 1935?Congress passed the?Social Security Act, which for the first time provided Americans with unemployment, disability and pensions for old age. After showing early signs of recovery beginning in the spring of 1933, the economy continued to improve throughout the next three years, during which real GDP (adjusted for inflation) grew at an average rate of 9 percent per year.??A sharp recession hit in 1937, caused in part by the Federal Reserve’s decision to increase its requirements for money in reserve. Though the economy began improving again in 1938, this second severe contraction reversed many of the gains in production and employment and prolonged the effects of the Great Depression through the end of the decade. Depression-era hardships had fuelled the rise of extremist political movements in various European countries, most notably that of?Adolf Hitler’s?Nazi regime in Germany. German aggression led war to break out in Europe in 1939, and the WPA turned its attention to strengthening the military infrastructure of the United States, even as the country maintained its neutrality?How did The Great Depression end???It is argued that President Franklin Roosevelt’s “new deal” helped bring about the end of the?Great Depression. The series of social and government spending programs did get millions of Americans back to work on hundreds of public projects across the country.?But in the 80 years since the Great Depression was formally declared over in June of 1938, historians and economists have continued to debate the true merits of the New Deal and whether, in fact, the radical government spending programs brought about the end of the biggest economic downturn in history.?What was the effect of The Great Depression on society in the 1930’s???Debt:?Few Americans were prepared for the economic crash. May got used to the rise of Consumerism in the 1920s and the easy credit that was made available. Between 3-4 million Americans had invested in the Stock Market, with loaned money. Many Americans were in debt. Many lost their life savings. Those that became unemployed would also lose their homes.??Suicides:??The reaction to the crash was a series of suicides by men who could not handle their failure, shame, loss of prestige and loss of status in their community. These terrible deaths took there toll on the deceased family in terms of grief, loss and in their quality of life. As the reality of the prolonged Great Depression hit home there were more suicides.???Class separation:??Distinct class separation between the poor, the middle class and the wealthy had evolved in the cities. Class separation was based on the neighbourhoods where people lived and the type of houses they lived in. Separation by class and the stark contrasts between the neighbourhoods fostered additional resentment and increased discontent during this sad time in American history.?The lost generationKreshen and ArishThe lost generation and the Jazz AgeJazz Age:* Arose in the 1920’s post WW1* Became a key turning point in the advancement of American pop culture* Birth of Jazz music arose from African Americans but was adopted by white Americans* More freedom for women at the time- emergence of flappers and celebrity singers like Bessie Smith* As the Jazz music became more popular, there became an increase in the amount of speakeasies* Speakeasies were also a place for illegal activities, alcohol was sold here during the prohibition.* The Jazz age challenged racial boundaries, with younger white Americans indulging in African American dances such as the Charleston* The growth of Jazz can be attributed to the increase in radio stations in which Jazz culture was further developed. However, many more white jazz musicians were broadcasted on the radio than African Americans. This highlights the racial prejudice that still existed at the time.* There became more opportunities for women as the Jazz age provided them with a new-found confidence and independence, choosing to adopt a more unique type of style. - E.g. Jordan who is a female celebrity adopts the classic flapper style* The flapper personified new spirit in fashion, style and dance* Art Deco became a dominant style of design and architecture, originating in Europe but then being adopted by Americans. Drew its inspiration from nature- E.g. Tom Buchanan’s mansionLost generation* American eugenicists provided the so-called scientific proof used to justify racial oppression in the United States and Europe. - played a major role in the immigration act of 1924* Eugenicists sterilised men to reduce aggression and sterilised women to control the results of their sexuality. This form of conditioning lasted well into the middle of the 20th century* Propaganda- ‘some people are born to be a burden to the rest011077100Robin and Nishaan: The frontierThe frontier in American literature 1880’s-1900?The frontier (when referencing America) was the extreme limit of settled land beyond which lies wilderness, mainly in reference to the western US before Pacific settlement.?The frontier is living life on the forward wave of American expansion.?Which began with English colonial settlements in the early 17th century and ended with the admission of the last mainland territories as states in 1912?Here is a map of American territories and how they were split in 1846?Huge amount of unorganised territory 0176530-80911000?This is a map of the USA 40 years later in 1889 ?We can still see that there is un claimed territory and what was Mexico has been claimed ?The decade occurred at the core period of the Second Industrial Revolution. Sky scrapers and the modern city came to prominence ?it was a time of great economic prosperity and ?The principals of society were claimed to be based on religion however these were often overlooked and ignored as you can see in the literature of the time.Key Authors:?Lucy Lockwood Hazard – The Frontier in American Literature (1927)?Henry Nash Smith – Virgin Land (1950)?Vernon L. Parrington – Main Currents in American Thought (1927-30)?These authors tend to explore with some attention the specific use of the frontier in fiction and poetry with some attention to the specific use of social experience that is perhaps embedded in the nation’s consciousness. ?The commonplace definition of the frontier was formulated by Fredrick Jackson Turner in his 1893 paper, published the following year, and further republished in 1920 under the title The Frontier in American History. According to Turner, the American Frontier is sharply distinguished from the European frontier – political boundary that is often fortified and perhaps running through densely populated areas. ?The so-called Frontier-men were known was Pioneers, although the American term has no connotation of military engineering. What’s more, Frontier and West gradually become synonymous despite the fact of progression of settlement might be northern or southern or in some cases, could even be eastern. Naturally, the European definition of the word frontier was used by the early settlers (M.M. Matthews, in A Dictionary of Americanism on Historical Principles), ?The American concept of the Frontier becomes widespread then dominant in the 19th Century. The American history was largely the history of the colonisation of the Great West. ?Behind institutions, constitutional forms and modifications, lie the vital force that calls these components into life and shape them to meet changing conditions. Overall, the peculiarity of American institutions is the fact that they have been compelled to adapt themselves to the changes of an expanding people – to the changes involved in crossing a continent, to winning a wilderness, and in developing at each area of this progress out of the primitive economic and political conditions of the frontier into the complexity of city life.Rohan and Jerry: 1900s and pre-WW1Historical events that occurred during 1900-1914:?1900: Gold Standard?1901: Theodore Roosevelt became President?1904: Roosevelt Corollary to Monroe Doctrine?1904-1914: Panama Canal built?1906:oHepburn ActoPure Food and Drug Act?1906: The Jungle?1912: Election of Woodrow Wilson?1913:o16th Amendment authorising income tax approvedo17th Amendment providing for direct election of Senators ratifiedoFederal Reserve System begunBy the early 1900s the US was a flourishing superpower; one of the world’s largest economies and a military strength.1900:?Work on the ‘New York Subway’ begun on the first section from City Hall to the Bronx. No company was willing to take on such a large project and therefore was funded by the issue of travel bonds by NYC itself1901:?President William McKinley (25th President) was assassinated by Leon Czolgosz, leading to the Vice President Theodore Roosevelt becoming the 26th President of America1902:?American Automobile Association (AAA) was founded, and though other companies existed before similar to AAA, they were all short lived1903:?First use of Guantánamo Bay, a large naval base in Cuba?First Baseball World Series?11 minute film ‘The Great Train Robbery’ shown in theatres1904:?‘Times Square’ was named from the previously called ‘Long Acre Square’1906:?18th April – San Francisco earthquake (7.8 on Richter scale) estimated 3000 people were killed and destroyed much of the city. ?30th June – to correct conditions detailed in Upton Sinclair’s ‘The Jungle’?Congress passes the Meat Inspection Act and the Pure Food and Drug Act?Roosevelt’s journey to Panama to visit the Canal begun1907:?Panic of 1907 – Financier J.P. Morgan manages the crisis by importing $100 million in gold to boost the US currency1909:?Pearl Harbour announced to be built to prevent Japanese expansion in the Pacific the literature published in American 1870-1910 was the period of ‘Realism and Naturalism’. It started from the human cost of the Civil War in the years 1861-65. Walt Whitman, an American poet, essayist and journalist who claimed, “A great literature will… arise out of the era of those four years”, and what emerged afterwards was a vison of the world as it truly was. This was the subject of 'realism'. Afte r the horrors of the Civil War, it became writers' primary expression. ?Major novels: The Adventures of Tom Sawyer (1876) & The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn (1885) ?Travel narratives: The Innocents Abroad (1869), Roughing It (1872), Life on the Mississippi (1883) ?Short stories: “Jim Baker’s Blue-Jay Yarn” (1880), “The Man that Corrupted Hadleyburg” (1899)Naturalism was the literary movement inspired from French authors of the 19C who sought to write about through fiction the reality that they saw around them, mainly amongst the middle and working class?Theodore Dreiser was foremost among American writers who embraced naturalism. His Sister Carrie (1900) is the most important American naturalist novel. ?Maggie: A Girl of the Streets (1893) and The Red Badge of Courage (1895), by Stephen Crane, and McTeague (1899), The Octopus (1901), and The Pit(1903), by Frank Norris, are novels that vividly depict the reality of urban life, war, and capitalism.In 1896, the Supreme Court ruled that separate but equal was constitutional through the Plessy v. Ferguson case. Immediately local and state laws were created and in some cases, enhanced to prohibit African-Americans from participating fully in American society. However, almost immediately, African-Americans began working to prove their worth in American society. The timeline below highlights some of the contributions as well as some tribulations faced by African-Americans between 1900 and 1909. African-American timeline:1900 - James Weldon Johnson and John Rosamond Johnson write the lyrics and composition for Lift Every Voice and Sing in Jacksonville, Fl. Within two years, the song is considered the African-American national anthem.1900 - Nannie Helen Burroughs establishes the Women's Convention of the National Baptist Convention.1903 - W.E.B. Du Bois publishes The Souls of Black Folks. The collection of essays explored issues concerning racial equality and denounced Washington's beliefs.1905 - The African-American newspaper, The Chicago Defender is published by Robert Abbott.1906 - Seven African-American male students attending Cornell University establish Alpha Phi Alpha Fraternity. This will become the first collegial fraternity for African-American men.1907 - Alain Locke becomes the first African-American Rhodes Scholar. Locke will go on to be an architect of the Harlem Renaissance, also known as the New Negro Movement.The Souls of Black FolkThe Souls of Black Folk is a work of American literature by W. E. B. Du Bois. It is a seminal work in the history of sociology, and a cornerstone of African-American literary history.The book, published in 1903, contains several essays on race, some of which the magazine Atlantic Monthly had previously published. To develop this work, Du Bois drew from his own experiences as an African American in the American society. Outside of its notable relevance in African-American history, The Souls of Black Folk also holds an important place in social science as one of the early works in the field of sociology.In The Souls of Black Folk, Du Bois used the term "double consciousness", perhaps taken from Emerson ("The Transcendentalist" and "Fate"), applying it to the idea that black people must have two fields of vision at all times. They must be conscious of how they view themselves, as well as being conscious of how the world views them.In The Souls of Black Folk W. E. B. Du Bois called the black preacher "the most unique personality developed by the Negro on American soil." The minister functioned as "a leader, a politician, an orator, a 'boss,' an intriguer, (and) an idealist" ([New York, 1903, 1989], 134). Du Bois could have added that black clergy in their preaching and musical tastes both reflected and refined the cultural preferences of their congregations. ................
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