Student motivation in physical education: breaking down ...



Student motivation in physical education: breaking down barriers; Student motivation in physical education typically declines after the early years. Why? And what can be done about it?.

Author(s):Claire M. Mowling, Sheri J. Brock, Kim K. Eiler and Mary E. Rudisill. 

Source:JOPERD--The Journal of Physical Education, Recreation & Dance 75.6 (August 2004): p40(7). (4525 words) 

Document Type:Magazine/Journal

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Full Text :COPYRIGHT 2004 American Alliance for Health, Physical Education, Recreation and Dance (AAHPERD)

Students in kindergarten appear to be propelled by curiosity and driven by an intense need to explore. They are willing to interact with and make sense of their environment. Rarely does one hear complaints that preschoolers are unmotivated in physical education (Lumsden, 1994). Unfortunately, in many cases, students begin losing interest in physical education as they progress through school. A fundamental requirement for developing a successful physical education program is to interest and motivate students to learn the intended objectives. Motivation is defined as "the collection of causes that engage someone in an activity" (Wakefield, 1996, p. 494). In order to better understand the decline in students' motivation with regard to physical education, the authors extensively explored the literature and undertook observations of physical education programs at the elementary (K-4) and middle school (5-8) levels. The intention was to develop a better understanding of the practical application of previous motivational research. As graduate teaching assistants at the schools, several of the authors were in an excellent position to observe and interact with the students.

The rural elementary school that was studied consists of approximately 900 students and is located in the southeast United States. The average physical education class has about 75 students with two certified teachers and two aides. The facilities are new, with ample equipment and supplies for each student. The middle school in the same school system has approximately 550 students. The average class has between 90 and 100 students and three certified teachers. The facilities are outdated, with inadequate equipment and supplies for each student. Observations and interactions with the students for 12 hours a week for 15 weeks revealed that many students in grades three, four, seven, and eight were noticeably inactive in the lessons and constantly complained that physical education was boring. Consequently, the authors decided to explore this motivational phenomenon from kindergarten through middle school. The physical education teachers gave permission to have their classes observed and their students interviewed in an attempt to identify barriers to motivation. The interviews and observations led to the identification of barriers related to the following factors: intrinsic motivation, extrinsic rewards, the teacher, the curriculum, the administration, and the school setting. The purpose of this article is to provide definitions associated with each identified barrier to motivation, discuss observations of the possible causes of these barriers, and offer helpful suggestions with relevant examples. It is hoped that this information will help practitioners to break down barriers and encourage student motivation.

Intrinsic Motivation

The first potential barrier to motivation relates to the intrinsic motivation of students. A problem arises in the uniqueness of each individual because what motivates one student to learn may not motivate another (Rink, 1998). Therefore, involvement for some may become an unpleasant task, and any intrinsic motivation to participate is lost. Intrinsically motivated students undertake an activity for its enjoyment or challenge (Lepper, 1988). External benefits and rewards are not needed to encourage motivation (Kilpatrick, Hebert, & Jacobsen, 2002). Through interviews and observations from the elementary and middle schools, the authors attempted to identify the possible reasons for the lack of intrinsic motivation.

Elementary School. When asked about physical education, third grade students made such comments as, "I don't like it. It's boring every time," and "I don't like it that much because I don't like exercises. I just like the fun days." Students appeared to make a connection between exercising and not having fun. The students expressed boredom and dislike during exercises. Student statements suggest a lack of intrinsic motivation during physical education. The third grade students said that they enjoyed physical education when they got to play games and run around.

Middle School. Interviewed students stated that one major issue for their dislike of physical education is dressing out. Students at this grade level have an increased awareness of their body and the changes that are happening to them. Therefore, changing clothes in front of their peers was a very uncomfortable event. Interviewed students also stated, "I don't like to run" and "We get hot and sweaty." These statements, like those of the elementary school children, suggest that students lack intrinsic motivation.

The students' comments show that the lack of intrinsic motivation is a barrier to the engagement of students in physical education. Students expressed similar reasons for not wanting to participate in physical education. If these reasons were resolved, changed, or adapted, would student motivation increase?

The following suggestions and examples may help teachers foster an intrinsic desire for activity in their students:

* Design lessons that students will find meaningful. Give the students explanations of what they are learning and how it applies to life outside the school setting. For example, when students complete a running activity, ask them which muscles they were using and how running might help them in everyday activities.

* Design activities that will challenge all students. Realize that all students have different levels of skill. Provide activities with various degrees of difficulty and allow the students to decide what they feel comfortable practicing. If students are working on the inside-of-the-foot pass in soccer, for example, allow them to decide if they want to stand close to their partner, stand a greater distance apart, or incorporate moving while passing.

* Design activities that have specific goals. All activities should incorporate objectives that are intrinsically motivating. For instance, when students are working on dribbling skills, allow them to estimate the number of consecutive dribbles they think they can complete, and work towards accomplishing that goal.

* Allow students to feel like they have control over their own learning. Give students opportunities to choose activities that meet their interests and that promote intrinsic motivation. You could tell students, "Today, you can choose between playing a competitive game of basketball or an organized game with no scoring, or you can practice fundamental skill drills."

* Provide students with alternative tasks, thus allowing them to make choices. Introduce different activities for improving the same skill and give students the opportunity to decide which activity they prefer. This could be done by setting up stations for fitness and allowing students to decide which stations they want to participate in for the day, while noting that they must do the remaining stations the next day.

* Allow students to assess their own progress. Provide students with self-assessment checklists that will help them see whether they are meeting their individual goals. Using a locomotor skill checklist, for example, students would check a "smiley" face if they feel competent at the locomotor skill or a neutral face if they feel they need more work.

* Two helpful web sites for fostering intrinsic motivation in students are and activity/activity7/intrinsic/intrinsic.html.

Extrinsic Rewards

A second potential barrier to motivation is the use of extrinsic rewards as a motivational tool. Extrinsically motivated students undertake an activity in order to receive rewards such as grades, stickers, or teacher approval (Lepper, 1988). Through observations, the authors identified possible problems associated with extrinsic rewards.

Elementary School. Pencils, blow pops, and stickers were regularly used as extrinsic rewards. Sometimes the student who won the activity received the reward. This appears redundant, as the student receiving the reward is probably already motivated. Other rewards include activity rewards. If students behave and follow procedures throughout the week, they get to play whatever they want on Fridays. "Choice day" or "free-day Friday" without intent or goals is not a pedagogically appropriate practice (Pagnano & Griffin, 2001). The use of this reward is behavior driven, rather than oriented toward learning. In this instance, rewards are given for expected behavior and compliance to the teacher's rules. Students should not be rewarded for something they are supposed to be doing, but should be rewarded when learning, participating, and trying. Observations showed that third grade students were no longer extrinsically motivated by such rewards.

Middle School. Observations showed that extrinsic motivational strategies are more prevalent than intrinsic. "Free-day Friday" was rewarded to the students for being quiet and working hard in class. Students also had the opportunity to buy sports drinks based on their level of participation in an activity.

Encouragement is important. Care should be taken not to mistake rewards with positive reinforcement. There is evidence to suggest that such practices as giving out stickers or free play can hinder intrinsically motivating factors that may already exist in the students (Lumsden, 1994). Observations showed that extrinsic motivation could be a barrier to the successful engagement of students in activity.

The following suggestions and examples aim to break down the barrier of using tangible rewards to encourage motivation:

* Provide students with lots of specific feedback. Feedback should be performance specific and corrective or reinforcing in nature, such as, "Holly, I like the way you are keeping the ball close to your stick."

* Reinforce appropriate learning practices and effort. Provide motivational feedback to students for being on task and working hard ("Toby, good job, you are working very hard").

* Be caring and accepting of all students. Treat all students equally regardless of skill level, gender, race, culture, or socioeconomic status. Avoid favoritism. It will help to learn a unique characteristic of each child in your class and to take time at the beginning of the year to learn the names of all students.

* Make it fun, but remember that everybody's idea of fun is different. The teacher should determine what drives each individual. During a unit of volleyball, for example, provide the students with a choice to participate in a challenge or leisure league.

* Get the students involved in their own learning. Allow students to make decisions through a student-centered climate. This might be accomplished by having students design a game that incorporates the motor skills that they have learned during the current week.

* Be sure that all students are actively engaged in activity for the majority of the class time. Students who have to wait their turn will quickly lose interest and are more likely to get off task. For example, if half of the students are practicing jump rope techniques with all of the available equipment, the other students can work on a jumping obstacle course.

* Allow students to play all roles. Students should be encouraged to play all positions in the activity. When playing softball, for example, make sure that students change positions and that one student does not have to play an undesirable position every time.

* Encourage students to develop a self-reward system. Students should learn to acknowledge their own accomplishments independent of the teacher. At the end of each day, for example, have students briefly discuss with a partner their accomplishments for the day.

The Teacher

The third barrier to student motivation can be the practices of the teacher. The teacher has the immensely difficult and challenging task of motivating every individual student. To be effective, teachers must examine their teaching style and adapt to the continually changing demands that are placed upon them. The teacher needs to be an instructor, a manager, a facilitator, a role model, and a motivator. It has been shown that the attitude of the teacher affects the attitude of the students. Teachers can improve their credibility and influence by complete planning and goal setting and by exhibiting conduct that exemplifies the behavior expected from their students (Murray, 1993). The authors' interviews and observations identified a number of potential problems that resulted in minimal activity time for students.

Elementary School. The primary focus of the classes observed was classroom management, causing valuable activity and instruction time to be lost. One student expressed that physical education was about following directions. When asked, "What do you learn in physical education?" the student replied, "walk into class quietly, sit on your mark, and do teacher exercises." Another student stated, "You go to P.E. so the classroom teacher can rest." A routine like this encourages good student conduct, which is important, but does very little to promote motivation for learning physical activity. Three days a week the students repeated the same set of exercises. These are the same set of exercises they have done since the first grade. Observations and interviews suggested that minimal engagement in activity was hindering motivation.

Middle School. Observations showed that many students developed a negative attitude toward physical education class because the teacher was always yelling at them to sit down and be quiet. Many students felt that they were always in trouble for talking and running around. The students believe that being active is what they should be doing during physical education. Telling students to sit down and be quiet seems to contradict the purpose of physical activity. These statements suggest that longer activity time could increase motivation. Interviews with students revealed misconceptions regarding the purpose of physical education. Observations showed there was little time for meaningful activity due to extensive classroom management.

The following suggestions and examples will lend support to the teacher's goal of motivating all students in physical education:

* Be enthusiastic about physical education. If teachers do not love their chosen profession, how can they expect students to be motivated. Enthusiasm can be demonstrated by getting active with the students and showing enjoyment in all physical activities.

* Establish and reinforce effective protocols and use them consistently throughout the year. Find the protocols that are most effective and hold the students accountable. For example, protocols need to be established for starting (go), stopping (freeze), and putting down equipment (equipment down).

* Keep the students active. Design lesson plans that minimize starting and stopping: "Dribble the basketball with your dominant hand. Now without stopping change to your other hand. Now try to move forward while dribbling."

* Use a variety of teaching strategies. Do not be afraid to vary the way you teach. Students appreciate novelty. Continually update your lessons to keep up with the changing needs of the students. One way to accomplish this is by giving the students more responsibility and choices within the lesson, (e.g., using sport education or adventure education).

* Incorporate the use of technology. Implement the use of heart rate monitors and pedometers. For example, have students exercise in their target heart rate zone or keep a daily log of the number of steps they took during the class.

* Videotape your first and last class of the day and chart your own teaching. It is easy to judge others and point out their shortcomings, but it can be difficult to evaluate yourself. By watching yourself teach, you are able to step back and see the positive and negative aspects of your teaching. When evaluating yourself, look at time management, instruction, feedback, task relevance, content development, and other aspects of teaching.

* Be accountable. Use formative assessment to determine whether students are learning and repeat assessments so that students can see their progress. Students can chart their personal progress by using checklists. For example, "When jumping, (1) did you keep both feet together, (2) did you use your arms, (3) how far did you jump, (4) what do you think you need to work on next time?"

* Web sites that promote good teacher practices include , peteachers.htm, climate/index.html, and helpfrom/growing/works4me/manage/index.html.

The Curriculum

The fourth possible barrier to motivation is curriculum content. It is the role of the physical educator to develop a curriculum that leads to maximum participation. If the students do not enjoy what they are doing, they simply will avoid activity. The early elementary years should be spent learning, refining, and applying foundational skills. Understanding, developing, and applying these themes will help students build the foundation necessary to be successful in many lifetime activities (Graham, Holt/Hale, & Parker, 2001). The middle school years should focus on using the foundational skills in a wide variety of content areas (Graham, Holt/Hale & Parker, 2001). Guidelines to assist curriculum design are provided in the national standards (National Association for Sport and Physical Education, 1995) and the appropriate state course of study. Even the simplest activities can encompass the national standards (Humphries, Lovdahl, & Ashy, 2002). Through observations, the authors were able to identify possible areas to break down the curriculum barrier.

Elementary School. The curriculum that was observed lacked variety, it rarely challenged students, and it struggled with developmentally appropriate activities. Unfortunately, the curriculum in question has problems providing students with the foundational skills necessary for success at the middle school level. Also, students were rarely given opportunities to think for themselves and therefore appeared deficient in valuable critical thinking skills. It was observed that there was a strong emphasis on school performance in the Presidential Fitness test. The observations support the need for changes in the curriculum to increase motivation.

Middle School. Observations showed that teachers selected activities to meet their preferences, rather than the needs of the students. The teachers chose activities based on sports they coached or played. Physical educators need to be in tune with their students' likes and dislikes, and not their own. Students who are provided with activity choices during physical education are more likely to experience immediate and continued satisfaction (Fleming et al., 1999).

The evidence suggests that the teachers developed a curriculum based on what they enjoyed and felt comfortable teaching. It is the responsibility of the physical educator to provide students with a wide variety of experiences. A good program will incorporate all seven of the national standards to help strengthen their curriculum.

The following suggestions and examples focus on encouraging teachers to continually add to their repertoire and use their knowledge in the best possible way to increase student motivation and encourage maximum participation:

* Include variety and dare to be different. There are numerous new sports and activities that can be taught to students. For example, teachers might introduce students to cricket, frisbee golf, or step dancing.

* Allow students to have input into what they will be learning. Give students choices between activities:

"If you want to play dribble tag, go with Mr. Smith, or if you want to work on ball-handling skills, go with Ms. Jones."

* Use an integrated curriculum, which gives students a chance to see meaning across disciplines. Recent JOPERD articles have highlighted the integration of physical education with math and physics (Hatch & Smith, 2004), language augmentation (Murata, 2003), general science (Buchanan et al., 2002), and reading (Vigil & Edwards, 2002).

* Fitness education should not look like an athletic workout. Instead, disguise fitness with fun activities (e.g., Macarena push-ups, aerobic dance, or innovative tag games).

* Be sure that the curriculum is developmentally appropriate. As students progress through the grades, the curriculum should review old material and introduce new material. For example, second-grade students should review basic throwing skills from first grade. Increasing the level of difficulty should include throwing for speed, throwing for accuracy, and throwing for distance.

* Be prepared to adapt the curriculum to different classes and student needs. What works for one third-grade class may not work for another. Develop appropriate formative assessments and use them to periodically determine students' skill level throughout the school year.

* Use outside resources to help develop an educationally sound curriculum. For example, attend state conferences, request relevant in-service training, and consult with university professors of physical education teacher education.

* Helpful web sites for developing appropriate curriculum content include the following: home.adelphi.edu/~nassauz/pilotpackage.html, schoolseastnet.ecu.edu/pitt/ayden/physed8.htm, and Physical_Best.

The Administration

The administration was identified as the fifth potential barrier to student motivation in physical education. Ultimately, it is the administrators who make the major decisions affecting physical education. The administrator makes the decisions regarding funding, staffing, and often program philosophy (Sallis, McKenzie, Kolody, & Curtis, 1996). The level of administrative support sends a message to the students regarding the importance of physical education. The authors' observations showed that physical education was not always held in high regard by the administration.

Elementary School. The elementary school that was observed is an exception to what may be commonplace in many schools. The principal regularly visited the gym and was very positive regarding the physical education program. However, observations suggest that the principal was unsure of what makes a good physical education program.

Middle School. It was observed that students were allowed to miss physical education class to have eye screenings or to run an errand for another teacher. Many school activities were scheduled during the students' physical education time, reflecting the idea that the students were not missing anything important. These actions tell students and teachers that the administration places little value on physical education.

It was discovered that the administrators appeared to lack the necessary training to see physical education as an important part of the overall learning experience. Administrators in general must be convinced that physical education can contribute to children's health, well-being, and school performance, and that it is worth the monetary investment (Sallis et al., 1996).

The following suggestions and examples will encourage an increased awareness of the importance of physical education:

* Educate the administration. Verbalize what being a physical educator means and the importance of your role in academia. For instance, meet with the principal to showcase current curriculum or to discuss innovative changes in the curriculum.

* Provide the administration with a list of what a good physical education program should include. One way to do this is to distribute copies of NASPE's national standards.

* Encourage awareness of the physical education program by inviting administrators to observe or join in with physical education classes.

* Make appropriate equipment purchases. These should be based on the needs of the physical education program, not the needs of the athletic programs.

* Consult administration and university specialists about available funding, such as PEP grants, foundation grants, corporate funding, local support, fundraisers, and equipment donations.

* A helpful web site for understanding the important role that the administration plays in student motivation is csuchico.edu/casper/about.html.

The School Setting

The sixth potential barrier to student motivation is the school setting. The observations showed two very different settings on opposite ends of the spectrum. The elementary school had everything needed, and the middle school had almost nothing in comparison. Despite these noticeable differences in surroundings, the same motivational problem existed.

Elementary School. The majority of physical education teachers can only dream about the facilities and equipment available at the school the authors observed. Imagine what could be done with a brand new gym, a new playground, and an equipment room that looks like a sporting goods store. There was enough equipment that all students could have their own basketball, tennis racquet, golf club, and more. The teacher's budget was plentiful and allowed for whatever was needed. This school setting presented a seemingly perfect environment for students to excel in physical education. Yet, despite the plentiful setting, the majority of equipment was not used on a regular basis.

Middle School. The observed school lacked facilities and had an inadequate amount of equipment. There was not enough equipment for the students, the locker rooms were small and dirty, and there were no showers. The teachers' limited budget went towards replacing existing equipment and not towards equipment for new activities. This setting sets the tone that physical education is not valued. The observations suggest that a setting such as this undermines student motivation to engage in activity.

The following suggestions and examples may improve the school setting:

* Give students opportunities to improve their own surroundings by designing attractive bulletin boards, locker rooms, and playing areas.

* Become actively involved in the community (e.g., sponsor a health fair). This may build community support for the physical education program and lead to improvements in the school setting.

* Be creative with equipment. Students and teachers may need to improvise equipment (e.g., milk containers, soda bottles, yarn balls, sock balls, panty hose racquets, etc.).

* A helpful web site for ideas about improvised equipment is pe.usf.edu/projects/civitan/projects/equip/equip.html.

Conclusion

In conclusion, physical education has a motivational problem. Six barriers to motivation were observed in the upper grade levels in both the elementary and middle school. Barriers were identified in connection with the student (intrinsic and extrinsic), the teacher, the curriculum, the administration, and the setting. Barriers may vary depending on individual settings. Regardless of the problems, it is important for everyone involved to make a collective effort to break down these barriers to motivation. Unfortunately, many times the teacher is the only one who cares enough to challenge barriers to motivation. Physical educators must therefore continually advocate for the importance of physical education. Physical educators have chosen a profession that has lasting effects on the health and well being of the nation's youths. No matter how difficult the challenge, it is important to break down the barriers that are causing a lack of motivation in students.

References

Buchanan, A. M., Howard, C., Martin, E., Williams, L., Childress, R., Bedsole, B., & Ferry, M. (2002). Integrating elementary physical education and science: A cooperative problem-solving approach. Journal of Physical Education, Recreation & Dance, 73(2), 31-36.

Fleming, D. S., Mitchell, M., Gorecki, J. J., & Cleman, M. M. (1999). Students change and so do good programs: Addressing the interests of multicultural secondary students. Journal of Physical Education, Recreation & Dance, 70(2), 79-83.

Graham, G., Holt/Hale, S. & Parker, M. (2001). Children Moving (5th ed.). Mountain View, CA: Mayfield.

Hatch, G. M., & Smith, D. R. (2004). Integrating physical education, math, and physics. Journal of Physical Education, Recreation & Dance, 75(1), 42-50.

Humphries, C., Lovdahl, P., & Ashy, M. (2002). Elementary physical education and the national standards. Journal of Physical Education, Recreation & Dance, 73(5), 42-45.

Kilpatrick, M., Hebert, E., & Jacobsen, D. (2002). Physical activity motivation: A practitioner's guide to self-determination theory. Journal of Physical Education, Recreation & Dance, 73(4), 36-41.

Lepper, M. (1988). Motivational considerations in the study of instruction. Cognition and Instruction, 5, 289-309.

Lumsden, L. (1994). Student motivation to learn. Emergency Librarian, 22, 31-32.

Murata, N. M. (2003). Language augmentation strategies in physical education. Journal of Physical Education, Recreation & Dance, 74(3), 29-32.

Murray, M., & Mann, B. (1993). Is our professionalism showing or slipping? Journal of Physical Education, Recreation & Dance, 64(9), 30-32, 35.

National Association for Sport and Physical Education. (1995). Moving into the future: National physical education standards: A guide to content and assessment. Reston, VA: Author.

Pagnano, K., & Griffin, L. (2001). Making intentional choices in physical education. Journal of Physical Education, Recreation & Dance, 72(5), 38-40, 46.

Rink, J. E. (1998). Teaching physical education for learning (3rd ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill.

Sallis, J. F., McKenzie, T. L., Kolody, B. & Curtis, P. (1996). Assessing district administrators' perceptions of elementary school physical education. Journal of Physical Education, Recreation & Dance, 67(8), 25-29.

Vigil, Y. T., & Edwards, S. (2002). Using sports fiction in physical education. Journal of Physical Education, Recreation & Dance, 73(9), 53-57.

Wakefield, J. (1996). Educational psychology: Learning to be a problem solver. Boston: Houghton Mifflin.

Claire M. Mowling (mowlicm@auburn.edu) and Kim K. Eiler (eilerki@auburn.edu) are doctoral students, and Sheri J. Block (brocksj@auburn.edu) and Mary E. Rudisill (rudisme@auburn.edu) are assistant professors, in the Department of Human Performance, at Auburn University, Auburn, AL 36849.

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