Educational Psychology

[Pages:376]Educational Psychology



The Saylor Foundation

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Educational Psychology Second Edition

Kelvin Seifert and Rosemary Sutton

Copyright ? 2009 Kelvin Seifert For any questions about this text, please email: drexel@uga.edu

Editor-In-Chief: Kelvin Seifert Associate Editor: Marisa Drexel Editorial Assistant: Jackie Sharman

Proofreader: Rachel Pugliese

The Global Text Project is funded by the Jacobs Foundation, Zurich, Switzerland

This book is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 License

Educational Psychology

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A Global Text

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This book is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 License

About the authors and reviewer Author, Kelvin Seifert

Kelvin Seifert is professor of educational psychology at the University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, Canada. He earned a BA from Swarthmore College in 1967 and a PhD from the University of Michigan in 1973, in a combined program from the School of Education and the Department of Psychology. His research interests include the personal identity development of teachers, the impact of peers in 0pre-service teacher education, and the development of effective strategies of blended learning. He is the author of four university textbooks (with Houghton Mifflin, in traditional print format) about educational psychology, child and adolescent development, and lifespan human development. He is also the editor of the online Canadian Journal of Educational Administration and Policy. Recent publications include "Student cohorts: Support groups or intellectual communities?" (Teachers College Record) and "Learning about peers: A missed opportunity for educational psychology" (The Clearinghouse). His professional service includes serving as chair of the Department of Educational Administration, Foundations, and Psychology at the University of Manitoba, and serving as president of the American Educational Research Association Special Interest Group on Teaching Educational Psychology. During his career of 35 years, he has taught introductory educational psychology over 75 times.

Author, Rosemary Sutton

After four years of teaching high school mathematics in New Zealand, Dr Rosemary Sutton attended graduate school and earned her MS in Educational Psychology from the University of Illinois and her PhD from Pennsylvania State University in Human Development. She joined the Cleveland State University faculty in Cleveland, Ohio in 1983 and since that time has taught pre-service and in service undergraduates and graduate students educational psychology and educational technology. She has received several University awards for her teaching and has conducted numerous workshops for teachers in North East Ohio.

Dr Sutton has published a variety research articles on teacher development as well as equity issues in mathematics, technology, and assessment. Her recent research interests have focused in two areas: teaching educational psychology and teachers' emotions. Recent publications can be found in Social Psychology of Education, Educational Psychology Review, Journal of Teacher Education, and an edited volume, Emotions and Education.

Since 2004, Dr Sutton has been working as an Administrator, first as the Director of Assessment for the University. This position involved coordinating the student learning assessment for all graduate, undergraduate, and student support programs. In August 2007, Dr Sutton was appointed Vice Provost for Undergraduate Studies and is now responsible for overseeing offices and functions from academic and student service areas in order to create a campus culture that coordinates student services with the academic mission of the University.

Reviewer, Sandra Deemer

Sandra Deemer is professor of educational foundations at Millersville University, in Millersville, PA. She is also the editor of the online journal called "Teaching Educational Psychology," and has contributed to the development of the Special Interest Group on Teaching Educational Psychology (TEP SIG) sponsored by the American Educational Research Association. She teaches courses in educational psychology and educational research; her research interests focus on how motivational theory can be used to create learning-focused classrooms.

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Table of Contents

Preface............................................................................................................................................................... 7

1. The changing teaching profession and you.............................................................................8

The joys of teaching.......................................................................................................................................... 8 Are there also challenges to teaching?............................................................................................................10 Teaching is different from in the past............................................................................................................ 10 How educational psychology can help............................................................................................................16

2. The learning process .............................................................................................................20

Teachers' perspectives on learning................................................................................................................ 20 Major theories and models of learning.......................................................................................................... 23

3. Student development............................................................................................................. 41

Why development matters............................................................................................................................. 42 Physical development during the school years.............................................................................................. 43 Cognitive development: the theory of Jean Piaget........................................................................................ 46 Social development: relationships,personal motives, and morality .............................................................50 Moral development: forming a sense of rights and responsibilities............................................................. 56 Understanding "the typical student" versus understanding students........................................................... 61

4. Student diversity....................................................................................................................66

Individual styles of learning and thinking..................................................................................................... 67 Multiple intelligences..................................................................................................................................... 68 Gifted and talented students.......................................................................................................................... 70 Gender differences in the classroom.............................................................................................................. 72 Differences in cultural expectations and styles.............................................................................................. 75 Accommodating diversity in practice............................................................................................................ 80

5. Students with special educational needs.............................................................................. 85

Three people on the margins..........................................................................................................................85 Growing support for people with disabilities: legislation and its effects...................................................... 86 Responsibilities of teachers for students with disabilities.............................................................................87 Categories of disabilities--and their ambiguities........................................................................................... 91 Learning disabilities........................................................................................................................................91 Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder......................................................................................................... 94 Intellectual disabilities................................................................................................................................... 96 Behavioral disorders.......................................................................................................................................99 Physical disabilities and sensory impairments.............................................................................................101 The value of including students with special needs..................................................................................... 104

6. Student motivation.............................................................................................................. 109

Motives as behavior.......................................................................................................................................110 Motives as goals............................................................................................................................................. 113 Motives as interests....................................................................................................................................... 116 Motives related to attributions......................................................................................................................118 Motivation as self-efficacy............................................................................................................................ 120 Motivation as self-determination................................................................................................................. 125 Expectancy x value: effects on students' motivation....................................................................................130 TARGET: a model for integrating ideas about motivation........................................................................... 131

7. Classroom management and the learning environment.................................................... 138

Why classroom management matters.......................................................................................................... 139

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Preventing management problems by focusing students on learning.........................................................140 Responding to student misbehavior.............................................................................................................150 Keeping management issues in perspective................................................................................................. 155

8. The nature of classroom communication............................................................................159

Communication in classrooms vs communication elsewhere..................................................................... 159 Effective verbal communication................................................................................................................... 162 Effective nonverbal communication.............................................................................................................163 Structures of participation: effects on communication................................................................................166 Communication styles in the classroom.......................................................................................................169 Using classroom talk to stimulate students' thinking.................................................................................. 172 The bottom line: messages sent, messages reconstructed........................................................................... 176

9. Facilitating complex thinking..............................................................................................183

Forms of thinking associated with classroom learning................................................................................184 Critical thinking............................................................................................................................................ 185 Creative thinking ..........................................................................................................................................186 Problem-solving............................................................................................................................................ 187 Broad instructional strategies that stimulate complex thinking.................................................................. 191 Teacher-directed instruction........................................................................................................................ 193 Student-centered models of learning.......................................................................................................... 200 Inquiry learning............................................................................................................................................ 201 Cooperative learning.................................................................................................................................... 202 Examples of cooperative and collaborative learning................................................................................... 203 Instructional strategies: an abundance of choices.......................................................................................205

10. Planning instruction.......................................................................................................... 210

Selecting general learning goals................................................................................................................... 210 Formulating learning objectives................................................................................................................... 215 Students as a source of instructional goals.................................................................................................. 223 Enhancing student learning through a variety of resources........................................................................226 Creating bridges among curriculum goals and students' prior experiences............................................... 229 Planning for instruction as well as for learning........................................................................................... 235

11. Teacher-made assessment strategies................................................................................ 240

Basic concepts............................................................................................................................................... 241 Assessment for learning: an overview of the process...................................................................................241 Selecting appropriate assessment techniques I: high quality assessments................................................243 Reliability ..................................................................................................................................................... 245 Absence of bias ............................................................................................................................................ 246 Selecting appropriate assessment techniques II: types of teacher-made assessments..............................246 Selected response items................................................................................................................................249 Constructed response items ........................................................................................................................ 254 Portfolios.......................................................................................................................................................264 Assessment that enhances motivation and student confidence.................................................................. 267 Teachers' purposes and beliefs .................................................................................................................... 267 Choosing assessments ................................................................................................................................. 268 Providing feedback ...................................................................................................................................... 268 Self and peer assessment ............................................................................................................................. 269 Adjusting instruction based on assessment................................................................................................. 270 Communication with parents and guardians...............................................................................................270

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Action research: studying yourself and your students................................................................................. 271 Grading and reporting ................................................................................................................................. 272

12. Standardized and other formal assessments.....................................................................277

Basic concepts............................................................................................................................................... 277 High-stakes testing by states........................................................................................................................283 International testing..................................................................................................................................... 291 International comparisons .......................................................................................................................... 292 Understanding test results........................................................................................................................... 292 Issues with standardized tests .....................................................................................................................298

Appendix A: Preparing for licensure...................................................................................... 304 Appendix B: Deciding for yourself about the research...........................................................319 Appendix C: The reflective practitioner.................................................................................. 351

Types of resources for professional development and learning.................................................................. 352 Reading and understanding professional articles .......................................................................................355 Action research: hearing from teachers about improving practice............................................................. 366 The challenges of action research................................................................................................................. 371 Benefiting from all kinds of research........................................................................................................... 373

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Preface Dr. Kelvin Seifert: Why I wanted this book to be part of the Global Textbook Project

I have taught educational psychology to future teachers for nearly 35 years, during which I used one or another of the major commercial textbooks written for this subject. In general I found all of the books wellwritten and thorough. But I also found problems:

(1) Though they differed in details, the major textbooks were surprisingly similar in overall coverage. This fact, coupled with their large overall size, made it hard to tailor any of the books to the particular interests or needs of individuals or groups of students. Too often, buying a textbook was like having to buy a huge Sunday newspaper when all you really want is to read one of its sections. In a similar way, commercial educational psychology textbooks usually told you more than you ever needed or wanted to know about the subject. As a format, the textbook did not allow for individualization. Dr. Kelvin Seifert

(2) Educational psychology textbooks were always expensive, and over the years their costs rose faster than inflation, especially in the United States, where most of the books have been produced. Currently every major text about educational psychology sells for more than USD 100. At best this cost is a stress on students' budgets. At worst it puts educational psychology textbooks beyond the reach of many. The problem of the cost is even more obvious when put in worldwide perspective; in some countries the cost of one textbook is roughly equivalent to the average annual income of its citizens.

(3) In the competition to sell copies of educational psychology textbooks, authors and publishers have gradually added features that raise the cost of books without evidence of adding educational value. Educational psychology publishers in particular have increased the number of illustrations and photographs, switched to full-color editions, increased the complexity and number of study guides and ancillary publications, and created proprietary websites usable fully only by adopters of their particular books. These features have sometimes been attractive. My teaching experience suggests, however, that they also distract students from learning key ideas about educational psychology about as often as they help students to learn.

By publishing this textbook online with the Global Textbook Project, I have taken a step toward resolving these problems. Instructors and students can access as much or as little of the textbook as they really need and find useful. The cost of their doing is minimal. Pedagogical features are available, but are kept to a minimum and rendered in formats that can be accessed freely and easily by anyone connected to the Internet. In the future, revisions to the book will be relatively easy and prompt to make. These, I believe, are desirable outcomes for everyone! --Kelvin Seifert

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1. The changing teaching profession and you

A teacher named Ashley reflects: She looked around the classroom, enjoying a blessed moment of quiet after the students left at the end of the day. "Ashley, the teacher, that's me", she said proudly to the empty room. "But why am I doing this?" she asked herself quietly--and realized she wasn't always sure of the answer. But then she remembered one reason: she was teaching for Nadia, who sat at the table to the left, always smiled so well and always (well, usually) tried hard. And another reason: she was teaching for Lincoln, tired old Lincoln, who needed her help more than he realized. She remembered twenty other reasons--twenty other students. And one last reason: she was also teaching for herself, challenging herself to see if she really could keep up with twenty-two young people at once, and really accomplish something worthwhile with them. She was teaching so she could keep growing as a person, keep connecting with others, keep learning new ideas. That's why she was teaching.

The joys of teaching

Why be a teacher? The short answer is easy:

? to witness the diversity of growth in young people, and their joy in learning

? to encourage lifelong learning--both for yourself and for others

? to experience the challenge of devising and doing interesting, exciting activities for the young

There is, of course, more than this to be said about the value of teaching. Consider, for instance, the "young people" referred to above. In one class they could be six years old; in another they could be sixteen, or even older. They could be rich, poor, or somewhere in between. They could come from any ethnic background. Their first language could be English, or something else. There are all sorts of possibilities. But whoever the particular students are, they will have potential as human beings: talents and personal qualities--possibly not yet realized-- that can contribute to society, whether as leaders, experts, or supporters of others. A teacher's job--in fact a teacher's privilege--is to help particular "young people" to realize their potential.

Another teacher reflects: Nathan paused for a deep breath before speaking to me. "It's not like I expected it to be," he said. "I've got five kids who speak English as a second language. I didn't expect that. I've got two, maybe three, with reading disabilities, and one of them has a part-time aide. I've had to learn more about using computers than I ever expected--they're a lot of curriculum materials online now, and the computers help the kids that need more practice or who finish activities early. I'm doing more screening and testing of kids than I expected, and it all takes time away from teaching.

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