Christianity OLMC Resource - Religious Tradition Christianity
Preliminary Religious Depth Study - Christianity
The Historical and Cultural Context in which Christianity began
Judaism in the 1st century
It is important to begin by examining Judaism in the first century since it was in the first century CE that Christianity branched off from its parent religion Judaism. The power and organisation of Judaism was largely centred in Jerusalem. The authority of Judaism was divided amongst a number of groups who sought to control the direction of the religion. This lack of unity was, in part, the result of centuries of political domination by the Greeks and then the Romans in Palestine and particularly in Jerusalem. Traces of this sectarian rivalry can be detected in the Gospels. The most influential group during the time of Jesus were the Sadducees who had majority representation on the Sanhedrin (Jewish Council). Two other prominent groups were the Zealots, a group of political activists seeking to overthrow the Romans through military methods, and the Pharisees who were devout lay people seeking a more pure expression of Judaism. The influence of the latter sect grew after the destruction of the Second Temple by the Romans in 70 CE. It was this powerful and prominent influence o f the Pharisees that is reflected in the Gospels.
Messianic expectation
For centuries Jews expected God to intervene in their history by sending the Messiah to Earth. This belief, a cental tenet of Judaism, is referred to as the Messianic expectation. This expectation was particularly heightened during the time of Jesus partly because Jews suffered economic deprivation and great hardships under Roman rule. Consequently, Jews of the first century eagerly awaited the coming of the Messiah who would free them from oppression. However, speculation on the exact nature of the Messiah varied. Many believed that the Messiah would be a political figure in the tradition of King David who would overthrow the Roman rulers and liberate the oppressed Jews. Jesus was born a Jew in this context and lived in Palestine at the beginning of the first century. He sought to renew the Jewish religion in the spirit of the prophets of Israel but did not intend to lead a breakaway from Judaism. It is in witnessing these efforts that his followers come to believe that he was the Messiah.
Jesus did not intend to found a new religion
Jesus is typically known as the founder of Christianity. Yet, Jesus was born a Jew, lived as a Jew and died a Jew. Jesus sought to renew Judaism in the spirit of the prophets by opposing the legalism of Judaism during his time and calling people to return to the demands of the covenant. There is no evidence to suggest that he intended to found a new religion. Given that he sought only to renew Judaism from within it is not surprising that he left very few instructions except to preach, baptise, heal the sick, feed the poor and forgive.
Reign of God
The main focus of Jesus' preaching was the reign (kingdom) of God, which is understood as God's vision or dream for humankind. The reign of God envisages a world where God's values (love, peace, cooperation, tolerance and justice) are realised. Essentially, Jesus sought to show how this could be done. By announcing this reign of God Jesus was inaugurating it and inviting others to join in its development. The reign of God will reach completion at the end of time when God's dream for humankind becomes a reality. Until then it is the responsibility of the followers of Jesus to live in accordance with these values and to lead others to them.
Jesus Christ
Principal events in the life of Jesus
Much of what we know about Jesus is derived from the Gospels. Even though the Gospels were not written to provide a historical explanation of the life of Jesus the Gospels do provide an historical framework through which we can examine the principal events in the life of Jesus. Traditionally Jesus is believed to have been born of a virgin, in Bethlehem, and raised in Nazareth. Modern scholarship suggests that the infancy narratives were written to make theological statements about Jesus' heritage. These statements emphasise the claim that Jesus is the Messiah. Historically Jesus is known to have travelled from Nazareth to Galilee, where he was baptised by John the Baptist. He then preached around the region of Galilee and attracted disciples some of whom were women. Jesus began this ministry when he was about thirty years old little is known of his life before this time. Jesus taught in parables mostly concerning the reign of God. In essence this message challenged the temporal and the material and consequently Jesus attracted a significant following from those who were socially disadvantaged. Frequently, the Gospels depict Jesus as a healer or a miracle worker as a way of highlighting the power of God in action. Jesus' preaching brought him into conflict with the Jewish authorities.
Pharisees
The clash between Jesus and the Pharisees however, reflects the situation at the time the Gospels were written rather than the situation at the time of Jesus. At the time of the writing of the gospels conflict existed between the Christians and the Pharisees because the Pharisees regarded the Christian sect as heretical. Thus when we read of the conflict between Jesus and the Pharisees we are reading something that is more a reflection of the times of the gospel writer rather than the situation that prevailed a generation earlier during the life and ministry of Jesus.
Death and resurrection
Jesus' ministry took him to Jerusalem, where he stayed for the Passover. He was arrested and sentenced to death by crucifixion. He was placed in a tomb on the eve of the Passover and appeared to his disciples after being raised on the third day.
Gospels written so that people would believe
Even though the Gospels provide a historical framework by which we can analyse the principal events in the life of Jesus it is important to remember that the Gospels were not written with the intent of providing an accurate historical explanation of the life of Jesus.
Modern Biblical hermeneutics
The synoptic problem, which describes the attempts to understand the relationship between the synoptic gospels, highlights the point that the gospels were written for different target audiences. Thus it is futile to attempt to form a composite picture of the historical Jesus by ironing out the contradictions in the Gospel. In the same way, the achievements of modern biblical scholarship show us that each Gospel should be appreciated on its own as it reflects the needs of a particular target audience. Consequently, we need to be wary of attempts to examine the historical events in the gospel accounts in the life of Jesus as a precise way of studying the life of the historical Jesus.
Jesus as model for the Christian Life
Jesus Inaugurates the Reign of God
Jesus is the embodiment of the reign of God
Jesus is seen as the model for Christian life through his embodiment of the reign of God. The synoptic gospels portray Jesus as emerging from obscurity in Galilee and announcing the inauguration of the reign of God (Mark 1:14-15). This reign of God, often referred to as the Kingdom of God, can be understood in simple terms as the realisation of God's vision or dream for the world. Jesus' preaching of the reign of God points to a future yet already present reality where the values of love, justice and peace prevail in a world living in accordance with God's plan. The reign of God is central to the preaching of Jesus and is at the heart of his life and ministry. Following his death and resurrection Jesus was recognised as the embodiment of the reign of God and those who seek to bring about the reign of God are encouraged to model their lives on the example of Jesus. This modelling can be identified according to four significant aspects of Jesus' life and ministry.
Jesus lives a life of prayer
Christians model Jesus' attitude to prayer
The first significant aspect is the prayerful nature of Jesus' life. The gospel portraits of Jesus show him to be a man of prayer, frequently communing with God in a familiar and intimate manner (Luke 10:21). He often withdraws from the pressures of daily life to pray in a quiet place (Luke 5:16) and does so especially as he approaches key moments in his ministry such as the calling of his disciples (Luke 8:12-15). Jesus' prayer includes the traditions of the Jewish liturgy and often draws on the tradition of the Hebrew Scriptures (Matthew 27:46). Jesus is also found at prayer in times of personal crisis as well as in the face of the needs of others (Matthew 26:39). Finally Jesus teaches his disciples some important principles of prayer and famously he teaches them how to pray. Christians throughout history have closely studied Jesus attitude of prayer and have sought to model their lives on a variety of lessons drawn from Jesus' example.
Jesus lives a life of service to others
Ministry of Jesus is characterised by service to others
From the outset, the ministry of Jesus is characterised by service of others. It is notable that the early scenes from the ministry in the synoptic gospels are littered with examples of healing miracles where Jesus seeks to bring the healing power of God into contact with the need of others (Mark 1:23-45).
While it appears that Jesus initially saw his ministry as directed solely to the needs of the people of Israel, an encounter with a determined Gentile woman seems to have transformed his understanding (Mark 7:24-30).
A number of the sayings attributed to Jesus including the famous Beatitudes (Matthew 5:3-12) and the Golden Rule (Matthew 8:12) highlight this attitude of service.
Another important example is the account of the last supper in John’s gospel where Jesus washes the feet of his disciples as an example of service to one another (John 13:1-15).
Christians have always embraced an ethos of service to others and have done so as a direct consequence of the example provided in the life and ministry of Jesus.
Jesus acts as an advocate for the poor
Ministry of Jesus is characterised by advocacy for the needy
In the Jewish tradition, there is a strong ethical dimension that calls upon people to stand up for the needs of the poor and disadvantaged. This tradition is embraced emphatically in the ministry of Jesus who makes this a central characteristic of his ministry. The gospels provide many examples of Jesus taking the side of the poor and oppressed (John 9:1-41). In many cases the cause of the oppression is the harsh requirements of religious observance and Jesus is strident in his indictment of religious extremism that leads to the oppression of those who are vulnerable. While advocacy for the poor has always been present in the Christian tradition, recent developments such as Liberation Theology have brought this important dimension into sharper focus. This is particularly so for the majority of Christians who now live among the poorer countries of the world.
Jesus loves and forgives others
Jesus' attitude of love and forgiveness is a model for Christian life
The final example that highlights the role of Jesus as a model for Christian life has to do with an attitude of love and forgiveness of others. There are numerous examples in the gospels where Jesus' love for others is shown (John 8:2-11). Furthermore he is shown as being ever willing to forgive the failings of others. Most poignantly this is seen in the post resurrection appearances with the disciples who had abandoned him (John 21:1-14) and in the famous prayer for the forgiveness of his own executioners (Luke 23:34). Christians have modelled these attributes in a number of ways. Some denominations have incorporated sacraments or other ceremonies to ritualise the importance of forgiveness. Finally the famous prayer, the Lord's Prayer incorporates the petition asking for forgiveness as we also forgive others (Luke 11:4).
The development of early Christian communities
Jesus movement and the New Testament period
There are two major periods within the history of the early Church. The death of Jesus marks the beginning of the Jesus movement that lasted approximately from 30-60 CE. The New Testament period which followed this is quite extensive and lasted from approximately 45-110 CE. The characteristics of the Church changed quite considerably during this latter period. There are two divisions within the New Testament period, firstly the period of the Proto-Pauline letters that is followed by the period of the Deutero-Pauline letters. A considerable variety existed in the characteristics of these early Christian Churches due to the absence of precedent and a lack of centralised leadership stemming from the infancy of the Christian movement.
Characteristics of the Jesus movement
The term 'Jesus movement' describes a period where the infant Christian community saw itself as a sect that existed within the Jewish tradition. These earliest communities were characterised by their gender inclusive nature and eschatological vision, that is, they believed that they were living in the last days before the Parousia, the second coming of Christ. As a result little emphasis was given to laying down the infrastructure of the movement. So for the first forty years after Jesus' death the Churches were scattered in different areas and existed without a centralised code of Christian behaviour and practice.
Paul and Peter
Paul and Peter were the two most significant leaders in the early Church. Small groups of Palestinian Jews followed Jesus through the preachings of Peter. Larger groups of Diaspora Hellenistic Jews and Gentile Christians followed Jesus through the preachings of Paul. Brendon Byrne and others regard Paul as the second founder of Christianity. Where Jesus set down the foundational message of Christianity concerning the reign of God, Paul helped to set up the structure of this new religion and hence confirm the status of Christianity. This was because Paul recognised that Jesus' message was not intended solely for people of the Jewish faith and consequently he utilised Hellenistic philosophy to help communicate many of Jesus' ideas. This included the introduction of the Pauline theology of salvation, justification and law into Christian life and belief.
Divisions in the early Church
The existence of a varied community, which contained Jewish Christians of Palestinian background, Jewish Christians of Hellenistic background and Gentile Christians in the period of the early Church, was a source of disagreement and conflict. In fact one of the most important controversies in the early Church arose because the original Jewish nature of the Christian Church was challenged by the conversion of the Gentiles. The debate regarding the inclusion of the Gentiles resulted in the formation of the Council of Jerusalem in 49 CE. This amounted to an early attempt to overcome differences within the Church. Paul's argument that Gentiles do not need to become Jews and undergo circumcision in order to become Christians prevailed at this council. Despite this formal solution, divisions of this nature continued for some time. After the destruction of the Second Temple in 70 CE the Pauline group of Diaspora Jewish converts to Christianity and the Gentile Christians became more closely knit. At the same time as the Palestinian group fragmented.
Reasons for the formalisation of the early Church
The Christian Churches became more formalised from 70 CE onwards. This was the result of unforeseen events that significantly changed the character of early Church communities. The delay of the Parousia, the second coming of Christ and the death of the Apostles meant that there was a need to institutionalise the charism of the movement by introducing more regulated practices. This formalisation of the Christian identity meant that Christianity was increasingly seen as a distinct and separate religion from Judaism. This was partly because during this period the Christian Churches came into great conflict with Judaism.
Conflict with Judaism
Jews persecuted Christians because they were seen as a threat to the purity of Judaism, for three main reasons: firstly, Christians spoke of and emulated Jesus, as God that made the Christians sound like they were polytheistic. Secondly, Christians and Jews could not interact, as Christians were not seen as ritually pure due to their association with the Gentiles. Thirdly the Christians had refused to support the Jews in their attempts to overthrow the Roman occupation.
Roman persecution
The continued but sporadic persecution of Christians by the Romans during the second and third centuries meant that secret signs and meeting places had to be devised for the protection of Christians. The Romans persecuted the Christians because they appeared to be neglectful citizens in that they were pacifists who refused to join the army during a war ravaged age and because they refused to serve on the judiciary. The Christian monotheistic practice also offended Roman sensibilities as Romans worshipped many gods. On top of this there were rumours that Christians were incestuous and cannibalistic. These rumours developed as a result of the secretive nature of the Eucharistic celebrations.
Constantine
Prior to the 3rd century CE, Christians occupied a small, insignificant part of society. The efforts of Constantine in the fourth century meant that Christianity became a powerful and dominant religion. Constantine who is typically known as the founder of Christendom helped the religion to gain the privileges, wealth and influence that it did not previously have during the age of persecutions.
The Emerging of different Christian Denominations
Before considering the distinguishing characteristics of the major groupings within Christianity it will be helpful to briefly survey the contours of history that gave rise to the existence of different groups in the Christian family.
While there have undoubtedly been differences and divisions among Christians from the very beginning, the first major schism did not occur until over a thousand years after the life and ministry of Jesus.
East/ West Schism
This first schism, known as the Great Schism or East West Schism was formalised in 1054 CE. This formally divided the Christian Church into two major groups known today as Catholic (Western Christianity) and Orthodox (Eastern Christianity). The Catholic Church is predominantly Roman Catholic though there are other groups such as Maronite and Melkite that are known as Eastern Rite Catholic. In the Orthodox tradition a number of Churches exist including Greek Orthodox, Russian Orthodox, Antiochean (Syrian) Orthodox and Coptic (Egyptian).
Reformation
The next major schism occurred in the 16th century in the Western or Catholic Church. This Western schism is known as the Reformation and led to the formation of the Protestant Churches that separated from the Roman Catholic Church. The Protestant Churches following the reforms of Martin Luther included the Lutherans and Presbyterians. The Church of England (Anglican) also separated from Roman Catholicism at this time though it did so for different reasons.
As time went on the fragmentation of Western Christianity continued with various reforms and realignments taking place within the Protestant and Anglican groupings. For example the Baptist and Congregationalist Churches formed from within the Protestant tradition while the Methodist and Salvation Army groups grew from within the Anglican tradition.
The most recent fragmentations within Western Christianity have come through the development of Pentecostal Churches that have mostly emerged within the last 150 years from within Protestant groups.
Anglican Church
Origins
The Church of England or Anglican Church stems from the 16th century schism known as the Reformation. During this time the King of England, Henry VIII, formalised the separation between the Church of England and the Roman Catholic Church.
Head of Church
Today the Anglican Church is found in many countries throughout the world, principally in those with close historical ties to England. The nominal head of the Anglican Church is the English Monarch, currently Queen Elizabeth II. However authority in the Anglican Church is more practically expressed in the leadership of the Archbishop of Canterbury, currently Archbishop Justin Welby.
Principal beliefs and sacraments
The key elements of the Anglican Church are summed up according to the statements of the Lambeth Conference in 1920 that stressed the centrality of the bible and confirmed that it contained everything necessary for salvation. It also highlighted the Apostles Creed and Nicene Creed and statements that accurately and reliably expressed the Christian faith. Lambeth also confirmed that two sacraments are to be celebrated as part of the Christian faith. These two sacraments are Baptism and the Lord's Supper. Finally, Lambeth affirmed the importance of the historical line of succession of Bishops known as the "historic episcopate".
Subdivisions within the Church
Within the Anglican Church there are two recognizable groups with their own particular emphases. The larger of the two groups is known as High Church Anglican, sometimes referred to as Anglo Catholic. The second group is known as Low Church Anglican, sometimes referred to as Evangelical Anglican. High Church Anglicans are recognizable through the retention of a number of Roman Catholic rituals and practices. These include the use of vestments, incense and their ministers being known as Priests. Low Church Anglicans are more closely aligned with the Protestant tradition with Ministers leading congregations and worship carried out with very little adornment. While the majority of Anglicans throughout the world belong to the High Church group, it is worth noting that the Anglican Church in Sydney is predominantly Low Church. It is the Low Church or Evangelical Church that has had considerable historical influence in the development of religious expression in Australia due to the prominence of the Anglican Church in colonial times in NSW.
Catholic Church
Origins
The Catholic Church teaches of itself that it is historically and in terms of its teaching in line and continuity with that of the first disciples of Jesus. It is the largest and most widespread of all the Christian denominations.
Principal beliefs
A key belief of the Catholic Church is that God's teachings have been preserved and safeguarded through the guidance of the Holy Spirit in the teaching authority of the Church. In particular this authority is exercised through the leader of the Roman Catholic Church, the Pope, currently Pope Francis I. The Bishops of the local Churches, known as Dioceses, exercise this authority in unity with the Pope.
Head of Church
Catholics believe there is a direct and unbroken line from the Apostle Peter as the first Bishop of Rome to his current successor Francis I. Catholics also believe in an historic episcopate with each Bishop continuing in a direct line from the Apostles who are regarded as the first groups of Bishops of the Church.
Subdivisions within the Church
Most Catholics in the world belong to the Roman Catholic Church although there are other Eastern Rite Catholics such as the Maronites and Melkites.
Ecumenical councils
Throughout history when the Church faced significant questions and challenges it has assembled the leaders of the Church in councils known as Ecumenical Councils. The most recent of these councils was the Second Vatican Council held from 1962 - 1965. Many of the priorities and directions of the Catholic Church in recent decades have stemmed from the documents of Vatican II. It included important statements on Liturgy, Priesthood, Ecumenism, Religious Freedom, the Role of the Church in the Modern World and the role of the Laity.
Bible and Church teaching work in conjunction with each other
Catholics regard the Bible as the normative text for Christian teaching, however, they understand that the tradition of the Church has an indispensable role in interpreting and explaining the meaning of sacred scripture. The teaching tradition of the Church is regarded as an important element within the Catholic Church. Catholics regard Scripture and Tradition as two pillars which work hand in hand to explain the central elements of Catholic teaching.
Sacraments
The Catholic Church teaches that there are seven sacraments that are celebrated in the Church. These are Baptism, Reconciliation, Eucharist, Confirmation, Matrimony, Holy Orders and Anointing of the Sick. Of these sacraments, Eucharist is considered to be the source and summit of the Christian life. Accordingly it plays a central role in the lives of Catholics.
Orthodox Churches
Subdivisions within the Church
The Orthodox Churches can be divided into two distinct groups. The larger is known as the Eastern Orthodox Churches. This group of approximately 20 Churches is organized under the leadership of the Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople currently All Holiness Bartholomew. The smaller group of 5 Orthodox Churches is known as the Oriental Orthodox Churches.
Tradition and scripture are of equal value
The Orthodox Churches derive their beliefs from the sacred scripture and the sacred tradition of Church teaching. They regard scripture and tradition to be of equal value. The Christians of the Orthodox Churches share the basic Christian beliefs in the unity of God in the Trinity of persons.
Head of Church
They believe that the Church is a sacred institution founded by Jesus Christ to provide for the salvation of human kind. For Christians in the Orthodox Churches, the clergy hold office in a line of descent from the Apostles who are regarded as the first Priests and Bishops.
Sacraments
Orthodox Christians believe in seven sacraments that were inaugurated by Jesus Christ to assist in living the Christian life. The seven Sacraments are Baptism, Chrismation, Holy Eucharist, Ordination, Marriage, Confession and Holy Unction.
Divine Liturgy
The Divine Liturgy plays a central role in the lives of Orthodox Christians. The chanting of prayers and the frequent use of incense that symbolizes the prayers ascending to God characterize worship in Orthodox Churches. Also of great importance is the expression of faith contained in the Nicene Creed and the teaching of the seven Ecumenical Councils.
Saints and icons
The Orthodox Christians honour the saints and ask in prayer for their intercession. Foremost among the saints is Mary, the mother of God. Orthodox Churches characteristically feature depictions of saints known as icons. These sacred icons are venerated by Orthodox Christians, though it is not the image itself that is venerated, rather the person who is represented in the icon.
Pentecostal Churches
Characteristics
The term Pentecostal refers to a group of Christian Churches that are identified through their ecstatic worship and emphasis on the gifts of the Holy Spirit. Their name clearly derives from the day of Pentecost when the Holy Spirit came upon the disciples after the death and resurrection of Jesus.
Origins
Modern Pentecostalism emerged from within Protestant congregations in America in the late 1900's and is now a worldwide phenomenon and is one of the fastest growing of Christian groups.
Organisation
Some Pentecostal Churches are single, independent congregations. Others belong to collections of Pentecostal groups such as the Assemblies of God, Four Square Gospel and Christian City Church.
Principal beliefs
Whether standing alone as a single congregation or being affiliated with other similar Churches Pentecostals have a number of distinguishing features. They are generally characterized by lively worship and an emphasis on the gifts of the Holy Spirit such as prophecy, healing and speaking in tongues. Additionally they usually feature emphatic preaching based on literal interpretations of biblical texts.
Demographics
Another feature of many Pentecostal Churches is their belief that they are living in the final days before the second coming of Christ, the parousia. Consequently, in many Pentecostal services there is a strong emphasis on preaching about the end of the world. Many Pentecostal congregations are quite small in numbers that allows for a closer and more personal sense of community. In contrast, a number of Pentecostal groups now attract large numbers in stadium like gatherings.
In comparison to other Christian denominations many Pentecostal congregations have comparably young congregations. The majority of Pentecostal Christians have previously belonged to other Christian denominations, mostly Protestant.
Head of Church
While the Pastors of Pentecostal Churches may have authority in their own congregation there is little authority or established doctrine outside of the individual congregation. The commonalities among Pentecostal Churches depend on a similar interpretation of certain biblical texts rather than any formalised or centralised doctrine.
Pentecostal Churches are also less inclined to have formalised rituals as other Christian denominations. There are usually no sacraments or equivalent rituals practised in Pentecostal Churches although some customs relating to prayers for conversion, repentance and healing may include ritual elements.
Protestant Churches
Origin
The Protestant Churches trace their origins back to the 16th century schism in Western Christianity known as the Reformation. There are a number of groups within Protestantism; some have their origin at the time of the Reformation while others have stemmed from further fragmentations later in time.
Lutheran Church
Principal beliefs
Taking its name from the catalyst of the Reformation, the Lutheran Church is mostly concentrated in the Germanic and Scandinavian regions of Europe as well as in North America. The Lutherans place considerable emphasis on the fundamental teachings of Luther such as justification through faith that refers to the need for a person to have personal faith in Jesus Christ in order to be saved.
Characteristics
There is a strong emphasis on bible based preaching in the Lutheran Church. Two sacraments, Baptism and Eucharist are celebrated. Lutheran churches also have a strong tradition of hymn singing.
In Australia, the largest group of Lutherans is found in South Australia, a result of German immigrants settling in the mid 19th century.
Calvinist Churches
Origins
Also known as Reformed Churches these Churches follow the teachings of 16th century French reformer John Calvin. Leadership in these churches is often in the hands of an elder or presbyter. It is from this practice that the term Presbyterian Church comes.
Demographics
The Presbyterian Church, the national Church of Scotland is the most significant Calvinist Church in Australia.
Principal beliefs
Calvinist or Reformed Churches have a strong emphasis on bible based preaching that emphasizes a temperate lifestyle. Two sacraments are celebrated in the Calvinist Churches; these are Baptism and the Lord's Supper.
Free Churches
From within the Church of England a number of new Churches arose during the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. The main examples of these are the Methodist Church, the Baptist Church, the Salvation Army and the Quakers (Society of Friends). Pentecostal Churches can also be seen as a more recent group arising from within this tradition of Protestantism.
Baptist Church
Two principal characteristics of the Baptist Church are their belief in the priesthood of all believers and their practice of believers' baptism. They believe that all Christians participate fully in every aspect of Church life. They also believe that only people who are able to understand and personally accept the Christian faith should be baptised. Accordingly they do not baptise babies or children.
Methodist Church
Two Church of England clergymen John and Charles Wesley founded the Methodist Church. In some parts of the world the Methodist Church is known as the Wesleyan Church after its founders. The Methodist follows a very simple method of Christian worship comprising Hymn singing, prayers, bible readings and a sermon. They rarely use a formal order of service other than for the service of Holy Communion.
Salvation Army
William Booth, a Methodist Minister in the early 1800’s, founded the Salvation Army. It follows the lines of military organization with ministers known as "Officers", members known as "Soldiers" and the meeting place known as a "Citadel". There is no set form of worship in the Salvation Army with the worship leader free to determine the form. It is common, however, to find a significant emphasis on music in Salvation Army worship. The Salvation Army is most widely recognised for its outstanding commitment to the welfare of others.
Society of Friends (Quakers)
The Society of Friends (Quakers) is a group who believe that God speaks directly to the heart of the individual believer. They have no formal dimension to worship, nor do they have creeds, ministers or sacraments. Perhaps the most well known aspect of the Quakers is that they are pacifists, categorically rejecting anything to do with war and or the use of violence.
Summary Points: Origins
Students learn about:
The historical and cultural context in which Christianity began
Students learn to:
Outline the historical and cultural context in which Christianity began
Power was centred in Jerusalem during first century Judaism
Fierce sectarian rivalry existed between the different Jewish sects, particularly between the Pharisees, Sadducees and the Zealots who sought to control the direction of the religion
The Messianic expectation, a central tenet of Jewish belief reached a high point during the time of Jesus. Jewish speculation that the Messiah was to be a political saviour was the result of centuries of political oppression by the Romans
Jesus who sought to renew the Jewish religion in the spirit of the prophets, came to be seen as the Messiah by his followers
Students learn about:
Jesus Christ
Students learn to:
Examine the principal events of Jesus' life
Whilst Jesus is typically known as the founder of Christianity, he did not seek to establish a new religion. Rather he intended to oppose the legalism of Judaism and reform the tradition in the spirit of the prophets
The main focus of Jesus' preaching was the reign of God
The reign of God envisages a world where God's values such as love, peace and cooperation are realised. This vision, which was inaugurated through Jesus’ ministry, will be completed at the end of time. Until then it is the responsibility of the followers of Jesus to live in accordance with these values and to lead others to them. Subsequently, the reign of God is considered to be a present yet future reality
Jesus is believed to have been born of a virgin in Bethlehem
Jesus travelled from Nazareth to Galilee where he was baptised by John the Baptist
He preached around the region of Galilee and attracted disciples some of whom were women and many were socially disadvantaged
Jesus taught in parables mostly concerning the reign of God
In the Gospels he is frequently depicted as a healer or a miracle worker
Jesus' preaching brought him into conflict with the Jewish authorities
Jesus' ministry took him to Jerusalem where he stayed for the Passover
He was arrested and sentenced to death by crucifixion
He was placed in a tomb on the eve of the Passover and appeared to his disciples after being raised on the third day
The synoptic problem and modern biblical scholarship reminds us that the Gospels were written for a particular target audience as a way of passing on the faith of the community rather than with the intent of providing an accurate historical account of the life of Jesus.
Students learn about:
Jesus Christ
Students learn to:
Explain why Jesus is the model for Christian life
Jesus is the model for Christian life because he embodies the reign of God, that is God's dream for humankind that lies at the heart of Jesus' life and ministry
The reign of God refers to the realisation of God's vision for the world, where the values of love, justice and peace prevail. Jesus inaugurated God's dream for the world through his ministry, and showed people how to bring about the reign of God, which will be completed at the end of time
Jesus' embodiment of the reign of God can be identified according to four significant aspects of Jesus' life and ministry: Jesus lives a life of prayer, Jesus lives a life of service to others, Jesus acts as an advocate for the poor and Jesus loves and forgives others
The Gospel portraits of Jesus show him to be a man of prayer, often withdrawing from the pressures of daily life to pray in a quiet place, and does so especially as he approaches key moments in his ministry and during times of personal crisis
Jesus also teaches his disciples some important principles of prayer such as the importance of praying for the needy
The Christian ethos of service to others is the directly modelled upon Jesus' life and ministry which is characterised by its service to others
A number of the sayings attributed to Jesus including the Beatitudes and the Golden Rule highlight this attitude of service
Jesus emphatically identifies with the strong ethical tradition in the Hebrew scriptures by making advocacy for the poor and disadvantaged a central characteristic of his ministry
Whilst advocacy for the poor has always been present in the Christian tradition, recent developments such as Liberation Theology has brought this important dimension into sharper focus
Jesus' attitude of love and forgiveness for the failings of others is most evident firstly in his forgiveness of the disciples who abandoned him and secondly in the famous prayer for the forgiveness of his own executioners
Some denominations have incorporated sacraments and other ceremonies to ritualise the importance of forgiveness.
Students learn about:
The development of early Christian communities
Students learn to:
Describe the early development of Christian communities after the death of Jesus
The Jesus movement that lasted from approximately 30-60 CE describes a period immediately following the death of Jesus where the infant Christian community saw itself as a sect that existed within the Jewish tradition
Little emphasis was placed on laying down the infrastructure of the movement because the followers believed that they were living in the last days before the Parousia, the second coming of Christ.
Small groups of Palestinian Jews followed Jesus through the preaching of disciples such as Peter in and around Palestine
Larger groups of Diaspora Jews and Gentiles responded to the preaching of Paul
Paul is typically considered as the second founder of Christianity because he helped to set up the structure of this new religion and hence confirm the status of Christianity vis-୶is Judaism
The Council of Jerusalem in 49 CE formally resolved the debate that divided the Pauline and Palestinian groups. The Council accepted Paul's argument that Gentiles need not undergo circumcision in order to become Christians. This Council is an attempt to overcome differences within the infant Church. Despite the formal resolution of the problem the tensions between the two early communities continued for some time
The New Testament period that lasted from approximately 45 to 100 CE saw the gradual formalisation and centralisation of the Christian Churches that meant that this new religion was increasingly seen as distinct and separate from Judaism. The need to institutionalise the charism of the movement came about as a result of the delay of the Parousia and the death of the Apostles
In the 2nd and 3rd century Jews and Romans persecuted Christians alike.
Glossary
|Eschatological vision |Belief that the end of the world and subsequently the day of judgement is near. |
|Gentile |A non-Jewish person |
|High Church Anglicans (also known as |Tradition within the Anglican Church that is more closely aligned with the Catholic |
|Anglo Catholic) |Church and places a greater emphasis upon sacraments, ritual and priestly authority |
| |than Low Church Anglicans. |
|Jesus movement |Period within the early Christian community lasting from approximately 30 to 60 CE |
| |that saw itself as a sect within Judaism and is characterised by its eschatological |
| |vision, lack of infrastructure and gender inclusive nature. |
|Low Church Anglican (also known as |Tradition within the Anglican Church that is more closely aligned with the Protestant |
|Evangelical Anglican) |tradition and places less emphasis upon rituals, sacraments and the authority of the |
| |clergy than High Church Anglicans. |
|Messianic expectation |The belief prophesied in the Hebrew Scriptures that God would intervene in human |
| |history by sending a Messiah to save the nation of Israel. |
|Parousia |Refers to the second coming of Christ. |
|Pharisees |Sect within Judaism that flourished during the latter part of the Second Temple Era, |
| |formed by devout lay people who sought a purer, more traditional expression of |
| |Judaism. |
|Reign of God (also known as the |God's vision for humankind that is characterised by love, peace, cooperation, |
|kingdom of God) |tolerance and justice. The reign of God was inaugurated through the life and ministry |
| |of Jesus Christ and will be completed at the end of time. |
|Sadducees |An influential sect within Judaism that held a majority representation on the |
| |Sanhedrin at the time of Christ and is characterised by their emphasis on the |
| |acceptance of the Written Law alone. |
|Synoptic problem |Concerns the relationship between the three synoptic Gospels, Matthew, Mark and Luke, |
| |and the similarities and differences between these Gospels. |
|Zealots |Political movement within 1st century Judaism that sort to overthrow the Romans |
| |through |
Specimen Questions
Evaluate the role of Jesus and Paul in the founding and development of early Christianity (20 marks)
Outline the origins and describe the main characteristics of two significant groups within the Christian tradition (20 marks)
Sample Responses
Evaluate the role of Jesus and Paul in the founding and development of early Christianity (20 marks)
Jesus, who is typically known as the founder of Christianity and Paul, who is considered as the second founder of Christianity, were instrumental in the development of early Christianity. Where Jesus set down the foundational message of Christianity concerning the reign of God Paul helped to set up the structure of this new religion and transformed the status of Christianity vis-୶is Judaism. There is no evidence to suggest that Jesus wanted to found a new religion. In fact Jesus' opposition to the legalism Judaism exhibited at the time was an attempt to renew Judaism in terms of the prophets. On the other hand, Paul integrated Hellenistic philosophy with the Jewish message of Jesus to develop a Christian identity which was increasingly distinct and separate from Judaism.
Jesus is typically hailed as the founder of Christianity yet there is no indication that he intended to found a new religion. Rather Jesus was born a Jew, lived as a Jew and died a Jew. Jesus' greatest contribution to Christianity was the central focus of his teachings concerning the reign of God. Essentially, the reign of God is a state where justice, love, peace etc is lived. The reign of God was inaugurated through the ministry of Jesus and this reign will be fulfilled at the end of time. Until then, it is the responsibility of the followers of Jesus to live in accordance with these values and to lead others to them as well. Thus, the reign of God is considered as a present yet future reality. Jesus sought to renew Judaism from within by emphasising the broad principles of mercy, love, peace and justice as a challenge to the legalistic nature of Judaism during that time. Since he did not intend to found a new religion it is not surprising therefore to find that he left very few instructions . He only left instructions to preach, baptise, heal the sick, feed the poor and forgive and these instructions are surprisingly direct and simple.
In order to appreciate the contribution of Jesus to Christianity we need to understand the influence of the concept of Jesus of History and Christ of Faith. This is a term used by scholars to differentiate historical aspects of story of Jesus from those that belong in the realm of faith. Historically, Jesus was a man who was from Nazareth in Galilee. He travelled to Jerusalem with a reputation as a miracle worker and after coming into conflict with the political leaders of the time he was executed. The search for the historical Jesus has been a major focus of biblical scholarship. It includes the process of examining the similarities and differences between the synoptic gospels, that is, Matthew, Mark and Luke. Scholars have tried to explain the relationship between the Gospels which are quite similar yet unique. This area of study is known as the Synoptic problem. The most important lesson that can be drawn from the synoptic problem is that whilst the Gospels provide an historical framework f or the life and ministry of Jesus they do not set out to provide an exact historical record. We need to remember that the Gospels were written for a specific audience and that rhetoric rather than historical accuracy is the dominant concern of the writer. Consequently when we consider the importance of Jesus to the development of Christianity we should not merge the different Gospel stories together to form a composite picture of Jesus as each Gospel stands alone.
Another stage in the search for a historical Jesus was the use of rhetorical criticism that is a scientific study of the reasons behind why the Gospels were written and how they were edited. Through rhetorical criticism, scholars have been able to provide some understanding about intention of the gospel writers and the message they were seeking to convey. Similarly, we learn that the Gospels were written so that the early Church could pass on their faith rather than as an historical or scientific account of the life of Jesus.
Whilst the search for a historical Jesus is important if we are to assess the contribution of Jesus to Christianity there is a need to balance this search with an understanding of the Christ of Faith concept. It is the statements of faith, regarding his death, resurrection and ascension that have had the greatest impact on the development of early Christianity. This influence is twofold: firstly, it laid the foundation for doctrinal teachings such as the belief that Christ died for our sins and that life after death can overcome the limitations of human mortality. The difficulty of explaining Jesus' resurrection without depicting it as a bodily resuscitation led to the Christological debates regarding the humanity and divinity of Jesus that raged in the fourth and fifth centuries. Secondly, the eschatological nature of Jesus' ministry meant that he left no instructions for an institutional Church. His followers believed that they were living in the last days before the Parousia that refers to the second coming of Christ. Thus they did not see the need to institute a formal structure for the religion and consequently there was a considerable variety in the nature of the early Church.
After the death of Jesus, groups of Diaspora Hellenistic Jews and Gentiles followed Jesus through the teachings of Paul. Paul's major contribution to Christianity was that because he employed Hellenistic philosophy to translate Jesus' Jewish message and in doing so assisted to set up the structure of this new religion. The introduction of Hellenistic philosophy resulted in the formation of the theology of salvation, justification and law that was not in Jesus' original teachings. These new concepts utilised Hellenistic philosophy that was deeply ingrained within the culture of the time. This helped to transform the status of Christianity vis-୶is Judaism. Jesus unlike Paul made no attempt to establish a new religion. Jesus saw his contribution as one that revived the Jewish tradition in terms of the prophets.
While the earliest followers of Jesus believed that they were a following a sect within Judaism, Paul's efforts meant that Christianity was becoming an increasing distinct and separate religion from Judaism. Paul played a key role in some of the more decisive debates in early Christianity. The original Jewish nature of Christianity was soon challenged by the conversion of the Gentiles who gradually came to outnumber the Jewish Christians of Palestinian descent. Peter who led the group of Palestinian Christians argued that Gentiles had to become Jews in order to become Christian. Paul argued otherwise in claiming that the conversion of Gentiles to Judaism was not necessary. This debate led to the formation of the Council of Jerusalem in 49 CE that represents an early attempt to centralise differences within the diverse Church community. Despite the apparent resolution of this issue this topic continued to be the source of some uneasiness in the early Christian community. After 70 CE Paul's gro up of Jewish Christians of Diaspora Hellenistic background merged with the Gentile Christians, and continued to grow whilst the Palestinian group continued to break up and decrease in size. During this time Christian beliefs were becoming increasingly centralised, as the institutionalisation of the charism was necessary due to the delay of the Parousia. The death of Paul meant that there was an even greater need to institutionalise the charism and provide a framework for the growth of Christianity.
In conclusion, it can be seen that two key figures of Christianity, Jesus and Paul were highly influential in the founding and development of early Christianity. Where Jesus' greatest contribution was his eschatological message regarding the reign of God, Paul assisted to translate this concept and make it accessible to the wider world by utilising Hellenistic philosophy. Paul translated the Jewish message into one that could be understood outside Palestinian confines. It is clear that where Jesus set out to reform the legalistic nature of Judaism, Paul gradually transformed the status of Christianity as a religion distinct and separate from Judaism. Both Jesus and Paul were nevertheless instrumental in the founding and development of Christianity.
Christian Principal Beliefs
Outline the principal beliefs regarding the divinity and humanity of Jesus Christ
Christological controversies
During the fourth and fifth centuries controversy raged over the issue of the humanity and the divinity of Jesus Christ and the subsequently to the relationship of Jesus to God and Mary. These debates are known as the Christological controversies. The issue at the heart of the debate is essentially how Jesus can be fully human as well as fully God? The Christological controversies demonstrate that over emphasising either his divinity or his humanity leads to a distorted picture of Jesus Christ.
Docetism
One of the earliest views given on the issue of the divinity and the humanity of Jesus Christ is what is known as the Docetist position. Docetism is the view that Jesus was fully divine however he was not truly human. Docetism claimed that Jesus was God but merely had the appearance of being human. This doctrine clearly undermined the integrity of the humanity of Jesus and accordingly was rejected by orthodox Christians
Arianism
Another prevalent view on the issue of the divinity and humanity of Jesus is a position known as Arianism. Arianism is the belief that Jesus is superior to the rest of creation but is less divine than God and hence Jesus was not actually God. Arianism is so called because of Arius who most influentially espoused this view. Arius reasoned that because Jesus was created he could not be eternal unlike God who is eternal and hence Jesus cannot be equal to God. Arius taught that only the Father was God even though his Son could reveal God to humanity. Arianism led to a divisive dispute in the early Christian Church. The Council of Nicaea in 325 CE that concluded that Jesus was of one substance with the Father the implication being that Jesus was fully divine as well as being fully human formally resolved it. The Council of Constantinople reaffirmed the decision reached by the Council of Nicaea.
Nestorius
In the fifth century Nestorius claimed that there were two separate persons within Jesus, a divine person and a human person. Mary was the mother of the human Jesus but not the divine Jesus. The inference of Nestorius' claims about Mary was to undermine the integrity of the person of Jesus. The Council of Ephesus in 431 CE reinforced the view that Christ is fully human as well as being fully divine. It follows therefore that Mary is the Mother of God (theotokos) as well being the mother of the human Jesus.
The Death and Resurrection of Jesus Christ
Jesus died for our sins
Jesus was crucified by the Roman authorities; for being a political threat to the Roman Empire. Crucifixion was a form of execution commonly used by the Romans during the first century CE. Christians have traditionally believed that Jesus died for our sins. Jesus was sent by God to save all of humankind. This belief that Jesus died for our sins has on numerous occasions given rise to some questionable explanations. The concept that Christ died to save us from sin implicitly suggests that God would be appeased with the execution of an innocent person. Even more questionable is the inference that Jesus became human simply in order for him to be sacrificed because Jesus as the perfect example of humankind is the only person of sufficient value to pay this ransom. The unstated suggestion here is that there is a debt that needs to be paid to Satan in order to ransom humankind. This in itself is a dubious proposition.
Reflections on the death of Jesus
More adequate reflections on the idea of Jesus' death include a belief that death itself is an integral part of the human condition and one that is shared by Jesus. Another way of appreciating the importance of the death of Jesus is by seeing it as an example of the unconditional love of God. A further way of examining and understanding the importance of the death of Jesus is by seeing his selflessness even unto death as a clear model for discipleship. At a more symbolic level the death of an innocent person can be recognised as the ultimate consequence of selfishness.
Belief in the resurrection is a fundamental tenet of Christianity
The fundamental Christian belief in the resurrection of the body is based on the resurrection of Jesus Christ. This belief is exemplified in the Nicene Creed that testifies not only to the resurrection of Jesus but also to the resurrection of the dead as a fundamental Christian belief. Jesus' resurrection and ascension are depicted slightly differently in the Gospels of John and Luke. John's Gospel depicts the resurrection, ascension and the descent of the Holy Spirit as a simultaneous occurrence. Luke separates the event into three distinct occurrences spread over a number of weeks and culminating in the Pentecost where the divine is integrated with the human. The resurrection carries the meaning of eternal life that overcomes the limitations of human mortality.
Nature of God and the Trinity
Nature of risen Jesus
Theologians have long debated the nature of the risen Jesus. Here theologians are caught in a predicament because it is difficult to write about the resurrection of Jesus without denying either some form of a physical resurrection or denying some aspect of spiritual resurrection. It is difficult to depict the physical resurrection without reference to some form of resuscitation of the human body even though the resurrection is in fact a transformation.
Belief in the Trinity is a central tenet of Christianity
Christians believe that God is omniscient, omnipotent and omnipresent. In other words, God is all knowing, all-powerful and always present. Christians also believe that God is One but embodied in three persons, God the Father, Jesus the Son and the Holy Spirit as sanctifier. Belief in the Trinity is a central tenet of Christianity. God's promise of salvation has been fulfilled through the life, death and resurrection of Jesus and the outpouring of the Holy Spirit. In other words, God is revealed as the trinity. God the Father is revealed in the Hebrew Scriptures, God the Son in the Christian scriptures and God the Spirit is revealed through the Church.
Trinitarian doctrine
This plurality in God is evident in the way Jesus calls God "abba" which means Father. Similarly early Christian practice indicates a liturgical use of this Trinitarian formula, "In the name of the Father, Son and Holy Spirit". The Trinitarian doctrine states that there are three co-eternal, equal persons in one God. This doctrine was further developed and defined at the councils of Nicaea in 325 CE and Constantinople in 381 CE. The difficulty is reconciling monotheism with the notion of the three persons.
The various heresies and the councils that followed reflect a process of refining the understanding of the relationship between the Father, the Son and the Holy Spirit. In the fourth century there was considerable debate and discussion on how God was One and yet also three persons. In other words, how can unity co-exist with the notion of trinity? As this issue was debated a further question emerged, that is, the question of whether God is three only in terms of economy or is God three at an intra-divine level (immanence).
Cappadocian theology
In response to this, during the second half of the fourth century, the Cappadocian Fathers led by people such as Basil the Great, Bishop of Caesarea, Gregory of Nazianzus and Gregory, the younger brother of Basil, Bishop of Nyssa, made important contributions. These theologians claimed that God was of one essence (ousia) but three separate and distinct persons (hypostaseis). This divine essence is expressed through its embodiment in all three persons. It follows then that because there is a single divine essence that unites the three persons, the three persons actually dwell within each other, a state known as circumincession.
Furthermore, because the three persons are of one essence the actions of any particular person can be attributed to all persons. However, whilst this divine essence and nature is a common denominator for all three persons, the three persons had unique attributes that distinguished them. That is, fatherhood for the Father, sonship for the Son and sanctifying power for the Holy Spirit. Implicitly, Cappadocian theology adopts the concept of mutual relations which is the idea that the terms Father and Son are not names or titles but rather expressions of a relationship. For example, the Father is only Father in relation to the Son.
Whilst there is a numerical order in the procession of Father, Son and Spirit, such an order does not imply "greater than" or "before" in a temporal sense. In fact, Cappadocian theology asserts the notion that all three persons are co-equal and co-eternal. The notion that the three persons are co-eternal means that there was never a time when the Son and the Spirit did not exist alongside the Father. The notional of co-equality suggests that the notion of trinity is compatible with the concept of unity within community.
In the development of this Trinitarian theology the West tended to focus on the immanent trinity, that is, the interrelationship between the Father, the Son and the Spirit. The East on the other hand, tended to focus on economic trinity, that is, the role of trinity in relation to ourselves.
These differences in the conceptualisation of the Trinity between the East and the West continued in the filioque controversy. Essentially, this debate is concerned with whether the Father breathes forth the Holy Spirit through the Son, as the East argues or whether both Father and Son breathe forth the Spirit, as Western Christianity claims.
Revelation
God is revealed to humankind through human history
Christians believe that God is revealed to human kind in and through the experiences of human history. God is understood to be intimately involved with all aspects of human life and accordingly human beings learn about God through divine revelation that occurs continuously as God relates to human kind and indeed to all of creation.
God is the source of revelation
Christians understand that God is the source of revelation. In other words it is a self-revelation of God that provides the knowledge of the divine encountered in human experience. While there is only one source of revelation, this revelation takes place through a number of related vehicles.
Holy Spirit
The first of these vehicles is God's own Spirit dwelling within human beings. The Spirit enlivens the faith of Christians and brings to them knowledge of God. The role of the Holy Spirit is paramount in the process of revelation as the Spirit inspires and guides Christians in all things. The Holy Spirit has inspired the writing of the Christian sacred text, the Bible and continually inspires the Christian Church to teach in fidelity to the truth of the Bible.
Bible
The second vehicle through which revelation is communicated is the sacred text, the Bible. Christians believe that the Bible is inspired by God and as such is the normative text for Christian life. Different groups within the Christian tradition understand this inspiration in different ways, however, all Christian groups believe that the Bible is the fundamental and normative text.
Teaching tradition of Church
The third vehicle is the teaching tradition of the Church. In the course of history the Church has continually taught in the name of God and Christians believe that the Holy Spirit also inspires this teaching tradition. Across the various denominations of Christianity there is considerable difference in the understanding of the importance of this tradition. In the Orthodox and Catholic denominations there is a clear emphasis on the role of the teaching tradition of the Church, particularly through the office of the Pope and the Patriarchs. In the Protestant denominations there is less emphasis on this role and greater emphasis on the teaching of the Bible in its own right.
Informal vehicles of revelation
Other vehicles of revelation can be seen in less formal areas such as the understanding of God being revealed in nature or in the loving relationship between spouses or parent and child. While these vehicles have significance they play a lesser role in Christian understanding to the main vehicles of Scripture and Tradition under the inspiration of the Holy Spirit.
Revelation is an ongoing process
Revelation is understood to be an ongoing process and Christians believe that revelation is still unfolding in human experience. Some writers have sought to encapsulate this idea by speaking about the Church today writing the "Fifth Gospel" or the "Third Testament". These images help members of the Church today to understand the ongoing nature of revelation and to realise that their understanding of God is not simply a matter of studying ancient historical themes.
Salvation
"I am the way, the truth and the life. No one comes to the Father except through me" (John 14:6). Excerpts such as this one from John's gospel and many other similar statements reflect the core of the Christian understanding of salvation.
Christian belief in salvation
Expressed in its most simple terms Christians believe that salvation is offered as a gift from God through the death and resurrection of Jesus. Access to this gift of salvation comes through faith in Jesus.
Christians universally accept these simple expressions of salvation. However, in practice there is considerable difference in its understanding among Christian groups.
Personal faith
The groups of Christians known as "born again" Christians believe that salvation is achieved through an individual's personal acceptance of Jesus Christ as Lord and Saviour in a moment of personal conversion. They regard this moment as being "born again". Such Christians would regard such a personal conversion as the only possible way of achieving salvation. This belief is based on the Johannine account of Jesus' encounter with Nicodemus. (John 3:1-8)
Good works
In contrast to this view other Christians who wish to highlight the obligation to act on behalf of the poor and dispossessed would refer to the accounts of the day of judgement where Jesus separates the "sheep from the goats" (Matthew 25:31-46). The key indicator of salvation here is not personal faith but the way a person has treated the 'least of these" (Matthew 25:40).
Faith and good works
In between these views lies the understanding that the requirement is a sincere faith that is enlivened with good works. This is similar in sentiment to the ideas expressed in the letter of James where the writer claims that faith without works is dead (James 2:17)
Jewish roots of Christian belief in salvation
In an historical sense, the Christian understanding of salvation draws deeply from the Jewish tradition of Moses and the Exodus. In this monumental event, the Hebrew people experienced the saving intervention of God taking them from slavery and setting them free. From this foundational experience, the Jewish tradition of a God involved in human concerns was born. It also taught the Hebrews that God's saving action was one of liberation.
Anawim
The Prophetic tradition of the Hebrew Scriptures continues to call the people of Israel to be faithful to their covenantal relationship with God. In particular the prophets remind the people of their obligation to care for the anawim who are the poor and defenceless members of society. The prophets remind the people of God's liberating intervention in their slavery and call them to avoid any actions that will lead to a loss of liberty for themselves and for others. In this call there is particular obligation to be advocates on the part of the most vulnerable members of the community.
Jesus is the fulfilment of the promise of salvation
In his own preaching, Jesus identifies closely with the Hebrew prophetic tradition. In fact in announcing the time of salvation he emphatically identifies himself as the fulfilment of the promise of salvation.
Central elements of belief in salvation
In this brief survey of salvation history Christians recognise the central elements of their understanding of salvation. Firstly that God is the one who saves. Secondly that God's saving action is liberating and has a particular concern for those who are the most vulnerable in society. Thirdly that Jesus in his life and ministry embodies the saving action of God. Finally that Christians are called to accept the gift of God's saving action through their faith in Jesus and their own actions on behalf of those in need.
Summary Points
Students learn about:
The divinity and humanity of Jesus Christ
Students learn to:
Outline the principal beliefs regarding the divinity and humanity of Jesus Christ
The Christological controversies of the fourth and fifth centuries were debates regarding the nature of Christ, and in particular the issue of his humanity versus his divinity
• Docetism is a position which undermines the integrity of the humanity of Jesus because it claims that Jesus is fully divine but not truly human, because he is God merely adopting the appearance of being human
• Arianism is the belief that Jesus is superior to the rest of creation but not equal to God because Jesus was created by God and thus is not eternal unlike God
• The Council of Nicaea in 325 was called to fight against Arianism. The Council developed the Nicene Creed which stats that the Father and the Son are of one essence and hence Jesus is fully divine. The Council of Constantinople reaffirmed this decision
• Nestorius undermined the unity of Jesus by claiming that Mary was the Mother of the human Jesus but not the divine Jesus, to suggest that there were two persons within Jesus
• The Council of Ephesus in 431 CE rejected this view and confirmed the notion that there was only one person in Jesus and therefore Mary could rightfully be called the Mother of God (theokotos)
• Students learn about:
• The death and resurrection of Jesus Christ
Students learn to:
• Explain the importance of the death and resurrection of Jesus Christ for Christians
• Christians have traditionally believed that Jesus died for our sins
• This belief has given rise to some questionable explanations like the idea that God would be appeased with the execution of an innocent person
• Other questionable inferences include the idea that Jesus became human simply for him to be sacrificed because he is the only person of sufficient value to pay a ransom to God or Satan
• More adequate reflections on the death of Jesus highlight the notion that death is an integral part of the human condition and one which is shared by Jesus
• Other ways of appreciating the importance of the death of Jesus include seeing the death of Jesus as evidence of the unconditional love of God, or seeing Jesus' selflessness even unto death as a model for discipleship
• The fundamental Christian belief in the resurrection of the body, as evident in the Nicene Creed is based on the resurrection of Jesus Christ
• Whilst Jesus' resurrection and ascension are depicted slightly differently in the Gospels of John and Luke, both stress the importance of the resurrection as carrying the meaning of eternal life that overcomes the limitations of human mortality
• Theologians have long debated the nature of the risen Jesus. The difficulty is reconciling the physical resurrection with the spiritual resurrection, without downplaying either aspect
• Students learn about:
• The nature of God and the Trinity
• Students learn to:
• Outline the beliefs about the nature of God and the Trinity
• The doctrine of the Trinity states that God is One existing as three persons, God the Father, Jesus the Son and the Holy Spirit as sanctifier
• The belief in the trinity is a central tenet of Christian belief
• God's promise of salvation has been fulfilled through the life, death and resurrection of Jesus and the outpouring of the Holy Spirit, thus God is revealed as trinity
• God the Father is revealed in the Hebrew Scriptures
• God the Son is revealed in the Christian Scriptures
• God the Spirit is revealed in the Church
• The Trinitarian doctrine states that there are three co-eternal, equal persons in God, which is the notion of unity within community
• The Trinitarian doctrine was further developed and defined at the councils of Nicaea in 325 CE and Constantinople in 381 CE
• God was always trinity, however gradually this reality became known through revelation
• Jesus calls God "abba" (Father) and speaks of the spirit which indicates a plurality in God
• Early Christian practice indicates liturgical/baptismal use of the formula "In the name of the Father, Son and Holy Spirit"
• The difficulty is reconciling the concept of monotheism with the notion of God existing as three persons
• Cappadocian theology taught that God was of one essence (ousia) but three persons (hypostaseis)
• The divine essence is common to all three, however the three persons have attributes or properties which distinguished them eg Fatherhood, sonship and sanctifying power
• Once essence means that the actions (creation, redemption, sanctification) are attributable to all
• Mutual relations is the concept that the terms Father and Son are not titles but expressions of a relationship and thus all three persons are co-equal
• Students learn about:
• Revelation
• Students learn to:
• Examine the Christian understanding of Revelation
• God is intimately involved with all aspects of human life and thus God is revealed to humankind in and through the experiences of human history
• The revelation is understood to be an ongoing process
• God is the only source of revelation
• God's revelation takes place through a number of vehicles
• One vehicle is God's Spirit that dwells within human beings which enlivens the faith of Christians by bringing to them a knowledge of God
• The revelation is also communicated through the Bible, which Christians believe is inspired by God
• Similarly, the teaching tradition of the Church is believed to have been inspired by the Holy Spirit
• Even though all Christian groups believe that the Bible is the normative text, they understand this inspiration in different ways
• In comparison with Protestant denominations, Orthodox and Catholic denominations place a greater emphasis on the teaching authority of the Church, which is seen to be adjunct with the sacred scripture in communicating the revelation
• Students learn about:
• Salvation
• Students learn to:
• Describe the Christian understanding of salvation.
• Essentially, Christians believe that salvation is a gift from God, that is offered through the death and resurrection of Jesus
• This gift is accessed through faith in Jesus
• The Christian understanding of salvation draws heavily from the Jewish tradition of Moses and the Exodus, where the Hebrew people are liberated from slavery due to the saving intervention of God
• From this, the Hebrew prophetic tradition calls the people of Israel to be faithful to their covenantal relationship with God
• In particular the prophets remind the people of their obligation to care for the anawim who are the poor and defenceless members of society
• In his own preaching, Jesus' association with the Hebrew prophetic tradition is clear in his emphatic identification of himself as the fulfilment of the promise of salvation
• The major aspects of the Christian belief regarding salvation are as follows: Firstly God is the one who saves, secondly God's saving action is liberating and has a particular concern for those who are the most vulnerable in society. Thirdly that Jesus in his life and ministry embodies the saving action of God. Finally that Christians are called to accept the gift of God's saving action through their faith in Jesus and their own actions on behalf of those in need
• There is a considerable difference in the understanding of salvation among Christian groups. "Born again" Christians believe that salvation is solely dependant on an individual's personal acceptance of Jesus Christ as Lord and Saviour in a moment of personal conversion
• On the other hand, other Christians believe that the key indicator to salvation is not personal faith but works of merit, especially in the way a person has treated the most vulnerable people in society
• In between these views lies the understanding that the requirement is a sincere faith which is enlivened with good works.
Glossary
|Anawim |In the Beatitudes Jesus refers to the poor, afflicted and the meek as the anawim |
|Arianism |Christological view held by followers of Arius claiming that Jesus is superior to the rest of |
| |creation but less divine than God |
|Cappadocian theology |provides support for the notion of unity within community by claiming that God is of one |
| |essence but contains three distinct and separate persons. These three persons in God are |
| |co-equal and co-eternal. |
|Circumincession |Refers to the state where the three persons of the Trinity dwell within each other |
|Christological controversy |Debates in the fourth and fifth century raged regarding the nature, person and role of Christ |
| |and subsequently the issues of the humanity and the divinity of Christ, the relationship of |
| |Jesus to God, and the relationship between Mary and God. |
|Co-eternal |It means that there was never a time when the Spirit and the Son did not exist alongside the |
| |Father |
|Docetism |Christological view that Jesus is fully divine but not truly human |
|Mutual relations |The concept that the three persons within the trinity are co-equal and co-eternal. Therefore, |
| |the terms Father and Son are not names or titles but rather expressions of a relationship. |
| |Hence, whilst there is a numerical order in the procession of the Father, Son and Spirit such |
| |an order does not imply greater than in a temporal sense. |
|Nicene Creed |Statement of faith developed as a result of the councils of Nicaea and Constantinople in the |
| |fourth century. The creed is accepted by Catholic, Orthodox, Anglican and most Protestant |
| |denominations |
|Theotokos |Greek term that refers to the mother of God |
Specimen Questions
Outline and assess the influence of different schools of thought in the development of Christian beliefs about the trinity. (20 marks)
Analyse the way in which Christian beliefs relating to the humanity and divinity of Jesus were confirmed. (20 marks)
Sample Responses
Analyse the way in which Christian beliefs relating to the humanity and divinity of Jesus were confirmed
The principal Christian beliefs relating to the humanity and the divinity of Jesus were confirmed and refined through a series of debates, known as the Christological controversies, which took place in the fourth and fifth centuries. The issue at the heart of the debate was whether Jesus could be fully human and as well fully God, that is fully divine.
These debates saw the introduction of numerous influential heresies such as Docetism and Arianism which led to the formation of ecumenical councils that responded to these heresies by further defining and refining the principal Christian beliefs relating to the humanity and divinity of Jesus. The councils concluded that overemphasising the divinity or humanity of Jesus leads to a distorted picture of Jesus Christ.
One influential heresy is a position known as Docetism, which claims that Jesus was fully divine but not truly human. Another influential heresy was Arianism, which is the belief that Jesus was not fully divine. Finally, in the fifth century a position put forward by Nestorius claimed that there were two separate persons within Jesus, a divine person and a human person.
One of the key tenets of the belief relating to the humanity and divinity of Jesus is the idea that Jesus is truly and fully human and yet he is fully divine and hence fully God. This view was clarified and confirmed in response to the Docetist view which claimed that Jesus was not truly human rather he was God who assumed the appearance of being human. In other words, he was fully divine but was not fully human because he was God with the appearance of being human.
This doctrine clearly undermined the integrity of the humanity of Jesus and accordingly was rejected by Orthodox Christians. The response to Docetism clearly confirmed the view that Jesus is fully human and yet fully God. Arianism was an influential heresy which questioned whether it was possible for Jesus to be both fully and completely divine and yet truly human. Arius who most influentially espoused this view taught that Jesus is superior to the rest of creation but he is less divine than God. In other words, Jesus is not actually God because he is not fully divine.
The implication of this view was that only the Father was God even though his Son could reveal God to humanity. Arianism was a highly influential view which led to a divisive dispute in the early Christian Church. Subsequently, Constantine called for the formation of the Council of Nicaea in 325 CE to resolve this issue. The council concluded that Jesus was of one substance with the Father. Thus, Jesus is fully divine as well as fully human. The Council of Constantinople later reaffirmed this decision. As we can see the confirmation of pre-existing views regarding the humanity and the divinity of Jesus came about due to common and prevalent heresies.
Where Arianism downplayed the divine aspect of Jesus, Nestorius in the fifth century claimed that Jesus was fully divine and fully human. However, Nestorius taught that the divine person was separate and independent from the human person. Essentially, Nestorius claimed that there were two separate persons within Jesus, a divine person and a human person. Nestorius then went on to make the claim that Mary was the mother of the human Jesus but not the divine Jesus. This clearly undermined the integrity of the person of Jesus. The Council of Ephesus in 431 CE was called to respond to this heresy. They confirmed the view that Christ is fully human and fully divine. Thus, Mary is the Mother of God as well as being the mother of the human Jesus. Once again, what is evident is that a heresy prompts the formation of an ecumenical council to clarify and confirm existing contemporary beliefs regarding the divinity and the humanity of Jesus Christ.
In conclusion, the principal Christian beliefs relating to the humanity and divinity and Jesus were confirmed through a series of influential heresies, which led to the formation of ecumenical councils. These councils reaffirmed and formalised pre-existing beliefs regarding the humanity and divinity of Jesus. These councils authorised and refined the pre-existing view that Jesus is both fully divine and fully human and that these supposedly contradictory elements exist as a whole in the one person of Jesus.
Outline and assess the influence of different schools of thought in the development of Christian beliefs about the trinity (scaffold)
Introduction (190 words)
The Christian understanding regarding the trinity is the result of the various schools of thought further developing and refining the core belief in the trinity. The Trinity is a central tenet of Christianity that states that there are three separate and distinct persons in the one God. That is God the Father, Jesus the Son and Holy Spirit the sanctifier. These three persons are considered as co-eternal and co-equal meaning that firstly, neither person is of greater importance than the other and secondly, that there was never a time when one person existed and another did not.
God's plan of salvation for human kind works through the trinity and thus God is revealed as trinity. This belief was mainly the result of intense discussion and debate during the fourth century at the councils of Nicaea in 325 CE and Constantinople in 381 CE. These councils dealt predominately with Cappadocian theology that has been highly influential in shaping our contemporary understanding of the trinity. Cappadocian theology refined an earlier school of thought that existed during the time of Jesus that demonstrates the basic belief regarding the plurality of God.
Section 1 (200 words)
Briefly outline the early beliefs regarding the plurality of God, with reference to Jesus calling God "abba" and the baptismal formulae. Explain how this early Christian practice gave rise to the central Christian belief regarding the existence of the trinity, in that there are three co-eternal, equal persons. Weigh up the importance of these early developments by emphasising that these practices provide the basis of the core principles of the trinity.
Section 2 (100 words)
Explain the apparent contradictions relating to the belief in the trinity. That is how questions of the relationship between Jesus and the Father led to the error of ditheism, and similarly how questions of the relationship between Father, Son and Spirit led to the error of tritheism. Elaborate on these theological contradictions, by pointing out the issue of whether unity can also be trinity, and subsequently is God three only in terms of economy or is God three at an intra divine level?
Section 3 (200 words)
Give an explanation of the teachings of Cappadocian theology and show how this school of thought attempts to answer the fundamental and essential question of how it was possible for God to be one yet three.
Essentially, they taught that God was of one essence but three persons, and subsequently, the divine essence is common to all three.
Evaluate the importance of this school of thought by stressing that Cappadocian theology was highly influential in addressing one aspect of the debate regarding the trinity, more specifically the issue of how unity can also be trinity.
Furthermore, emphasise the idea that this school of thought did not invent the possibility of the existence of unity within trinity, rather they further refined the pre-existing notions regarding the trinity.
Section 4 (200 words)
Evaluate the impact of this school of thought by deconstructing the main components of Cappadocian theology and the implications of their teachings on the theological understanding of the trinity. That is, stress the points of common essence but different roles and the notion of mutual relations and how that relates to the issue of the three persons being co-equal and co-eternal and thus providing an explanation of the notion of unity in community.
Section 5 (150 words)
Briefly state the current belief regarding the inter-relationship between the three persons, and clarify how this issue is different to and a development upon the issue dealt with by Cappadocian theology. Trace the historical development of this school of thought and evaluate its influence by stating that in the development of Trinitarian theology the West tended to focus on the immanent trinity and the East tended to focus on the economic trinity.
Conclusion (107 words)
In conclusion, it can be seen that the contemporary understanding on the issue of the trinity is the result of significant developments and refinements which took place during the fourth century. Early Christian practices, Cappadocian theology and Western and Eastern theological teachings on the issue of the trinity have affirmed the foundational belief in the idea that there are three co-eternal, equal persons in one God. Despite differences in the Western and Eastern beliefs regarding the exact nature of the trinity, essentially the different schools of thought emphasise the importance of the belief in the trinity by proclaiming that it is a central tenet of Christian belief.
Sacred Texts and Writings
Bible is the normative for Christianity
The Bible, which is a collection of books, is of critical importance in Christianity. It is normative for Christianity as it identifies the key beliefs and determines ethical, legal, ritual and spiritual foundations. Thus Christianity is commonly known as a religion of the book, as is Judaism and Islam. The Bible is foundational to Christianity because the Bible is regarded as the word of God.
Nature of the sacred text
For Christians the Bible includes the Old Testament and the New Testament. The Old Testament, sometimes referred to as the Hebrew Scriptures, is very similar to the Jewish sacred text the Tenak. The Old Testament can be roughly divided into four sections. The first five books are known as the Pentateuch. The second group of books, the Historical books, are books with an historical character. Thirdly there is a collection of the writings of the Prophets and finally other writings such as the Psalms and Proverbs that are broadly classified as Wisdom literature. The New Testament contains four Gospels, an account of the development of the early Church knows as the Acts of the Apostles, a series of letters to Churches or individuals written by Paul and other early Church leaders and an apocalyptic work called the book of Revelation or the book of the Apocalypse.
Deutero Canonical or Apocryphal books
All books of the New Testament and the vast majority of Old Testament books are accepted by all Christian groups and thereby are considered as part of the canon of scripture. A small number of books in the Old Testament have a disputed status in the canon. These books, written in Greek in the late Old Testament period, are accepted by Catholic and Orthodox Christians, however are regarded as Deutero Canonical books by some other Christian denominations. This means belonging to a second canon or second collection. In Protestant groups these books are not accepted as part of the canon of scripture and are referred to as apocryphal books or apocrypha. These books are often found in bibles but designated as Deutero Canonical or Apocryphal books.
Bible is inspired by God
Christians believe that the Bible is inspired by God and thus carries the authority of God. Consequently, the Bible provides a special connection between God and humans and provides human beings with deep spiritual insight into their religion. The belief that the Bible is inspired by God is a belief held in common by all Christians, yet, the understanding of this inspiration differs from group to group. Some Christians believe the inspiration of scripture amounts to God dictating a word for word account which was then recorded and passed on in the Christian communities. Such beliefs are in the realm of a fundamentalist understanding that also insists that every aspect and every detail of the bible must be held to be true in a literal sense. Such an understanding is likely to be found among the evangelical groups within.
Protestantism
Other Christian groups understand that the inspiration of the Holy Spirit came in and through the human insights and understanding of the authors of the text who were reflecting and passing on the faith of their community. In this way the writers were indeed authors in the true sense of the word and brought their own unique gifts to the task of writing. In and through this human activity, the inspiration of the Spirit is present and the result is a sacred texts, which fully and profoundly expresses the revelation of God. This understanding affirms that the Bible carries all that is necessary for human salvation but does not require that the reader accept every aspect in a literal sense. This understanding is found among the Catholic and Orthodox strands of Christianity as well as the High Church Anglicans and some Protestant denominations
Bible contains salvation history
The Bible depicts the hand of God intervening in human history. In other words, the Bible contains the salvation history from the origins of creation through the covenant with the people of Israel, the teaching of the prophets and finally the new covenant inaugurated through the life and ministry of Jesus.
Model for Christian life action
Christianity draws many of its practices and teachings from the Bible. The Bible conveys an understanding of a model of life and action. These actions are based on broad principles rather than specific teachings that outline what is required of Christians on a day to day basis. In this way, the Bible is a source of unity for Christians as it provides a link to a communal religious heritage. Since the Bible provides a model for action the fundamental source of ethical guidance is derived from the Bible and in particular the New Testament that contains the four Gospels. Thus the Bible provides guidance for individual Christians as well as for Christian communities.
Different application of the Bible across the spectrum of Christianity
The Bible, while being of critical and equal importance to all Christian denominations, is nevertheless used differently across the spectrum of denominations. The Catholic and Orthodox denominations believe that the revelation of God comes through scripture in the light of Tradition. In other words, tradition or Church teaching illuminates the meaning of scripture. In contrast, Protestants do not place the same emphasis on tradition as a means of illuminating the meaning of the sacred text because. That is, the teaching authority of the Church is seen as relevant, but they are more directly related to Biblical teaching. Instead, Protestants reaffirm the concept of sola scriptura that means 'scripture alone', in using a more direct application of the Bible. Thus, personal conscience and individual interpretation of the Biblical texts are more pronounced in Protestant Churches.
Within Protestantism, there are also variations regarding the application of the Bible. High Church Anglicans adopt a position that is similar to the Catholic and Orthodox stance in their belief that scripture and tradition go hand in hand. Low Church Anglicans embrace a more fundamentalist approach to the Bible.
Stemming from its significant impact on beliefs the Bible also has a vital role in determining the rituals and practical dimensions of Christianity. The Bible for example underpins study from a theological perspective. It provides guidelines for ritual, prayer and worship, the latter being strongly based on scripture.
Biblical extracts that demonstrate the principal beliefs of Christianity
The following areas are identified as principal beliefs of Christianity
The divinity and humanity of Jesus Christ
The death and resurrection of Jesus Christ
The nature of God and the Trinity
Revelation
Salvation
For each of these principal beliefs three extracts from the New Testament will be examined.
The divinity and humanity of Jesus Christ
Matthew 16:13-20
This extract from Matthew refers to an event that is also recorded in the other synoptic gospels. It occurs at a time when Jesus is beginning or about to begin his journey to Jerusalem where ultimately he will be arrested and executed.
Jesus asks the disciples what the people are saying about him. More exactly he asks "who do people say that the son of man is" (Mt16-13). Various responses are forthcoming before Jesus asks a second question. "Who do you say that I am" (Mt 16:15) Peter gives the answer "You are the messiah; the son of the living God". Jesus who claims that the Father has revealed such an insight to him affirms Peter’s response.
The extract very clearly affirms the belief of the Mattheaen community that not only was Jesus the chosen one of Israel - the Messiah, he was also the Son of God. To claim sonship was tantamount to claiming equality with God. Thus the extract demonstrates the belief in the divinity of Jesus. While making no explicit reference to the humanity of Jesus it nonetheless affirms this reality with the human Jesus of Nazareth being heralded as Son of God.
John 1:1-14
The beginning of the gospel of John speaks poetically about the origins of creation and how Jesus, the word, was with God in all eternity (Jn 1:1-3).
The passage uses the imagery of the light breaking into the darkness to allude to the great act of salvation in Jesus. It then speaks of the role of John the Baptist as the forerunner to Jesus before returning to focus on the role of Jesus as the word.
In verse 14 it describes how Jesus, the eternal word of God, came to dwell among us and be one with us. Literally the text says "he pitched his tent among us". This is a powerful image highlighting the full humanity of Jesus.
Hebrews 4:14-16
This extract from the letter to the Hebrew begins with a statement affirming the divinity of Jesus "we have a great high priest who has passed through the heavens" (Heb 4:14). It then goes on to explain that in Jesus the high priest there is also the dimension of him having experienced all that is associated with human existence (Heb 4:15).
In other words, Jesus is fully human and thus able to understand the exact nature of the human condition. Yet, he is also fully divine and thus able to intercede for human kind. He has both the power to save and the compassion to empathise with human need.
The death and resurrection of Jesus Christ
Luke 9: 22
This extract from the gospel of Luke comes immediately after Peter's declaration of faith in Jesus as the messiah. It is one of three passion predictions that are found in the synoptic gospels. These passion predictions have Jesus announcing the circumstances of his coming death as he journeys towards Jerusalem.
The significance of this passage is that is shows that Jesus' death and resurrection were a necessary part of his mission. In other words these predictions, placed in the mouth of Jesus by the synoptic writers, identify the inevitability of his death and at the same time the certainty of his resurrection.
Thus the communities writing the gospel affirm their faith in Jesus dying on the cross and then being raised on the third day as a central and indispensable part of their gospel message.
1 Corinthians 15:12-19
This extract from Paul's first letter to the Church at Corinth is the first part of a long discussion on the matter of the resurrection. It is important to note that many of Paul's teachings come in response to questions from the community of in order to challenge beliefs and practices that have arisen which are contrary to the gospel.
In this situation Paul seems to be challenging an idea among the Corinthians that there will be no resurrection of the dead. Paul affirms in the strongest possible terms that the resurrection is an integral part of Christian belief. Paul argues that "if Christ was not raised, your faith is worthless (1Cor15:16)
1 Corinthians 15:35-44
The second part of Paul's discussion on the resurrection deals with the manner of the resurrection. Once again it is clear that he is responding to matters that have arisen in the Church at Corinth. Paul uses the analogy of a seed dying and a plant sprouting to affirm that resurrection is a transformation of the body and not merely a resuscitation of the body.
He finishes his discussion by affirming the eternal or incorruptible nature of the resurrected body in contrast to the mortal human body that is subject to decay. He also affirms the strength, glory and spiritual character of the resurrected body (1 Cor 15:42-44)
The nature of God and the Trinity
Luke 3:21-22
This passage from Luke's gospel is an account of Jesus being baptised by John. It is an event that is found in each of the synoptic gospels and perhaps alluded to in a passage from John's gospel (Jn 1:31-34).
The passage is significant because through the mind of the author it provides a glimpse into the three persons of the trinity. Jesus has been baptised and while he is at prayer the Spirit descends on him in the form of a dove. At the same time the voice of the Father is heard declaring that his favour rests on Jesus his son (Lk 3:22).
Thus is Luke's simple description there is testimony to the three persons of the trinity in relationship at the time of the baptism of Jesus.
John 16:5-16
This passage from John forms part of the long prayer prayed by Jesus on the night before his death. This particular part of the prayer focuses on Jesus' departure and the subsequent coming of the Spirit.
The passage includes reference to the Father and Spirit in the prayer of Jesus once again affirming the belief in the trinity held by the writer through the description of the three persons of the trinity in relationship.
1 John 5:1-12
The extract from the first letter of John is another example reflecting the faith of the early Church in the trinity of Father, Son and Spirit.
The first verse in this section identifies a relationship between Jesus and the Father (1Jn 5:1). The same verse highlights the closeness of the relationship between the believer and these two persons of the trinity speaking of faith in Jesus and love of the Father.
Later in verse 6 the writer speaks of the role of the Holy Spirit in giving testimony to Jesus and affirming the truth of this testimony.
Finally in verses 11 and 12 the writer again speaks of the testimony of the Spirit and refers to the relationship between Jesus and the Father thus affirming the tradition of belief in the trinity.
Revelation
John 20:30-31
This extract from the gospel of John deals with the purpose of scripture. Scripture is recognised as a key vehicle of revelation.
In this extract the writer indicates that the reason the gospel account has been prepared is to provide an incentive to believe in Jesus. In other words it identifies the rhetorical character of the text. It is not written to provide documentary evidence or biographical detail. It is written in order that the hearer or reader may be convinced and thus led to faith. With this in mind it is possible to understand the historical character as incidental to the main purpose.
The gospel can be therefore understood as a document of faith. It is a reflection of the faith of the early Church community and an invitation for the audience to embrace the same faith.
2 Timothy 3:15-16
This extract from the second letter of Paul to Timothy contains a number of statements that are at the heart of the Christian understanding of revelation.
Firstly it speaks of Timothy's life long knowledge of the sacred scriptures and affirms these as "the source of wisdom which through faith in Jesus Christ leads to salvation" (2 Tim 3:15). This verse also affirms the purpose of this "wisdom" as leading to salvation.
The following verse reflects the Christian belief that scripture is inspired by God and also highlights its usefulness for teaching and also for correcting errors in the community.
2 Peter 1:20-21
This passage from the second letter of Peter addresses the theme of prophecy and individual interpretation. It also takes up the theme of the inspiration of scripture.
The passage begins by denying that there is any element of personal interpretation found in the prophecy of scripture. This is followed by an affirmation that it is the inspiration of the Spirit that is the source of prophecy. The aspect of the inspiration of the Spirit is identified here as acting under the influence of God.
This passage affirms therefore that the scriptures contain that which God wishes to be passed on. This affirmation is tempered by the notion that scripture is written for the purpose of encouraging faith, not to provide historical, scientific or other perspectives.
Salvation
Matthew 25:26-31
This passage presents a scene from the last judgement when all people are to be called before God to give account of their lives. In this depiction people are separated into two groups. One of these groups is to be blessed with the inheritance of the kingdom of heaven. The second group is those to be condemned to "the everlasting fire" (Mt 21:41).
In this judgement scene the factor, which distinguishes the blessed from the condemned, is their treatment of others and in particular the treatment of the most vulnerable in the community. These vulnerable ones are referred to as "the least of these brethren of mine" (Mt 25:40).
The implication of this passage is that eternal salvation is integrally connected to the treatment of others especially those who have the greatest need.
John 3:16-17
Perhaps the best known of all scripture texts is verse 16 of this passage from John. "For God so loved the world that he gave his only Son that whoever believes in him may not die but may have eternal life." (Jn 3:16). This verse conveys the relationship between the sending of Jesus by the Father and the gift of salvation.
This idea is further explained in verse 17 "that the world may be saved through him" which illustrates the fundamental Christian belief that salvation comes through Jesus.
Romans 5: 1-11
In his letter to the Romans, Paul goes to considerable length to explain his thesis about the way Jesus has brought salvation to humankind. One example of this explanation is his discussion of faith, hope and love in this famous section of the letter.
He begins by affirming the belief that it is through faith in Jesus Christ that we find peace with God (Rom 5:1). He goes on to explain that the event of Christ's death highlights the degree of God's love for humankind (Rom 5:8).
This love is at the heart of God's saving action and the assurance of this salvation brought by the love of God provides humankind with hope to experience eternal life with God (Rom 5:2).
Summary Points: Sacred Texts
Students learn about:
The Bible
Students learn to:
Identify the importance of the Bible in Christianity
The books in the Bible are divided into two main collections, the Old Testament also known as the Hebrew Scriptures and the New Testament
The Bible is considered to be the word of God as it is inspired by God and thus provides deep spiritual insights for Christians into their religion
The exact nature of the inspiration is a topic of contention.
Fundamentalist Christians interpret Biblical inspiration in a literal sense, in that the inspiration of scripture amounts to God dictating a word for word account which was then recorded and passed on into the Christian communities
Catholic and Orthodox denominations, together with High Church Anglicans and some Protestant denominations believe that the Holy Spirit inspired human beings who came to an enlightened understanding of God and recorded these reflections as a way of passing their faith onto the community. Therefore, the Bible contains all that is necessary for human salvation however the Bible should not be understood in literal terms
The Bible is important because it contains salvation history, the account of the history of creation that shows the action of God in human history culminating in the life and ministry of Jesus.
The Bible is normative for Christianity, highlighting key beliefs and determining the practical application of legal, ethical and ritual dimensions
The Bible is seen to provide guidelines for ritual, prayer and worship
The Bible provides the model for life action particularly in relation to ethical guidance
The Bible underpins theological studies
The application of the Bible differs across the spectrum of Christian denominations
Catholic and Orthodox denominations believe that tradition illuminates the meaning of scripture, in that the revelation of God comes through scripture in the light of tradition
Protestant groups follow the teachings of Luther, who taught that the only source Christians should turn to for inspiration is the Bible.
The belief in "bible alone" is known as sola scriptura
The belief in sola scriptura is particularly strong amongst evangelical Protestants
High Church Anglicans believe that tradition and scripture go hand in hand
Students learn about:
The Bible
Students learn to:
Examine extracts from the Bible which demonstrate the principal beliefs of Christianity
The divinity and humanity of Jesus Christ
Matthew 16:13-20 - Jesus is the Son of God and therefore Jesus is fully divine
John 1:1-14 - Jesus is fully human as well as being co-eternal with the Father, in that he existed alongside God throughout all of eternity
Hebrews 4:14-16 - Jesus is fully human and is thus able to understand the exact nature of the human condition. Yet, he is also fully divine and thus able to intercede for human kind. In other words, he has both the power to save and the compassion to empathise with human need
The nature of God and the Trinity
Luke 3:21-22 - Luke's description is testimony to the three persons of the trinity in relationship at the time of the baptism of Jesus
John 16:5-16 - This segment of Jesus' prayer focuses on the interrelationship between the three persons in the Trinity, especially the subsequent coming of the Spirit following Jesus' departure
John 5:1-12 - This passage speaks of the interrelationship between the three persons of the Trinity. Firstly, there is a close relationship between the believer through the Holy Spirit that flows from the Father and the Son and secondly the Holy Spirit gives testimony to the truth of Jesus
Revelation
John 20:30-31 - The Scripture is recognised as a key vehicle of revelation, in reflecting the faith of the early Church community and inviting the audience to embrace the same faith
2 Timothy 3:15-16 - The scriptures are a source of wisdom and lead us to have faith in Jesus who brings us the gift of salvation. God inspires scripture
2 Peter 1:20-21 - The Holy Spirit inspires people to write the Scriptures with the intent of encouraging faith and not necessarily to provide historical and scientific evidence of God
Salvation
Matthew 25:26-31 - Eternal salvation is integrally connected to the treatment of others especially those who have the greatest need
John 3:16-17 - This verse highlights the fundamental Christian belief that salvation comes through Jesus
Rom 5:1-11 - Salvation comes through faith in Jesus, whose death reflects God's saving action and hence God's love of humankind
Glossary
|Deutero Canonical books (also known as the |This is the term used by some Protestant denominations to refer to books that |
|Apocryphal books amongst Protestant |have a disputed status in the Biblical Canon. These texts are accepted by |
|denominations) |Catholic and Orthodox traditions. Among Protestant groups they may be referred |
| |to as Deutero Canonical or apocryphal books. |
|New Testament |The name given to the second part of the Christian Bible that was written after |
| |the birth of Christ. |
|Old Testament (also known as the Hebrew |The name given to the first part of the Christian Bible written before the birth|
|Scriptures) |of Christ. |
|Salvation history |The account of the history of creation that shows the action of God in human |
| |history culminating in the life and ministry of Jesus. |
Specimen Questions
Explain the importance of the Bible in the Christian tradition (20 marks)
Sample Responses
Explain the importance of the Bible in the Christian tradition
The sacred text of Christianity, the Bible, is clearly foundational to the tradition, as Christianity is commonly known as a religion of the book. The Bible is a collection of books, divided into two main sections, the Old Testament and the New Testament. The importance of the Bible for the Christian tradition cannot be underestimated, as the Bible is normative for Christianity. It indicates the key beliefs and determines the ethical, legal, ritual and spiritual foundations.
The Bible describes the relationship between God and humankind as it contains the salvation history, that is, the account of God's intervention in human history from the moment of creation, culminating in the life and ministry of Jesus. The Bible is believed to mirror this intimate connection between God and humankind as the Bible is seen to be inspired by God. Consequently, Christianity draws many of its practices and beliefs from the Bible.
Whilst the Bible is the foundational text for all Christian denominations, the way in which the Bible is interpreted and applied to specific situations differs across the spectrum of Christianity. This divergence of opinion stems from the key issue of whether the denomination believes that the teaching authority of the Church should be used to illuminate the meaning of the Bible and thus is considered an important adjunct to the Bible.
The books in the Bible are divided into two main collections, the Old Testament also known as the Hebrew Scriptures and the New Testament. Since Christianity branched off from its parent religion Judaism, it is not surprising to find that the Old Testament is similar to the Jewish sacred text, the Tenach. The Old Testament can be further divided into four key parts: firstly the Pentateuch, followed by books with a historical character, then the writings of the Prophets and finally the Wisdom Literature. The New Testament can also be loosely divided into 4 sections: the four Gospels, followed by the Acts of the Apostles, a series of letters to Churches and individuals written mainly by Paul and finally the book of Revelation, an apocalyptic work. The official canon of scripture is mostly undisputed, however, there are a small minority of books known as the Deutero Canonical or Apocryphal books contained in the Old Testament, which have a disputed status in the canon. These books are accepted by the Catholic and Orthodox denominations; however, Protestant groups do not accept them.
The first reason why the Bible is important in the Christian tradition is because the Bible is considered to be the word of God as God inspires it. Thus, the Bible carries with it the authority of God, in illuminating the omnipresent, omnipotent and omniscient nature of God, and records the intimate relationship between God and human kind. The Bible is the account of God's intervention in human history from the dawn of creation and reaching its highpoint in the life and ministry of Jesus. This account is known as salvation history. Since the Bible carries with it the authority of God it provides human beings with rich spiritual insights into their religion.
The exact nature of the inspiration is a matter of dispute amongst the different Christian denominations. Nevertheless, the belief that the Bible is the inspired word of God is universally accepted across the spectrum of Christian denominations. Fundamentalist Christians interpret Biblical inspiration in a literal sense in that the inspiration of scripture amounts to God dictating a word for word account which was then recorded and passed on in the Christian communities. As a consequence they construe the meaning of the scriptures in a literal sense by taking the exact words of the Bible at face value. This type of interpretation of the Bible is prevalent among the evangelical groups within Protestantism.
Catholic and Orthodox denominations, together with High Church Anglicans and some Protestant denominations accept that God does not dictate the Bible in a literal sense. Rather, they believe that the spirit of God inspired human beings who received insight in their understanding of God. Subsequently, these authors recorded their enlightened reflections on God as a way of passing on their faith to the community. In other words, a greater role is given to human agency as the inspired authors brought their own unique gifts to the task of writing. In and through this human activity, the inspiration of the Spirit is present and thus the sacred texts fully express the revelation of God. The Bible contains all that is necessary for human salvation. Since the Bible is not a literal transcript of God's words, the reader therefore does not need to take each word at face value.
Considering the importance of the Bible as it carries the authority of God in recording salvation history it is therefore no surprise that the Bible is normative for Christianity. In other words, it conveys key beliefs and determines the practical application of the text to the legal, ethical and ritual dimensions. And since the Bible is normative for diverse communities the Bible is also a source of unity for Christians as it provides a link to a common religious heritage. For example, the Bible provides a general ethical framework for life based on the life and ministry of Jesus Christ. The Bible generally provides overall ethical principles which guide Christians rather than specific laws which outline what is required of Christians on a day to day basis.
The Bible, which sets out the Christian doctrinal system, also determines the practical dimension of Christianity that is the ritual aspect of Christianity. The Bible is seen to provide guidelines for ritual, prayer and worship. Furthermore, the Bible underpins theological studies. From this, a Christian community comes to an understanding of how people within the tradition should be treated.
The Bible therefore is clearly of great importance for all Christian denominations. The application of the Bible differs however across the spectrum of Christian denominations. The factor which divides Catholic and Orthodox communities on the one hand and Protestant groups on the other, is the extent to which they accept the teaching of Church authority as a way of interpreting the scripture. Catholic and Orthodox denominations believe that the tradition illuminates the meaning of scripture in that the revelation of God comes through scripture in the light of tradition. Protestant denominations place less emphasis the idea of the teaching authority of the Church in favour of a more direct application of the Bible. This view stems from the writings of Luther in the 16th century who taught that the only source Christians should turn to for inspiration is the Bible. The belief that the Bible is the only source of authority is termed "sola scriptura" or scripture alone. As Protestant denominations apply the Bible more directly to specific situations the role of personal conscience and individual interpretation is likewise more pronounced in Protestant denominations. The belief in sola scripture is particularly strong amongst evangelical Protestants. High Church Anglicans on the other hand accept a doctrinal position that is more closely aligned to the Catholic and Orthodox positions in their belief that tradition and scripture go hand in hand.
In conclusion, it is clear that the Bible is of critical importance for all Christian denominations and is normative for the Christian tradition. The importance of the Bible can be traced back to the belief that the Bible is the word of God as the Holy Spirit inspires it. The Bible, which contains salvation history, that sets out the relationship between God and humankind lay down the core beliefs of Christianity. From this, flows the practical dimension of Christianity as the Bible also sets down rituals, prayers and ways of worship. The Bible, therefore, is clearly of utmost importance for the Christian tradition. The application of the Bible differs, however, across the spectrum of Christian denominations, depending on the emphasis given to the teaching authority of the Church. Despite these differences all denominations accept the view that the Bible is of critical importance to the Christian tradition.
Core Ethical Teachings
The major source of ethical guidance for Christians is the New Testament that contains the Gospels. Thus, the teachings of Jesus Christ lie at the core of Christian ethics. Additionally, the Ten Commandments, contained in the Old Testament, and also known as the Decalogue is an important source of ethical guidance for Christians. There are two versions of the Ten Commandments in the Old Testament. One is found in Exodus 20:1-17 and the other in Deuteronomy 5:6-21.
Given that Christianity branched off from its parent religion Judaism, it is not surprising to find that the two tradition share common elements of scripture, namely the Tenach or the Old Testament. The Ten Commandments are at the heart of the covenant tradition in the Old Testament and provide an important background and context for the ethical teaching of Jesus found in the New Testament.
Nature of the Ten Commandments
The first two commandments state the importance of worshipping God and God alone. Accordingly the use of magic and the worship of idols are forbidden. The third commandment relates to the importance of observing the Sabbath and keeping it sacred for God. The nature of the relationship between God and human beings mirrors the path that human beings should take when relating and interacting with each other.
The remaining seven commandments present guidelines for human interaction and how human beings should treat each other. These commandments emphasise the importance of human life and the need to respect family and personal integrity.
Importance of the Ten Commandments
The Ten Commandments are a succinct summary of Christian ethics. They are frequently used as a framework for the key principles of Christian ethics. The Ten Commandments were not explicitly prominent in the teaching of the early Church possibly because Jesus did not explicitly cite each of the commandments. However, he did use the Ten Commandments as a backdrop for his own ethical teachings. Not only did he refer to and make use of these commandments in his teaching, he also used them as a means to highlight the requirements of the new covenant. This use of the commandments is particularly evident in his sermon on the mount (Mt 5-7) that is a foundational element of New Testament ethical teaching.
New Testament Ethics
Key source of ethical guidance is the New Testament
The fundamental source of ethical guidance for Christians is the New Testament. The New Testament contains some of Jesus' most significant ethical statements. That is, the requirement to love God with all your heart, soul and strength and to love your neighbour as yourself, and the requirement that love is the basic condition of the Christian life. The voluminous mass of Christian ethics can be distilled into these core principles.
Beatitudes
The Beatitudes are regarded as a foundational passage for Christian ethics. The Beatitudes is the name given to the famous and definitive part of the Sermon on the Mount. The Beatitudes, as noted in Matthew 5:2-12 and Luke 6:20-26 the Sermon on the Plain, describes a life directed towards saintliness and holiness. Thus, the Beatitudes provide a model or a template for the Christian life.
The Beatitudes provide an ethical stance that stands in contrast to the dominant culture. They point to an inversion of values whereby the things that are often regarded as having no value according to the dominant culture are celebrated and affirmed in the reign of God. In another sense they provide a warning against an approach to life which values only material strength and power. The inference is that such values are illusory and temporary.
Sermon on the Mount
The Sermon on the Mount provides other important guidance for Christian ethics. For example Luke 6:27 asks us to "Love your enemies, do good to those who hate you". Similarly Matthew 5:39 instructs us that "When a person strikes you on the right cheek, turn and offer him the other". In essence, Christian ethics can be summed up as "Do unto others as you would have them do unto you". (Matthew 7:12 and Luke 6:31) This passage, known as the golden rule, is the key concept that underpins all Christian ethical teachings.
Jesus' commandment of love
Jesus' commandment of love can be distilled into two categories, love of God and love of neighbour. Christianity draws on two central texts of the Old Testament to understand the covenantal notions of love of God and love of neighbour. Leviticus 19:18 advises the reader to "Love your neighbour as yourself". Deuteronomy 6:4-6 urges the reader to "Hear O Israel: The Lord our God, the Lord is One. Love the Lord your God with all your heart, with all your soul, and with all your strength. These commandments that I give you today are to be upon your hearts". Mark 12:31 affirms that "there is no commandment greater than these".
Love of neighbour is taken to a new level
In the ministry of Jesus this commandment to love your neighbour is raised to a new level when Jesus says that, "You have heard that it was said, 'love your neighbour and hate your enemy'. But I tell you 'Love your enemies and pray for those who persecute you". (Matthew 5:43-44) Thus Christians are called to model their lives on the love of Jesus that in itself fulfils the requirement of love. Paul notes that love is the element that fulfils the law.
Love is the identifying characteristic of the Christian life
The requirement to love is conveyed in terms of a new commandment in John's Gospel. To love one another, as God loves each person is seen as the identifying characteristic of the Christian life which sets Christians apart from the rest of the world. The Gospel of John instructs Christians; "A new command I give you: love one another. As I have loved you, so you must love one another. By this all men will know that you are my disciples, if you love one another". (John 13:34-35) To love is to share the essence of God, as seen in 1 John 4:7-8, "Dear friends, let us love one another, for love comes from God. Everyone who loves has been born of God and knows God. Whoever does not love does not know God, because God is love ”.
Christians see in Jesus’ example of love the model that they are to follow. Jesus’ love is a love without limits, a sacrificial love that is seen in his self-giving on the cross.
Similarly, Paul identifies love as the essential quality that gives life and meaning to all other virtues. In other words, all other virtues are futile, when they are separated from love. Thus, he calls Christians to live a life motivated by love. This can be seen in the famous and oft-quoted passage, 1 Corinthians 13. "I can speak in the tongues of men and of angels but have not love I am only a resounding gong or a clanging cymbal". Thus, Jesus' commandment of love offers fundamental guidance for Christians in the area of ethics.
Differences in the application of general Biblical principles
There are no identifiable differences among the various Christian denominations concerning their understanding of Jesus' commandment of love since all Christian denominations base their ethical guidance on Biblical teachings. There are some differences, however, regarding the application of these principles to particular ethical issues. But these differences are not overly significant. This difference stems from the fact that the Catholic and Orthodox denominations place a greater emphasis on the teaching tradition of the Church. Ethical teaching among the Protestant denominations is more directly linked to Biblical teaching. Hence there is a more direct application of the Biblical principles in the Protestant Church.
Importance of ethical teaching in the life of adherents
Followers of the Christian religion can be expected to place considerable value on the ethical teachings of the tradition in determining their response to a wide range of issues. These teachings provide guidance which enable the adherents of Christianity to make informed moral choices according to the principles of the tradition.
The guidance that is provided and the way in which adherents respond can be in general or specific terms and may be in a direct sense or through a broad overall direction.
General guidance
In the first instance the general direction of life for adherents of the Christian tradition will be provided through examples such as the Ten Commandments (Exodus 20:1-17 and Deuteronomy 5:6-21), The Beatitudes (Matthew 5:2-12 and Luke 6:20-26) and the Golden Rule (Matthew 7:12 and Luke 6:31). Texts such as these can be seen as the foundational principles underpinning the Christian ethical system. Accordingly it would be expected that Christians would strive to live their lives in line with the principles espoused in such passages. In this way it can be seen that the ethical teaching of Christianity provides broad, overall guidance to the followers of the tradition.
Life and ministry of Jesus
Another form of ethical guidance for Christians is found through the use of the example of the life and ministry of Jesus. Christians seek to model their lives on the life and ministry of Jesus and as such the ethical standards practised by Jesus in the course of his life become guides for the actions of Christians. In general terms the Christian ethos of caring for those in need can be directly attributed to the example of Jesus. Other examples from the life and ministry of Jesus include opposition to oppression and advocacy for the vulnerable together with qualities such as love and forgiveness.
Specific guidance
On a more specific level guidance is also given through the teaching of the Christian tradition in relation to current ethical issues.
Traditionally Christianity has been depicted as presenting ethical teaching on a fairly narrow range of issues usually associated with sexual morality and bio-ethics. While it is true that sexual morality and bio-ethics have been the focus of a considerable amount of Christian ethical teaching they are far from the only areas of concern.
Other areas of concern in recent times have been in the field of international economics including debt, trade and other instances of business ethics. Ecological concerns have also been the focus of a considerable amount of ethical teaching in the Christian tradition, as has the use of force international conflicts.
In general terms Christian ethical teaching in areas such as sexual morality and bio ethics has been in line with conservative forces in society. In contrast the ethical teaching on issues of economic, ecological and military significance are more in line with progressive elements in society.
This diversity makes it difficult to gauge the effect of Christian ethical teaching in an overall sense. In reality it is common to find examples of Christian adherents embracing the teaching on one issue while rejecting it on another.
Thus while Christian adherents are usually influenced by Christian ethical teaching in terms of broad principles there is a great deal of diversity in the acceptance of ethical teaching on specific contemporary issues.
Summary Points: Core Ethical Teachings
Students learn about:
The Ten Commandments
New Testament ethics
The Beatitudes
Jesus' commandment of love
Students learn to:
Outline the principal ethical teachings in:
The Ten Commandments
The Beatitudes
Jesus’ commandment of love
Describe the importance of ethical teachings in the life of adherents.
The Ten Commandments
The Ten Commandments (Decalogue) contained in the Old Testament is a critical source of ethical guidance for Christians
The Ten Commandments are a succinct summary of Christian ethics, and emphasise the importance of human life and the need to respect family and personal integrity
Christians frequently use the Ten Commandments as a framework for the key principles of Christian ethics.
The Beatitudes
The fundamental source of ethical guidance for Christians is the New Testament, which contains some of Jesus’ most significant ethical statements.
The Beatitudes which describes a life directed towards holiness is regarded as a foundational passage for Christian ethics.
The Beatitudes provide a model for the Christian life because it warns against an approach which values only material strength and power, by pointing to an inversion of values whereby things that are often regarded as having no value according to the dominant culture are celebrated in the reign of God.
Jesus' commandment of love
Jesus’ commandment of love can be distilled into the primary covenantal notions of love of God and love of neighbour.
In the ministry of Jesus, the commandment to love your neighbour is taken to a new level because Christians are required not only to love their neighbour but also to love their enemies.
John’s Gospel conveys this requirement to love in terms of a new commandment as love is identified as the defining characteristic of the Christian life.
Love is seen as the fulfilment of the law because love is the essential quality that gives meaning to all other virtues.
The Golden rule, do unto others as you would have them do unto do, is said to sum up Christian ethics.
There are no identifiable differences between the various Christian denominations in how they understand Jesus’ commandment of love.
In terms of applying these principles, differences do arise between the different Christian denominations in relation to the emphasis that should be placed on Church authority however these differences are not overly significant.
The importance of ethical teachings in the life of adherents.
Christians are expected to place considerable value on the ethical teachings of the tradition in determining their response to a wide range of issues
General ethical guidance is provided by the Ten Commandments, the Beatitudes and the Golden Rule
The life and ministry of Jesus provides a model for life action of Christians. This is reflected in the Christian ethos of caring for the needy and the vulnerable
Specific guidance is also provided in relation to contemporary ethical issues such as sexual morality, bioethics, international economics, ecological concerns and the use of force in international conflicts
Generally speaking, Christian ethical teaching in areas such as sexual morality and bioethics have been in line with conservative forces in society
Ethical teaching on issues of economic, ecological and military significance are more in line with progressive elements in society
This diversity makes it difficult to gauge the effect of Christian ethical teaching in an overall sense
Glossary
|Ten Commandments (also known as the |List of religious and moral imperatives that play a prominent role in the |
|Decalogue) |Judaeo-Christian tradition, and are commonly understood as a summary of |
| |Judaeo-Christian ethics. |
|Beatitudes |The central portion of the Sermon on the Mount as recorded in the Gospels of Matthew |
| |and Luke, which list the attributes of people who are part of the Reign of God, and |
| |thus provide Christians with a model for life action. |
Specimen Questions
Outline the main ethical teachings of Christianity and assess their role in guiding the lives of adherents.
Analyse the relationship among the principal elements of ethical teaching in Christianity.
Sample Responses
Outline the main ethical teachings of Christianity and assess their role in guiding the lives of adherents
The main ethical teachings of Christianity can be found in the Golden Rule, "Do unto others as you would have them do unto you" (Matthew 7:12 and Luke 6:31), the Ten Commandments (Exodus 20:1-7 and Deuteronomy 5:6-21) and the Beatitudes. The voluminous mass of Christian ethics can be distilled into the covenantal requirement to love God, and to love your neighbour, which is expressed in terms of a new commandment in the Gospel of John. In essence, this requirement of love can be further simplified as the Golden Rule.
These main ethical teachings are of critical importance in guiding the response of adherents to ethical dilemmas by offering a general model for Christian life that is founded on the life and ministry of Jesus Christ. These general ethical principles arose out of the context of Jesus' advocacy for the vulnerable and core values from his ministry such as love and forgiveness. There is little difference in the understanding of these fundamental ethical teachings across the spectrum of Christian denominations. Differences arise, however, regarding the specific application of these general principles because of the different emphasis placed on the teaching authority of the Church in illuminating the specific meaning of these ethical principles.
All followers of the Christian religion can be expected to place considerable value on the ethical teachings of Christianity in guiding them to make informed moral choices. The application of the key ethical principles varies across the denominations in terms of what sort of specific ethical guidance it provides. Catholic and Orthodox denominations place a greater emphasis on the guidance of Church authorities in the area of ethics. This is because they believe that the revelation of God comes through scripture in the light of tradition. In other words, tradition illuminates the meaning of scripture. In contrast Protestant denominations place greater emphasis on the central role of the bible in providing ethical guidance. Even within Protestant denominations however, there are subtle variations regarding the way in which scripture guides the lives of the adherents. High Church Anglicans have an approach that is similar to the Catholic and Orthodox denominations in their belief that scripture a nd tradition go hand in hand. In contrast the Low Church Anglicans take a more fundamentalist approach to the Bible.
Despite these differences of application, there are very few identifiable differences across the Christian spectrum regarding the understanding of the primary ethical teachings that guide adherents. The general direction of life for adherents is contained in the Ten Commandments and the Sermon on the Mount. The Ten Commandments offer a succinct summary of Christian ethics stressing the importance of human life and the need to respect family and personal integrity. The commandments also known as the Decalogue provide the backdrop for an understanding of New Testament ethics.
In the New Testament the Beatitudes is a critical passage that underpins the Christian ethical system. The Beatitudes, which are found in the context of the Sermon on the Mount, provide a model for Christian life by describing a life of advocacy for the poor and vulnerable and thus stressing the values of kindness, mercy, compassion and justice. The emphasis in the Beatitudes on an ethical stance that stands in contrast to the dominant culture, that values material strength and power, mirrors the counter-cultural nature of Christian ethics. For example, Jesus teaches us that the wealth of Christian ethical laws can be distilled into two primary categories, love of God and love of neighbour. Love therefore, as Paul notes in Letters to the Corinthians is the requirement that fulfils the law as it is the element that gives meaning to all other virtues.
This requirement of love is taken to a new level in the ministry of Jesus where the commandment to love your neighbour is extended to love for enemies. This can be seen in Luke 6:27 which urges us to "Love your enemies, do good to those who hate you". The importance of this core requirement of love is evident in that the requirement is conveyed in terms of a new commandment in the Gospel of John. Here, love of neighbour as God has loved us is seen as the identifying characteristic of the Christian life. This requirement of love can be summed up as "Do unto others as you would have them do unto you" (Matthew 7:12 and Luke 6:31). This concept, also known as the Golden Rule provides a broad principle that guides the lives of the adherents.
What is evident is that the main ethical teachings of Christianity are based on the life and ministry of Jesus Christ. Accordingly then, another primary source of ethical guidance for Christians is the life of Jesus. Jesus is the embodiment of the primary Christian virtues mentioned above. These virtues flowed into his life of advocacy for the weak and vulnerable members of society. Therefore, it is safe to say that the general Christian ethos of caring for those in need is directly attributable to the example of Jesus.
The main ethical principles of Christianity readily flow into specific teachings and guidance on current ethical issues. Traditionally, many believe that Christianity only offers ethical advice on a narrow range of issues, usually associated with sexual morality and bio-ethics. This sort of teaching has been in line with more conservative forces in society. Other areas of teaching, however, teaching on issues of economic, ecological and military significance are more in line with the progressive elements in society. Considering the enormous diversity of issues traversed by Christian ethics it is difficult to accurately assess the overall effect of Christian ethical teachings.
In conclusion it is evident that there are significant similarities regarding the interpretation of the main ethical teachings, relating to the love of God and neighbour, love as the identifying characteristic of the Christian life and the Golden rule, a role reversal principal. This is because all Christian denominations base their ethical guidance on biblical teachings, and especially the New Testament that contains the four Gospels.
Accordingly, Christian adherents are guided in terms of broad ethical principles. When it comes to the specific application of these overall principles, however, there is an enormous diversity regarding the acceptance of ethical teaching on specific contemporary issues. On top of this, the different views regarding the acceptance of Church teachings on ethical principles means that there is an even greater diversity on how the general ethical principles are applied to specific situations Nevertheless, it is clear that Christian ethics do play a significant role in helping adherents make informed moral choices according to the principles of the tradition.
Outline and explain the principal ethical teachings contained in the Ten Commandments and the New Testament (scaffold)
Introduction (193 words)
The chief source of ethical guidance for Christians is the New Testament and the Gospels. The Old Testament, which contains the Ten Commandments, forms the background upon which Christians come to understand the ethical requirements of the New Testament. While the Ten Commandments underpin the principal beliefs in Christian ethics, the New Testament offers a further distillation of the ethical laws contained in the Old Testament into love of God and love of neighbour.
Furthermore, the New Testament takes the underlying covenantal requirement of love to a new level where firstly, Christians are required to love one's enemy and secondly, because of this, love becomes the identifying characteristic of Christian life. The Beatitudes are a widely used source of ethical guidance for Christians and the Golden Rule is said to sum up Christian ethics.
There is little recognisable difference amongst the Christian denominations regarding the importance of the main ethical principles. However, there are some differences of application when broad principles are employed to specific issues due to the differing opinion between the Protestant and Catholic Churches regarding the emphasis that should be given to the teaching authority of the Church.
Section 1 (150 words)
Give a brief summary of the contents of the Ten Commandments and state that the Decalogue is held in common by Jews and Christians alike. Explain the importance of these commandments in the context of Christian ethics. Explain the relationship between the nature of the commandments as a succinct summary of Christian ethics and the way it is used to structure Christian ethics in general. Evaluate the importance of the Ten Commandments by stating that they were not used regularly by early Christians, but were used more frequently in later Church history.
Section 2 (100 words)
Emphasise the fact that the fundamental source of ethical guidance for Christians is the New Testament because it contains the Gospels. Provide a succinct summary of the key ethical statements contained in the New Testament, such as the Golden Rule and the requirement to love your neighbour and to love God. Link this to a brief statement about the role of the Bible as providing a model for life action.
Section 3 (150 words)
Evaluate the importance of the Beatitudes by emphasising its role as a foundational passage in Christian ethics. Locate the Beatitudes, as being the definitive passage within the Sermon on the Mount. Give a brief summary of the contents of the Beatitudes and link this to the role of New Testament ethics as setting out a template for Christian life. State that the Sermon on the Mount also contains the Golden rule and cite the passage in the Bible for this principle. Evaluate the importance of the Golden rule by stating that it is considered to be the summation of Christian ethics.
Section 4 (150 words)
Explain Jesus' commandment of love as the distillation of Christian ethics into love of God and love of neighbour. Provide a brief explanation of what these terms mean by citing relevant passages from the Bible. Link this to the question by demonstrating how these principles relate to the application of Christian ethics for believers.
Section 5 (200 words)
Discuss how this requirement to love is conveyed in terms of a new commandment in John's Gospel. Evaluate the importance of this requirement as the identifying characteristic of Christian life and cite relevant Biblical passages to demonstrate this point. Provide further explanation regarding the importance of this requirement of love, by showing that love is considered to be the essential quality which gives meaning and life to all other virtues. Cite relevant Biblical passages to strengthen this point.
Section 6 (150 words)
Evaluate the importance of these principal ethical teachings in relation to their application by the different Christian denominations. Emphasise the fact that there are no identifiable differences among the different denominations concerning their understanding of these principles, rather these differences relate to the application of this knowledge to specific situations. State that Protestant denominations make more direct use of Biblical authority, whereas the Catholic and Orthodox Churches place a greater emphasis on the teaching authority of the Church. Briefly explain the reasons for the Protestant stance on Biblical authority by relating it to the causes of the Protestant Reformation.
Conclusion (184 words)
In conclusion, it can be seen that the major source of ethical guidance for Christians are the Ten Commandments and the New Testament, which contains the distillation of Christian ethics into the love of God and neighbour and the Golden Rule. This requirement to love is taken to a new level because love is seen as the identifying characteristic of Christian life. The Ten Commandments provide a backdrop to understanding the ethical teachings contained in the New Testament. The ethical requirements contained in the New Testament are an attempt to move away from a legalistic application of the law in its emphasis on the underlying principles of love, mercy, compassion, justice and peace. Another distinct characteristic of Christian ethics is its emphasis on love of neighbour and love of enemy. Whilst there are some recognisable differences amongst the different denominations regarding the specific application of the ethical principles these differences are not overly significant. It is clear that the principal ethical teachings are of great importance to all Christian denominations and that there are very few identifiable differences in their understanding of these concepts.
Personal Devotion
Christians are called to be people of prayer following the example of Jesus. Prayer was at the heart of the ministry of Jesus and those who follow Jesus seek to also live a life of prayer.
All Christian denominations have communal prayer rituals that play a very significant role in their tradition. The most important of these is the Sabbath or Sunday service that is the focal point for the life of the community. Beyond the communal times of prayer there are a wide range of personal prayer forms that are undertaken by Christians in various denominations.
Traditional and Formal Prayers
Throughout Christian history, various people have composed prayers that have become widely used. Many of these prayers recite or adapt biblical texts. Such traditional prayers cover a wide range of occasions and needs.
The Lord's Prayer
Importance of the Lord's Prayer
The best known and most widely used of these prayers is the Lord's Prayer also known as the Our Father. This prayer is taken from the occasion in the gospel where the disciples ask Jesus to teach them to pray.(Luke 11:1 & Matthew 6:9-15) Jesus' response is known as the Lord's Prayer. It is used throughout all Christian denominations and is commonly included in liturgy as well as personal prayer.
Lord's Prayer provides outline for an approach to prayer
The Lord's Prayer has also been analysed and presented as an outline for an approach to prayer. This analysis reveals different aspects to the prayer that can be seen to represent different types of prayer. For example the word "hallowed be thy name" can be seen to represent praise. "Give us this day our daily bread" can be seen to stand for prayers of petition. "Forgive us our trespasses" can be seen to indicate a prayer of repentance. In this way the Lord's Prayer can also be used as an outline indicating the different types of prayer that Christians are taught to use.
The Rosary
Another traditional prayer, which is well known in the Catholic community, is the Rosary. This is another prayer that draws heavily on biblical texts. The Rosary is organised into 5 decades each containing 10 recitations of the prayer known as the "Hail Mary". Each decade is begun with the Lord's prayer and concludes with a short prayer of praise known as the "Glory Be". In the course of each decade of the Rosary, the person praying is encouraged to meditate on one of the "mysteries". These are organised into four groups and are based on events in the life of Jesus.
Intention of the Rosary
The intention of the Rosary is that a person can meditate on the events of the life of Jesus from the perspective of Mary the mother of Jesus. This approach takes its inspiration from the biblical text where Mary is described as pondering events in her heart (Luke 3:51).
The Rosary is often prayed communally, however, it is also a widely used form of personal prayer.
The Divine Office
Use of the Divine Office in religious communities
Another form of traditional prayer commonly found in the Catholic and Orthodox tradition is the prayer of the Church or the Divine Office. The Divine Office has its origins and basis in the life of religious communities. It developed in conjunction with the monastic rule of Benedict of Nursia. The rule of Benedict has been the most influential rule governing religious life.
Use of the Divine Office in personal prayer
Beyond its use in religious communities, the Divine Office is also widely used as a personal prayer and has particular appeal to people who wish to pray in conjunction with members of religious communities and to share in a prayer being offered throughout that day by Christians in all parts of the world.
Divine office is based on scripture
The Divine Office is almost entirely based on scriptural texts. It is based very strongly in the praying of the Psalms that forms the heart of the prayer. It also includes the Lord's prayer, the Canticle of Zechariah also know as the Benedictus (Luke 1:68-79), the Canticle of Mary also known as the Magnificat (Luke 1:46-55) and the Canticle of Simeon also known as the Nunc Dimittis (Luke 2:29-32). The Divine Office also includes a scripture reading and prayers of intercession.
Timing of the Divine office
The Divine Office is organised daily into a number of times of prayer to mark the day from early in the morning until late at night. Most people who use the Divine Office are likely to only use the morning and evening prayer and perhaps the night prayer rather than the prayer for the different hours of the day.
The Divine Office follows a cycle that connects to the Liturgical seasons of the year and also includes prayers for feast days.
Informal and Spontaneous Prayer
Christians across a range of denominations use a variety of informal and spontaneous forms of prayer for different occasions and times.
Morning and Evening Prayer
Purpose of morning and evening prayer
Christians have been traditionally taught to begin and end each day with prayer and accordingly the pattern of morning and evening prayer is widely followed. Typically a morning prayer is one of dedication to God. It often also includes petitions relating to events in the coming day or pressing matters of concern. Evening prayer or night prayer is typically a prayer of thanksgiving for God's providence during the day. It also often includes prayers of blessing for family and other loved ones.
Some Christians would make use of prayers prepared for these purposes while others will pray spontaneously using their own choice of words to express their prayers. A strong emphasis of reading of the bible particularly among Protestant denominations has led to many Christians including bible reading as part of their morning and evening prayer.
Grace at meals
Purpose of grace at meals
A prayer before and/or after eating meals is another widely practiced custom among Christians. This prayer at meal times is known as Grace and it usually takes the form of expressing gratitude to God for the provisions of the necessities of life.
On many occasions Grace at meals provides an occasion to pray for a blessing on those who have provided and prepared the food. It is also often an occasion to pray for the needs of those who suffer through the lack of provisions for the necessities of life.
Quiet times
Timing of quiet time
Christian denominations urge their members to find time during the pressures of normal daily routines to spend a period of time in prayer. This is often referred to as quiet time. Many Christians will find that prayer at the beginning and/or end of the day is the best opportunity for such quiet time. However, others find it important to deliberately set aside a time during the day to pray. The timing of this is dependent upon other commitments. For example a person who works at home may take time out when the rest of their family have left for the day. A university student may find time between lectures. An office worker during their lunch break etc.
Purpose of quiet time
The form of prayer used during quiet times will vary greatly. However, common elements may include prayer of praise and thanksgiving, bible reading, quiet reflection and prayers of petition. The choice of prayer will often change depending on circumstances. For example a person with a seriously ill relative or friend is likely to have that need as a major part of their prayer. The type of prayer may also depend on the individual's disposition at the time and also the type of spirituality they prefer. For example a person who follows Pentecostal and Charismatic spirituality is likely to be inclined more towards prayer of praise. Likewise person who feels particularly blessed by God through life's circumstances is also likely to be inclined to pray prayers of praise and thanksgiving.
Prayers of Intercession and Petition
The biblical tradition of Jesus teaching about prayer includes a strong encouragement for Christians to ask in prayer for their needs and the needs of others (Luke 11:10-13). These "asking" prayers are known as prayers of intercession and prayers of petition.
Prayers of intercession and petition take many forms
Prayers of intercession and petition can include many forms. The Lord's Prayer for example includes elements of petition and many forms of formal or traditional prayer include such prayers. There are also many prayers of petition written in books of prayer. Some books of prayer are arranged with prayers of petition grouped according to the type of need. They may include prayers for the sick, prayers for guidance, prayers for strength during difficult times etc. Many people will choose their own words in prayers of petition and intercession. These are known as spontaneous or informal prayers.
Saints
In some branches of Christianity, such as Orthodox and Catholic there is a strong belief in the Communion of Saints. This belief includes aspects where those who have gone before are able to intercede through Jesus to God on behalf of the people on earth. Thus in some cases Christians will offer their prayers to a particular saint. The use of saints in prayers of intercession is one of the points of division among Christians stemming from the reforms of Martin Luther at the time of the Reformation. Thus intercession through the communion of saints will be seldom used among Protestant Christians.
Intercession on behalf of others
Another form of intercession is when one person offers prayers or intercedes on behalf of others. Such intercessions are common throughout all denominations of Christianity and people frequently ask others to pray for them.
Exact nature of God's response to prayer is a mystery
While Christians are assured that God hears and answers their prayers, the exact nature of the response of God to these prayers is a matter of some conjecture among theologians. Indeed the way in which God responds to prayers of petition is very much at the heart of the mystery of God's involvement in human history. Some Christians believe that the degree or quality of a person's faith has bearing on the response; others believe that God's providence and wisdom are the most critical elements.
Despite the differences in understanding regarding the exact nature of God's response to prayer, Christians nevertheless agree that God hears and answers all prayers.
Prayers of Reflection and Meditation
Methods of reflection and relaxation
Another type of prayer commonly used is that of meditation and reflection. This practice involves finding a time and place free from distraction and centering one's thoughts on God. There are many aids that have been developed and many methods proposed to assist people in meditating and reflecting. Some methods involve a process of relaxation; some involve controlled breathing, still other music or other sensory aids. In some forms of meditation a number of aids are used in conjunction with one another. A large variety of resources have been developed in recent times to assist people in undertaking prayers of meditation and reflection. Some of these resources draw on the wisdom of Eastern religious traditions such as Hinduism and Buddhism.
Purpose of prayers of reflection and meditation
The main purpose of prayers of reflection and meditation is to create an inner stillness that allows a person to deeply contemplate the nature of God. This contemplation may involve the use of a biblical image, an aspect of creation or other aid.
Another purpose of reflective prayer is to contemplate the meaning of events and circumstances of life. In this context the person praying will meditate on certain aspects of life in order to more clearly see and understand their meaning in the light of God's love.
Bible Reading and Reflection
Many of the types of prayer practiced by Christians draw heavily on biblical texts. In addition to these biblically based forms of prayer there is also a strong emphasis in most Christian denominations on the reflective reading of the bible as a form of prayer.
Strong tradition of Bible reading in Protestant denominations
The strongest traditions of bible reading are found among the Protestant denominations of Christianity. These denominations, drawing on Martin Luther's doctrine of "sola scriptura" meaning scripture alone, have a strong tradition of reading scripture. In more recent times this tradition has influenced other Christian denominations so that bible reading and reflection is now a widely used element of prayer across the spectrum of Christian denominations.
Purpose of Bible reading and reflection
When using the bible as an aid to prayer, Christians seek to find inspiration and guidance through the words of scripture. Thus they may use the text by reflecting on or repeating a short phrase from the text. They may also choose a passage that describes an event from the life of Jesus or in the community of the early Church. In this way they pray seeking to gain greater insight into the meaning of the passage and deepen their understanding of the Christian way of life.
Prayers of Praise and Thanksgiving
Prayers of praise and thanksgiving take many forms
Praise and thanksgiving are important elements of Christian prayer. They find expression in many forms. Praying the Psalms is one of the most widely practiced and traditional forms of praise. It has already been noted that the Lord's Prayer also contains elements of praise.
Pentecostal and Charismatic movements emphasise praise of prayer
In recent times the growth in the Pentecostal and Charismatic movements has brought a renewed emphasis to the place of praise in Christian prayer. In these movements praise is an integral element of prayer and is seen as a way into a prayerful state. Most gatherings of Pentecostal and Charismatic Christians would include a sustained period of praise and thanksgiving, usually at the beginning of the gathering. Personal prayer for Pentecostal and Charismatic Christians would also normally involve a strong emphasis on praise.
Purpose of prayers of praise and thanksgiving
The purpose of praise in Christian prayer is to allow the person the opportunity to acknowledge the person of God. This acknowledgement includes an expression of the greatness of God that takes the form of praise. Thanksgiving prayer which is often closely related to prayers of praise has the function of acknowledging God's actions in human history and in particular in providing for the needs of the person offering the prayer.
Schools of Prayer and Spirituality
Schools of prayer widely used by many Christians
Throughout Christian history various notable individuals have developed approaches to prayer that have been adopted by others. These approaches represent classical wisdom in their approaches to prayer. They have existed in the Christian tradition for centuries and are still widely used today. Other approaches are more modern and reflect the issues and concerns of individuals of contemporary Christians.
Such approaches to prayer are referred to as schools of prayer because they represent an approach adopted by significant number of Christians. They also usually provide a more substantial approach than simply a style of prayer. Thus they are recognised as a form of spirituality that people can adopt to assist them in their spiritual journey.
few examples of schools of prayer and spirituality are introduced briefly below.
Ignatian Spirituality
Origins
Based on the inspiration of Spanish soldier and priest Ignatius of Loyola (1491-1556). Ignatian spirituality is based on the Spiritual Exercises of Ignatius which provide a program of meditations, prayers, considerations and contemplative practices.
Use
They are often used by individuals in a retreat environment because of their 30 day program structure. Many however, use the spiritual exercises in an ongoing way, adapting the idea of the 30 days to address the various stages and movements in daily life.
Purpose
The spiritual exercises of Ignatius Loyola are designed to allow personal journeys and life experiences of individuals to be brought into relationship with God in a spiritual connection.
Teresian Spirituality
Origins
Teresa of Avila (1515-1582) is one of the most famous leaders in the Christian mystical tradition. Her own spiritual experiences are documented in her most well known work "Way of Perfection".
Purpose
Teresian spirituality seeks to follow the example of Teresa of Avila in her own spiritual journey seeking to emulate the experiences of Teresa and in particular her own profound meditations on the passion of Christ.
Taize Prayer
Origins
Taize is a small village in France which is home to a well known ecumenical community founded by Br Roger Shutz and led by him until his death in 2005. The community arose from Br Roger's concern for the pervading sense of disillusion in post World War II Europe. The community that developed at Taize was to be one of hope and renewal. The ecumenical dimension was an important element highlighting the urgent need for unity.
Use
From the Taize community a simple, meditative prayer form has emerged which is now known as Taize prayer. It involves a process of contemplation based on the chanting recitation of simple mantras. Taize prayers also include a strong focus on justice, peace and ecology.
Creation Spirituallity
Origins
With the increased emphasis on environmental concerns there has also been a significant development in the fields of theology and spirituality. Through the work of writers and lecturers such as Thomas Berry a spirituality has emerged which is loosely described as Creation Spirituality.
While Creation Spirituality is generally thought of as a modern movement it is certainly not entirely new. Famous medieval mystic Hildegard of Bingen was very evidently a forerunner of the modern movement of Creation Spirituality.
Purpose
Creation Spirituality celebrates the spiritual dimension of creation as the expression of God's love and seeks to highlight the goodness of creation as a gift of God. Given the concerns for the environment that are felt by many Christians today, Creation Spirituality provides a helpful vehicle for many to relate to this in a spiritual sense.
Summary Points: Personal Devotion
Students learn about:
Prayer
Students learn to:
Describe the different types of personal prayer
➢ Prayer plays a significant role in the tradition, as all Christians are called to be people of prayer following the example of Jesus
➢ Traditional and formal prayers encompass a wide variety of occasions and are often adapted from biblical texts
➢ Lord's Prayer (Our Father) - this prayer is taken from the occasion in the Gospel where the disciples ask Jesus to teach them to pray
➢ The Lord's Prayer is used throughout all Christian denominations and is commonly included in liturgy as well as personal prayer
➢ The Rosary is a prayer that draws heavily on biblical texts and is commonly prayed communally or as a form of personal prayer by the Catholic community
➢ The Rosary is organised into 5 decades each containing 10 recitations of the prayer known as the "Hail Mary"
➢ The intention of the Rosary is that a person can meditate on the events of the life of Jesus from the perspective of Mary, the mother of Jesus
➢ Divine Office (Prayer of the Church) is a traditional prayer that developed from the monastic rule of Benedict of Nursia and commonly used in Catholic and Orthodox religious communities
➢ The Divine Office is also widely used as a personal prayer
➢ The Divine Office which relies heavily upon the prayers in Psalms, is organised daily into a number of times of prayer to mark the day from early in the morning until late at night
➢ Christians across a range of denominations use a variety of informal and spontaneous forms of prayer for different occasions and times
➢ Morning and evening prayer is commonly used across the spectrum of Christian denominations, with morning prayer typically being a dedication to God and evening prayer often being a prayer of thanksgiving for God's providence during the day
➢ Grace before and/or after meals is a widely practised custom of expressing gratitude to God for the provisions of the necessities of life
➢ Christian denominations urge their members to find time during the pressures of normal daily routines to spend a period of time in prayer. This is often referred to as Quiet time
➢ The time for prayer and the form of prayer used during quiet times will vary greatly, however, common elements may include prayer of praise and thanksgiving, bible reading, quiet reflection and prayers of petition
➢ Prayers of intercession and prayers of petition are prayers where a person requests their needs and the needs of others
➢ Prayers of intercession and petition encompass many forms of prayer ranging from formal prayers such as the Lord's prayer to informal and spontaneous prayers
➢ In the Orthodox and Catholic communities the belief in the Communion of Saints means that in some cases Christians will offer their prayers to a particular saint, who is believed to intervene on behalf of the person on earth
➢ Prayers of reflection and meditation involve finding a time and place free from distraction and centering one's thoughts on God
➢ The main purpose of prayers of reflection and mediation is to create an inner stillness which allows a person to deeply contemplate the nature of God and the meaning of events and circumstances in life to more clearly see these events in the light of God's love
➢ There is a strong emphasis across the spectrum of Christian denominations but particularly amongst the Protestant denominations on the reflective reading of the bible as a form of prayer
➢ Praise and thanksgiving which allows an individual to acknowledge the greatness of the person of God, finds expression in many forms such as praying the Psalms
➢ In recent times the growth in the Pentecostal and Charismatic movements, where praise is an integral element of prayer has brought a renewed emphasis to the place of praise in Christian prayer
➢ Throughout Christian history various notable individuals have developed approaches to prayer that have been adopted by a significant number of Christians. These are known as schools of prayer and spirituality
➢ Ignatian spirituality, which is based on the inspiration of Spanish priest Ignatius of Loyola, offers a 30-day programme of meditations, prayers, considerations and contemplative practices that individuals in a retreat environment commonly use it.
➢ Teresian spirituality traces its origins to the spiritual experiences of Teresa of Avila as documented in her most well known work "Way of Perfection"
➢ Taize prayer is a simple, meditative prayer that emerged from the French Taize community led by Br Roger Schutz
➢ It involves a process of contemplation based on the chanting recitation of simple mantras
➢ Taize prayer which is steeped in the notions of hope and renewal in response to the post World War II disillusionment adopts a strong emphasis on justice, peace and ecology
➢ Creation Spirituality is generally thought of as a modern movement that celebrates the spiritual dimension of creation as the expression of God's love and thus seeks to highlight the goodness of creation as a gift of God
➢ Creation spirituality as seen in the works of Thomas Berry grew out of modern ecological concerns
Glossary
|Charismatic movement |Movement within existing Christian denominations that is characterised by its emphasis on the gifts |
| |of the Holy Spirit that is speaking in tongues, healing and prophecy |
|Sola scriptura |which translates to mean "Bible alone", is one of the key tenets of the Protestant Reformation in the|
| |16th century. It means that the Bible is the infallible source of inspiration, and therefore, |
| |traditional Church teachings should be not be given the same status as the Bible in providing |
| |spiritual insights. |
Specimen Questions
Explain the ways in which personal prayer in the Christian tradition draws on the life and ministry of Jesus as a model for Christian life
Outline different types of personal devotion in Christianity and assess their role in the lives of adherents
Sample Responses
Outline different types of personal devotion in Christianity and assess their role in the lives of adherents
Prayer plays a central part in the day to day lives of adherents of Christianity. Following in the footsteps of Jesus who frequently communed with God in a familiar and intimate manner Christians also place a significant emphasis on living a life of prayer. Since Christians model their lives on the example of Jesus it follows that the role of personal prayer rituals plays a very significant role in the tradition. Personal prayer whilst diverse in its nature is nevertheless significant and is commonly undertaken by Christians across various denominations for vastly differing occasions. Traditional and formal types of personal prayer are widely used as they cover a diverse spectrum of needs and occasions. Some types of traditional prayers such as the Rosary and the Divine Office however are more commonly used in certain communities. Informal and spontaneous prayers on the other hand are widely used by adherents across the spectrum of Christian denominations. However, even within the category of s pontaneous and informal prayer, different denominations are more inclined to use certain forms of informal prayer.
There are two major categories of personal devotion in Christianity, traditional and formal prayer on the one hand and informal and spontaneous prayer on the other. Traditional and formal prayer covers a wide range of occasions and needs and generally involves the adaptation of biblical texts. The best known and most widely used of these prayers is the Lord's Prayer also known as the Our Father. This prayer is significant because it is the prayer that Jesus taught his disciples to pray. Consequently, it is widely used throughout all Christian denominations both in formal liturgies and in personal prayer. The importance of the Our Father cannot be underestimated as it has been deconstructed and analysed as an indicator of how Christians should approach prayer in general. From this single prayer the elements of praise, petition and repentance can be found and understood as being reflective and representative of different aspects of prayer and different types of prayer.
While the Lord's Prayer is universally used across the spectrum of Christian denominations, the use of the Rosary some other traditional prayers are restricted to the Orthodox and Catholic communities. Within the Orthodox and Catholic Church the Rosary is a well-known prayer that draws heavily on biblical texts. The Rosary is organised into 5 decades, each containing 10 recitations of the "Hail Mary". The Rosary is structured so that the person can reflect upon one mystery for each decade of the Rosary. These mysteries are chronologically organised and are based on the life events of Jesus. Thus, Christians can contemplate and ponder over the events in the life of Jesus from the point of view of Mary, his mother. The Rosary is sometimes prayed communally but is also a widely used form of personal prayer.
The traditional and formal prayers discussed so far are widely used in the lay community. The Divine Office, another traditional prayer is most frequently used in religious communities. Its origins can be traced back to the monastic rule of Benedict of Nursia, who exercised a significant degree of influence in running and governing religious life. The Divine Office like many formal prayers relies heavily upon scriptural texts. In fact the core of the Divine Office is strongly based on the praying of the Psalms. Apart from its use in religious communities it is also used in the broader community as a personal prayer. It is generally used by those who wish to pray in conjunction with members of religious communities or to share in a prayer being offered throughout that day by Christians in all parts of the world.
Informal and spontaneous prayer whilst it is more varied in its nature is nevertheless highly significant as it is well suited to a vast number of different occasions and times. Morning and evening prayer is widely used by Christians across a range of denominations. Morning Prayer is a prayer of dedication to God and often includes petitions relating to events in the coming day. Evening prayer is a prayer of thanksgiving. Amongst Protestant denominations in particular the reading of the Bible is a definitive part of morning and evening prayer. Similarly grace at meals is intended to express gratitude to God for providing for daily needs. It is another form of prayer that is common practice amongst Christians.
Christians model their patterns of prayer upon the life and ministry of Jesus Christ. Just as Jesus commonly retreated to a quiet place away from the pressures of daily life Christians are encouraged to incorporate quiet times into their personal prayer. The form and time of prayer will greatly vary however. For example, a person who belongs to a Pentecostal or Charismatic Church movement will be more inclined to include praise in their prayers. In recent times the growth in the Pentecostal and Charismatic movements has brought a renewed emphasis to the place of praise in Christian prayer.
Prayers of intercession and petition are another important type of personal prayer that is heavily drawn from the teachings of Jesus. There are many forms of prayers which contain this element of petition ranging from formal prayers such as the Lord's Prayer to spontaneous and informal types of prayer by people praying for guidance and strength during difficult times. Some strands of Christianity, particularly the Orthodox and Catholic communities will pray to a particular saint in the hope that the saint will be able to intercede to God on behalf of the person on God. This practice is not prevalent in Protestant denominations, as they do not hold a strong conviction regarding the Communion of Saints.
Prayers of reflection and meditation are another important and common form of personal prayer. By retreating to a still, quiet area people can reflect and contemplate the meaning of life events and see more clearly the work of the loving hand of God.
The numerous types of prayers discussed above often draw their inspiration from biblical texts. Therefore it can be said that there is a strong emphasis across all Christian denominations on Bible reading and reflection. Amongst Protestant denominations however, and particularly amongst Evangelical Protestants there is a very significant emphasis on the reading of biblical texts. This practice stems from the teachings of Martin Luther who stressed the concept of "sola scriptura" or Bible alone. This influence has been felt within contemporary Christianity with numerous Church denominations now placing a greater emphasis on Bible reading and reflection. Today therefore, the use of bible reading and reflection is a common element of prayer across the spectrum of Christian denominations.
Within types of personal prayer there are schools of prayers and spirituality, which are adopted, by a significant number of Christians. One such school of prayer is Ignatian spirituality that includes a program of meditations, prayers, considerations and contemplative practices. Due to its 30-day program structure it is commonly used by individuals in a retreat environment. Another school of spirituality that is based on an influential individual is Teresian spirituality. Yet another school of prayer, Taize prayer, is particularly applicable to contemporary concerns as there is a strong emphasis on justice, peace and ecology. Similarly creation spirituality with its emphasis on celebrating the spiritual dimension of creation as the expression of God's love is highly applicable to modern society with our ecological concerns. However, like Taize prayer the relative modernity of these schools of prayer means that their influence is somewhat restricted.
In conclusion the enormous variety and adaptability of personal prayer to a vast range of issues and concerns reflects the notion that prayer is a central and important part of the daily lives of adherents. Personal prayer for Christians is modelled on the life and ministry of Jesus who taught us how to pray. The enormous diversity in the types of personal prayer means that some types of prayer will be more applicable to the beliefs of certain segments of the Christian community. Where certain types of prayers such as the Rosary are restricted to certain strands of the Christian tradition, other types of personal prayer such as bible reading and reflection are becoming increasingly common in all denominations. Despite the enormous diversity of types of personal prayer it is clear that prayer is a foundational part of the everyday life of the adherents.
Explain the ways in which personal prayer in the Christian tradition draws on the life and ministry of Jesus as a model for Christian life
Introduction (142 words)
Prayer in the Christian tradition is essentially based on the example of Jesus who lived a life of prayer. Since prayer was at the heart of the ministry of Jesus those who follow Jesus also seek to live a life of prayer. The life and ministry of Jesus provides an example of how to approach prayer, the times in which Christians should pray and why Christians should pray. From this the various types of personal prayer developed some of which draw heavily upon the direct teachings of Jesus as recorded in the scriptures and other less formal prayers attempt to model the approach Jesus took towards prayer. Consequently, it can be said that the way in which Christians pray and the importance that is placed on living a life of prayer can be directly attributed to the life and ministry of Jesus.
Section 1 (250 words)
The first instance of how Christians draw on the life and ministry of Jesus as a model for Christian life is by repeating and reciting the direct words of Jesus and the scriptures. Discuss the use of the formal prayers, that is the Lord's prayer, the Rosary and the Divine Office and draw explicit link between these prayers and how they draw on the life and ministry of Jesus as a model for Christian life. Include reference to bible reading and reflection as a type of prayer.
Section 2 (100 words)
Christian prayer draws upon the life and ministry of Jesus as a guide to approaching prayer. Introduce the different approaches to prayer with reference to the Lord's prayer and how this prayer reveals the different aspects and principles to prayer which are seen to represent different types of prayer.
Section 3 (250 words)
Jesus taught Christians to thank God and to dedicate their lives to God. Examine this point with reference to morning and evening prayer, grace at meals and prayers of praise and thanksgiving. Make clear links between the attitude to prayer demonstrated by these informal prayers and the life and ministry of Jesus. Evaluate the importance of the life and ministry of Jesus as a model for Christian prayer by recognising that the Pentecostal and Charismatic movements has brought a renewed emphasis to the place of praise in Christian prayer.
Section 3 (150 words)
The biblical tradition of Jesus teaching about prayer includes a strong encouragement for Christians to ask in prayer for their needs and the needs of others. Consider prayers of intercession and petition as an example of how Christians draw upon the life and ministry of Jesus for a model of life action.
Section 4 (250 words)
By examining the life of Jesus, we can see that Jesus often withdraws from the pressures of daily life to pray in a quiet place and does so especially as he approaches key moments in his ministry such as the calling of his disciples. Similarly, Jesus is found at prayer in times of personal crisis as well as in the face of the needs of others. Examine the use of quiet times and prayers of reflection and meditation in the Christian tradition as an example of how Jesus taught Christians to pray particularly as they reach critical moments in life.
Section 5 (150 words)
The centrality of prayer during the life and ministry of Jesus is reflected through Christian history where various notable individuals have developed approaches to prayer, which have been adopted, by a significant number of Christians.
Conclusion (113 words)
In conclusion, it is clear that prayer in the Christian tradition draws significantly from the example of the life and ministry of Jesus. Prayer is a central and important part of the Christian life because prayer was at the heart of the ministry of Jesus. Jesus taught Christians how to pray, the key principles of prayer and the different types of prayer to be used at different times. Despite the variations in the types of prayer used throughout different Christian denominations all Christian groups affirm the importance of prayer as part of the Christian life. The belief in the importance of prayer can be directly traced back to the centrality of prayer in life and ministry of Jesus.
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