Introduction - University of Phoenix



TECHNOLOGY IN NURSING CLASSROOMSOse G. Martinez, Chattanooga State Community College, Chattanooga, Tennessee, USAToni Buchsbaum Greif, President, Sound Beach LLC, Sarasota, Florida, USADr. Lee StJohn, President, Hope’s Harbour, Sarasota, Florida, USADr. Kecia Edwards, University of Phoenix, Phoenix, Arizona USAABSTRACTThe focus of this paper is to describe, identify and clarify the issues facing seasoned nurse educators using technology in the traditional or campus-nursing classrooms with multi-generational learners. This paper presents an exploration of the issues faced by seasoned nurse educators who may need to consider a shift from instructor-focused to learner-focused instruction (Carlson-Sabelli, Giddens, Fogg, & Fiedler, 2011). This shift involves replacing student-passive lectures with more engaging instructional strategies, such as the application of multimedia and advanced technologies. Engaging students of the X and Millennial (Y) generations in nursing lessons via technological applications provides a student-centered environment and may increase critical thinking and awareness. Many experienced nurse educators continue to lecture in the classroom, which frequently relates to an instructor-centered environment that is not as engaging for students (Oermann, 2015). Generation X and Millennial nursing students may not be as engaged by the past strategy of lectures, preferring to learn via modern technology (Fiedler, Giddens, & North 2014). There is a gap in the literature regarding the lived experiences of (late-career) seasoned nursing faculty members when it comes to applying technological applications to teaching nursing topics. This paper highlights many complexities that exist within educators’ perceptions and application of technology to meet academic standards. The importance of these issues rests on the fact that graduate nurses ready to sit for licensure must demonstrate knowledge, critical thinking, and problem-solving skills while answering questions that address the analysis and evaluation levels on Bloom’s taxonomy (Bloom, 1974; Roa, Shipman, Hooten & Carter, 2011). The use of technology in classrooms is driven by need and the delivery by seasoned instructors calls for a greater, more cohesive conceptual paradigm to help guide educators through the issues that arise while engaging in instructional strategies. Discovering possible benefits of using technological applications in the classroom may lead to more students’ successful completion of the nursing curriculum and an increase in first-time pass rates on the NCLEX-RN examination. Nurse educators are aware of the effects that failing rates on the NCLEX-RN licensure examination may have on nursing schools (ACEN, 2013). The consequences of failing the licensure examination affect numerous stakeholders, including health care organizations, nurse graduates, nursing programs, and nursing faculty (Roa et al., 2011). Accrediting agencies and state boards of nursing (SBON) hold nursing schools accountable and may deny continued approval programs that fall below an established benchmark (Roa et al., 2011). Unsuccessful testing attempts will affect interested parties in diverse ways, but all parties will experience financial losses (Roa et al.,).Keywords: Nursing Education, Adult Learning, Technology, Generational Learning StylesIntroductionGenerational differences abound across educational development and delivery systems. According to De Gagne, Oh, Kang, Vorderstrasse, and Johnson (2013), educators in medicine and other healthcare fields increasingly utilize virtual worlds (communities that interact via avatars). Experienced nurse educators are most familiar with lecture teaching strategies as the approaches have been utilized for many years and may experience numerous barriers to technological applications (De Gagne et al., 2013). Barriers to using technology can include technical problems such as Internet connection and navigation issues. In addition, faculty may experience confidence concerns (De Gagne et al., 2013). Opposing the confidence concerns of seasoned faculty, today’s students increasingly interact and communicate with others via technology (Fisher, Rupova, & Bitternova, 2014). The goal of this paper is to highlight the complexities of these issues via the exploration of experienced nurse educators relying on outdated teaching strategies that do not engage Generation X and Millennial students effectively. While students as well as educators face the dilemma of passing licensure exams, the burden is placed ultimately on the educator to establish and maintain that the future nurse is capable of critical thinking, prudent clinical decision-making, and, thus capable of providing safe patient care. There is a gap in the literature regarding the lived experiences of (late-career) seasoned nursing faculty members applying technological applications to teaching nursing topics. Generation X and Millennial nursing students may not be as engaged by the past strategy of lectures, preferring to learn via modern more interactive technology. Students of the Generation X and Millennial generations require more than one-sided instruction to retain their attention and increase critical thinking (Fiedler, Giddens, & North 2014). Despite years of academic preparation, some students are not able to apply higher level thinking to pass the important NCLEX-RN examination successfully. Although studies indicate students learn better when engaged with technology, some experienced faculty encounter barriers when applying technology in the classroom. Though previous researchers have examined experiences of faculty and students using a particular technology, such as virtual worlds and avatars (De Gagne et al., 2013), as well as audience response systems in the classroom (Thomas, Monturo, & Conroy, 2011); information on the experiences and potential barriers for experienced nurse faculty toward using general technological applications when teaching is still limited. The experiences of seasoned nurse faculty with the use of technology in the classroom may provide insight into the benefits of incorporating technological applications in the nursing classrooms to prepare nursing students for the NCLEX-RN examinations, and future practitioner requirements. Technological advances have enabled teachers to apply interactive strategies to engage students (Carlson-Sabelli et al., 2011), yet, many experienced nurse educators encounter barriers to the implementation of technology in live classes (De Gagne et al., 2013). Technological strategies may increase critical-thinking and problem-solving abilities, which are important to help nurse graduates pass the licensure examination (Roa et al., 2011). Failing to pass the examination negatively affects nurse graduates, healthcare organizations, and nursing programs (Taylor, Loftin, & Reyes, , 2014). Literature ReviewToday, nursing practice stems from laws, standards, and policies. Each state in the United States, and each country in the World have statutory laws that guide nursing practices. These laws are called nurse practice acts (NPAs). Nurses must follow the NPAs of the jurisdiction where they are employed, as well as facility policies and job descriptions. Not following an NPA can lead to the loss of license because of malpractice (Bjarnason & LaSala, 2011). NPA’s also prescribe education and licensure requirements (Taylor, Lillis, LeMone, & Lynn, 2011). The NCLEX-RN is the last hurdle nurse graduates must overcome to practice clinically. Before 1994, the examination took place over a two-day period as a pencil and paper test (Roa et al., 2011). With the advancement of technology, the format of the exam has changed to a computer-aided test (CAT). To pass the NCLEX-RN CAT, nurse graduates must be able to answer higher-level taxonomy questions, a task that requires critical thinking and problem-solving capabilities (Roa et al., 2011). The consequences of failing the licensure examination affect numerous stakeholders, including health care organizations, nurse graduates, nursing programs, and nursing faculty (Roa et al., 2011). Unsuccessful testing attempts will affect interested parties in diverse ways, but all parties will experience financial losses (Roa et al., 2011). Causes of NCLEX-RN failure may be varied, and some may yet be unidentified. First, students who cannot think critically and apply problem solving successfully will not pass the NCLEX-RN (Taylor et al., 2014). Students who have been academically weak in their nursing curriculum are often unsuccessful in their first attempt of the NCLEX-RN (Taylor et al., 2014). The burden of developing and delivering educational programs aligned and designed for passing the NCLEX-RN falls on the nursing faculty educators.Educator teaching strategies are often influenced by personal beliefs, the instructor’s own learning style, and personal experiences as a student (Lovely, 2012). Baby Boomer faculty learned via well-prepared, educator-centered lecture strategies, which they often apply in their nursing classroom as well (Robinson, Scollan-Koliopoulos, Kamienski, & Burke, 2012). Baby Boomers value high academic standards (Robinson et al.). Adult nursing students have varied backgrounds, experiences, learning styles, and expectations, which educators need to consider when planning didactic lessons (McGowan, Balmer, & Chappell, 2014). Learning styles guide the way students learn; a misalignment of teaching strategies to learning style can negatively impact student learning (Lee & Kim, 2014). Nursing is a hands-on profession involving many physical skills, such as giving injections (Taylor et al., 2011). Nurses acquire these skills by doing. Many students have a preferential learning style, but can adapt depending on the subject matter (Hatami, 2013). A common model of learning styles is the VARK, which stands for visual, auditory, reading and writing, and kinesthetic learning (Khanal, Shah, & Koirala, 2014). Visual learners prefer to be taught with graphics, pictures, and videos. Auditory learners acquire knowledge best by hearing new information. Finally, kinesthetic learners are best taught through touch and action (Khanal et al., 2014). Some learners prefer to read and write (Khanal et al., 2014), learning best through the use of textbooks and notes, while others do not. Instructors who identify their students’ various learning styles, as well as generational differences that affect learning styles, and balance teaching strategies with different methods influence students’ knowledge acquisition positively (Hatami, 2013) will produce better results. Each generation has different learning styles. Indeed, learning styles vary widely between Baby Boomers and Millennials. Generational differences in the classroom present challenges that nursing faculty must overcome (Notarianni, Curry-Lorenco, Barham, & Palmer, 2009). Generational differences affect learning styles and teaching strategies (Lovely, 2012). Nelsey and Brownie (2012) claimed that there could be as many as four different generations working together in clinical settings. In the nursing classroom, these demographics may be similar. The labels used to describe the generations include Traditionalists, Baby Boomers, Generation X, and Millennials or Generation Y (Nelsey & Brownie, 2012). Nursing students are primarily Generation X and Millennials; nurse faculty, on the other hand, are comprised of predominantly Baby Boomers, some Generation X educators, and few Traditionalists (McCurry & Martins, 2010). The Baby Boomer generation is conservative (Lovely, 2012), live for work, and are competitive (Robinson et al., 2012). Generation X students like flexibility (Hendricks & Cope, 2012) and typically are able to complete assignments without much supervision by managing their time wisely (Hendricks & Cope, 2012). Millennial students share some Generation X characteristics, but enjoy collaboration with peers and are technology dependent (Hendricks & Cope, 2012). Because of their familiarity with the speed of technology, Millennial students like to obtain information quickly. Additionally, Millennial students are confident in their abilities (Montenerey, et al., 2013) and like to be involved in classroom activities (Robinson et al., 2012). Millennials want educators to provide entertainment and apply technology to group activities (Montenerey et al., 2013). Kolb (2015) identified four learning styles: accommodators, convergers, divergers, and assimilators. Students who prefer the accommodator learning style enjoy active participation and problem solving in a trial-and-error fashion (Gottlieb & Yoder, 2009). The assimilator learns best when information appears in lecture format, followed by hands-on presentations (Gottlieb & Yoder, 2009). Convergers learn best with application techniques, such as interactive and computer-assisted instruction (Gottlieb & Yoder, 2009). Divergers prefer brainstorming, lecture, and kinesthetic experiences (Gottlieb & Yoder, 2009). Robinson, Scollan-Koliopoulos, Kamienski, and Burke (2012) found that Baby Boomers rated highest in the diverger learning style. Millennial students’ learning styles evenly distributed into convergers, divergers, and assimilators (Robinson et al., 2012). Nurse educators need to ensure that they apply varied teaching strategies to cover multiple learning styles, even if their personal preferred method is the traditional lecture format (Oermann, 2015). Even courses that were previously taught via passive teaching strategies can now be taught with the use of interactive strategies (Oermann, 2015). Bruner (1977) claimed that learning occurs only in interactive proceedings during which students build on previously learned knowledge. Additionally, Bruner (1977) recommended the use of technological aids, such as films, television, and other recordings, to enhance students’ understanding of concepts. Bruner (1977) expanded Piaget’s constructivist ideas. Vygotsky (1978) also broadened Piaget’s theory of cognitive development. He concluded that individual and social activities are critical to learning. Piaget was convinced that internal processes are most relevant to learning (Martinez, 2010); Vygotsky (1978), on the other hand, was convinced that learning is a development, and social interaction is essential to learning. According to Gonzalez and Fenske (2012), classroom-nursing education lacks strategies that engage students and increase critical thinking. Educators need to learn and introduce student-centered rather than instructor-centered strategies (Oermann, 2015). Gill (2011) discussed the importance of drawing students in to allow them to learn difficult concepts more easily. To draw students in means to get them interested and active in the learning process (Gill, 2011). The term active learning is used often interchangeably with the term student engagement (Gill, 2011). Student engagement is a critical factor in education. Students need to be able to apply two processes that increase learning: action and reflection (Oermann, 2015). These processes are not developed through passive learning (Oermann, 2015). Active teaching strategies in nursing education lead to increased learning and greater success in problem solving by students (Oermann, 2015). As mentioned, Baby Boomer faculties prefer to present material in the educator-centered fashion (Robinson et al., 2012). As indicated by Jensen, Meyer, and Sternberger (2009), not all educators apply technological applications to engage students. The seasoned nurse educator is more likely to avoid the use of technological teaching strategies than younger nurse educators (Wachira & Keengwe, 2011). Barriers to educators’ application of technology include equipment problems and unreliable technical support (Wachira & Keengwe, 2011). Additional potential obstacles may include faculty generational issues, resistance to change, faculty incompetence with technology, and time requirements (Notarianni et al., 2009). Today’s generational diversity in nursing requires educators to become cognizant of teaching strategies that engage students of diverse generations (Notarianni et al., 2009). Today’s students often find old-fashioned teaching strategies boring (Corriveau & Shi, 2010). Millennial students require the application of new and varied teaching strategies to keep them interested (Montenerey et al., 2013) and challenged. The goal of a nursing curriculum is to prepare nurse graduates to care for patients safely. The curriculum includes preparation for the NCLEX-RN examination. Curricula of diverse nursing programs are similar in that all programs require general education courses, some science courses, and many nursing courses (McCoy & Anema, 2012). Curriculum developers usually choose general education courses, including english, humanities, mathematics, and psychology classes, to ensure a well-rounded education (Catalano, 2009). Required science courses typically include anatomy and physiology, and microbiology courses (Catalano, 2009). Nursing curriculum closely aligns with the NCSBN or NCLEX-RN testing plan to ensure nursing schools cover all information addressed in the NCLEX-RN CAT (NCSBN, 2013). Critical thinking is a prevalent end-of-program performance expectation (McCoy & Anema, 2012). Engaged students learn difficult concepts better (Gill, 2011). Experts have encouraged creating challenging environments in which nursing students can collaborate, be actively involved, and develop problem-solving abilities (Oermann, 2015). ConclusionsThe American public will always need nursing care. As people age, they need more care. Baby Boomer generation nurses will retire during the next decade, leading to a greater demand for nurses (Nelsey & Brownie, 2012). To keep a steady nursing workforce, educators must ensure that nurse graduates can pass the licensure examination. Engagement in the classroom increases critical-thinking and problem-solving abilities (Oermann, 2015), and teachers who use technology in the classroom provide an active learning environment. Nursing graduates have to be able to critically think and apply learned knowledge to pass a licensure examination. Yet, some may not be engaged in class to increase their level of thinking. The identified problem as outlined by this paper is that late-career or experienced nursing faculty members encounter barriers when applying technological applications to teaching nursing topics and rather prefer to deliver lectures. However, current nursing students may not be engaged by lectures. Many of the Generation X and Millennial students may prefer to learn using modern technology. Although some previous studies have been performed, these studies focused on the experiences with a particular technology in the classroom, instead of general technological applications. The purpose of this paper was to shed light on the issues across generational differences between nurse educators and nursing students with the application of technology in nursing education. Many experienced nurse educators avoid the use of technological applications in the nursing classroom (De Gagne et al., 2013). Nurse educators may encounter barriers to technology because of generational issues (Robinson et al., 2012), incompetence or lack of familiarity with technology (O’Neal et al., 2009), resistance to change (Marquis & Huston, 2012), or time constraints related to the use of technology (Wachira & Keengwe, 2011).Understanding these issues may provide a clear understanding of the possible benefits technological applications can provide to not only nursing students, but also, today’s adult students in general. In fact, these concepts may be transferred to other settings, such as diverse educational institutions or other areas of education (Brinkman & Kvale, 2015). Generation X and Millennial students are part of other program students besides nursing programs and as such have similar styles and approaches. Educators may realize that the issues discussed in this paper have broader implications for how Generation X and Millennial students learn, assimilate, and think about the acquisition of new knowledge of classroom experiences. References: Accrediting Commission for Education in Nursing (ACEN). (2013). Accreditation manual. Retrieved from , D., & LaSala, C. A. (2011). Moral leadership in nursing. Journal of Radiology Nursing, 30(1), 18-24. doi:10.1016/j.jradnu.2011.01.002Bloom, B. (1974). Taxonomy of educational objectives: The classification of educational goals. New York, NY: D. McKay Company.Brinkman, S. & Kvale, S. (2014). Interviews: Learning the craft of qualitative research interviewing (3rd ed.). Los Angeles, CA: SAGE Publications.Bruner, J. S. (1977). The process of education. Massachusetts, MA: Harvard University Press. Carlson-Sabelli, L. L., Giddens, J., Fogg, L., & Fiedler, R. A. (2011). Challenges and benefits of using a virtual community to explore nursing concepts among baccalaureate nursing students. International Journal of Nursing Education Scholarship, 8(1), 1-14. doi:10.2202/1548-923X.2136Catalano, J. (2009). Nursing now! Today’s issues, tomorrow’s trends (5th ed.). Philadelphia: F. A. Davis.Corriveau, K. & Shi, W. (2010). Teaching strategies to millennial students. AMC Future Play, 143-150. doi:10.1145/1920778.1920799De Gagne, J. C., Oh, J., Kang, J., Vorderstrasse, A. A., & Johnson, C. (2013). Virtual worlds in nursing education: A synthesis of the literature. Journal of Nursing Education, 52(7), 391-396. doi: 10.3928/01484834-20130610-0Gonzalez, L., & Fenske, C. (2012). Use of a virtual community to contextualize learning activities. Journal of Nursing Education, 51(1), 38-41. doi:10.3928/01484834-20111130-04Fiedler, R., Giddens, J., & North, S. (2014). Faculty experience of a technological innovation in nursing education. Nursing Education Perspectives, 35(6), 387-391.Fisher, E. J., Rupova, P., & Bitternova, D. (2014). How young people communicate: A Czech perspective. Business and Economic Research, 4(2), 323-338. doi:10.5296/ber.v4i2.6535Gill, R. (2011). Effective strategies for engaging students in large-lecture nonmajors science courses. Journal of College Science Teaching, 41(2), 14-21. Gonzalez, L., & Fenske, C. (2012). Use of a virtual community to contextualize learning activities. Journal of Nursing Education, 51(1), 38-41. doi:10.3928/01484834-20111130-04Gottlieb, B. & Yoder, K. (2009). Learning styles. Retrieved from , S. (2012). Key concepts in ELT: Learning styles. ELT Journal, 67(4), 488-490. Retrieved from , J. M., & Cope, V. C. (2012). Generational diversity: What nurse managers need to know. Journal of Advanced Nursing, 69(3), 717-726. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2648.2012.06079.xJensen, R., Meyer, L., & Sternberger, C. (2009). Three technological enhancements in nursing education: Informatics instruction, personal response systems, and human patient simulation. Nursing Education in Practice, 9(2), 86-90. doi:10.1016/j.nepr.2008.10.005Khanal, L., Shah, S., & Koirala, S. (2014). Exploration of preferred learning styles in medical education using VARK modal. Russian Open Medical Journal, 3(3), 1-8. doi:10.15275/rusomj.2014.0305Knowles, M. (1978). Andragogy: Adult learning theory in perspective. Community College Review, 5(3), 9-20. doi: 10.1177/009155217800500302Knowles, M. (1984). Andragogy in action. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.Lee, B., & Kim, H. (2014). What can we learn from our learners’ learning styles? English Language Teaching, 7(9), 118-131. doi:10.5539/elt.v7n9p118Lovely, S. (2012). Boomers and millennials: Vive la difference. Journal of Staff Development, 33(5), 56-59. Martinez, M. E. (2010). Learning and cognition: The design of the mind. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson. Marquis, B. L., & Huston, C. J. (2012). Leadership roles and management functions in nursing: Theory and application (7th ed.). Philadelphia, PA: Lippincott, Williams, & Wilkins. McCoy, J. L., & Anema, M. G. (2012). Fast facts for curriculum development in nursing: How to develop and evaluate educational programs in a nutshell. New York, NY: Springer.McCurry, M. K., & Martins, D. C. (2010). Teaching undergraduate nursing research: A comparison of traditional and innovative approaches for success with millennial learners. Journal of Nursing Education, 49(5), 276-279. doi:10.3928/01484834-20091217-02McGowan, B. S., Balmer, J. T., & Chappell, K. (2014). Flipping the classroom: A data-driven model for nursing education. The Journal of Continuing Education in Nursing, 45(11), 477-8. doi:10.3928/00220124-20141027-11Montenerey, S. M., Walker, M., Sorensen, E., Thompson, R., Kirklin, D., White, R., & Ross, C. (2013). Millennial generation student nurses’ perceptions of impact of multiple technologies on learning. Nursing Education Perspectives, 34(5), 405409. doi:10.5480/10-451.National Council of State Boards of Nursing (NCSBN). (2013) NCLEX-RN Testing Plan. Retrieved from , L. & Brownie, S. (2012). Effective leadership, teamwork, and mentoring-Essential elements in promoting generational cohesion in the nursing workforce and retaining nurses. Collegian, 19(4), 197-202. doi:10.1016/j.colegn.2012.03.002Notarianni, M. A., Curry-Lourenco, K., Barham, P., & Palmer, K. ?(2009). Engaging learners across generations: The progressive professional development model.??Journal of Continuing Education in Nursing, 40(6). doi: 10.9999/0020124-20090522-07 O’Neal, C. A., Fisher, C. A., & Newbold, S. K. (2009). Developing online learning environments in nursing education (2nd ed.). New York, NY: Springer Publishing.Oermann, M. H. (2015). Teaching in nursing and the role of the educator: The complete guide to best practice in teaching, evaluation, and curriculum development. New York, NY: Springer.Roa, M., Shipman, D., Hooten, J., & Carter, M. (2011). The costs of NCLEX-RN failure, Nurse Education Today, 33(4), 373-377. doi:10.1016/j.nedt.2010.07.009Robinson, J., Scollan-Koliopoulos, M., Kamienski, M., & Burke, K. (2012). Generational differences and learning style preferences in nurses from a large metropolitan medical center. Journal for Nurses in Staff Development, 28(4), 166-172. doi:10.1097/NND.0b013e31825dfae5Taylor, C., Lillis, C., LeMone, P., & Lynn, P. (2011). Fundamentals of nursing: The art and science of nursing care (7th ed.). Philadelphia, PA: Lippincott, Williams, & Wilkins.Taylor, H., Loftin, C., & Reyes, H. (2014). First-time NCLEX-RN pass rate: Measure of program quality or something else? Journal of Nursing Education, 53(6), 336-341. doi:10.3928/01484834-20140520-02Thomas, C. M., Monturo, C., & Conroy, K. (2011). Experiences of faculty and students using an audience response system in the classroom. CIN: Computers, Informatics, Nursing, 29(7), 396-400. doi:10.1097/NCN.0b013e3181fc405bVygotsky, L. S. (1978). Mind in society: The development of higher psychological processes. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.Wachira, P. P., & Keengwe, J. J. (2011). Technology integration barriers: Urban school mathematics teachers perspectives. Journal of Science Education & Technology, 20(1), 17-25. doi:10.1007/s10956-010-9230-yAuthor’s ProfilesOse Martinez, MSN, RN, ABD?is?earning her EdD in Educational Leadership and Educational Technology from The University of Phoenix. She is a nursing faculty member at Chattanooga State Community College in Tennessee and serves as adjunct faculty for the University of Phoenix Online and Chamberlain College of Nursing Online. ose_g_martinez@?Dr. Toni B. Greif earned her PhD in Human and Organizational Development from The Fielding Graduate University.? She is adjunct faculty in the School of Advanced Studies at University of Phoenix and also serves as a consultant and business coach in her role as CEO of Sound Beach LLC.? She has extensive background in consulting and coaching, as well as having served on numerous non-profit boards of directors.? Dr. Greif consults in the areas of education, leadership, strategic analysis, entrepreneurship and organizational behavior. tbgreif@?Dr. Lee StJohn earned her PhD in Clinical Psychology from The Fielding Graduate University.? She is adjunct faculty in the School of Behavioral Sciences at Thomas Edison State University, and serves as a consultant and executive coach in her role as President of Hope’s Harbour.? She is involved in research concerning life-span development, hope, positive and transpersonal psychology. Dr. StJohn has a captivating interest in Native American and Eastern philosophies as well as their cultures. leestjohn@Dr. Kecia Edwards earned her PhD in Healthcare Administration from Capella University. She is the Regional Director of Operations at Advanced Community Health Raleigh, NC. In addition she is adjunct faculty in the School of Advanced Studies at the University of Phoenix. She has experience in healthcare disparities and underlying factors as it relates to underserved populations. Dr. Edwards has a passion in population health and end of life care in minority cultures. Dr.keciaedwards@ ................
................

In order to avoid copyright disputes, this page is only a partial summary.

Google Online Preview   Download