University of Massachusetts Boston



Preliminary endnote responses "Medical Lessons..."

Guesly Pierre

“Revolution” (Thomas 158) “a sudden or radical change in a system or state affairs ” (Webster’s Dictionary Third Edition 609”). He uses this term as a metaphor to portray the development of the medicine modern and comparing it to the traditional medicine science. Therefore, the traditional medicine has been changed into a modern medicine, but this change involves new ways of looking at health diseases and those diseases that the traditional medicine could not treat. It is very important to understand that this change occurred because of the new discoveries of “sulfonamides and penicillin” (158), they have allowed the doctors treating diseases. As Thomas writes, "doctors could now cure diseases, and this was astonishing, most of all to the doctors themselves" (158). Thus, modern science is created from the prior knowledge of the traditional medicine and its prior knowledge gives the doctors a better understanding of the modern science. He uses two different disciplines such as the “history of medicine and biological science” (159), but the interactions between these two disciplines create interdisciplinary knowledge, so this interdisciplinary knowledge makes the doctors confident and creates new discoveries. It is fundamental to understand that knowledge that transforms the traditional medicine into modern one materialize what Thomas call "interesting knowledge" (164).

Ricky Raymond

“Delirium” (Thomas 160) “Mental disturbance marked by confusion, disorder speech, and hallucinations; also: frenzied excitement.” (The Merriam-Webster Dictionary) Thomas uses this term to explain to the reader that the patients in his article were not at their normal state and they needed to be medicated.  

Ricky Raymond

“Meticulous” (Thomas 161) “Extremely careful in attending in details.” (The Merriam-Webster Dictionary) Thomas explains the reader that the doctors in his article are being very careful by creating medicine on sick people.        

Ricky Raymond

“Endeavor “(Thomas 161) “Try, attempt.”  (The Merriam-Webster Dictionary)  Thomas is explain that the people who making different kind of cures, they attempt to understand the history of sickness.    

Sarah Borges

Diphtheria (Thomas 162) an acute febrile contagious disease typically marked by the formation of a false membrane especially in the throat and caused by a gram-positive bacterium (Corynebacterium diphtheride) that produces a toxin causing inflammation of the heart and nervous system (Merriam-Webster).

Thomas uses this term in explaining how it has been broken down and figured out along with other diseases that have come up in the way with research.

Sarah Borges

Sulfanilamide (Thomas 162) A white, odorless crystalline sulfonamide, C6H8N2SO2, used in the treatment of various bacterial infections (The American Heritage Dictionary).

Thomas uses this term to explain how medicines have been came out with in treating the different diseases. In the history of the different mixes of medicines that have been tried out as trial and error for a certain amount of years and then changed. How the medicines are all made up from a base and made better from there. As time has gone by everything has gotten better from before.

Lasana Kenneh

“Tubercuculosis” (Thomas page. 163)” n. infectious bacterial disease marked tubercles especially in the lungs,” (The American Century Dictionary page 619). Thomas used the term here “tuberculosis” to describe the development in the “Medical Lesson from History.”Moreover, to tell the readers how they have gone in the discovery of different diseases and their treatment.

Guesly Pierre

  “Interesting knowledge” (Thomas 164) is composed of two terms which are: interesting and knowledge, so the first one is defined as “stimulating interest" (376) and the second one is "the total or range of what has been perceived or learned” (Webster’s Dictionary, Third Edition 398). Therefore, the traditional medicine faced big problems because they could not treat diseases that ravaged the society that is why doctors were stimulated interest by making research just to come with new discoveries and cure them. It is important to understand that prior knowledge in the medical science such as chemistry and biology, and sociology allowed doctors to come up with new discoveries by creating a modern medicine science. However, the interactions between those disciplines allow doctors learning a massive of knowledge; this knowledge contributes to the development of the modern medicine and it is interesting for the whole society. As Thomas writes, “It was basic science of a very of a very higher order, storing up a great mass of interesting knowledge” (164).

Lasana Kenneh

“bacteriology” (Thomas page.164)”the study of bacteria.” (The American Century Dictionary page. 41)

According to the author, Thomas, “used these terms to show to the readers what was done first , over decades, and by the early 1930s and the improvement that had taken place in the connection between streptococcal infection and rheumatic fever could be perceived.”

Jean Salnave

The word “Carcinogen” page 166) Oxford of current English dictionary 126) is defined as a substance that causes cancer. When I consider this word and its sources that related to the past decade and its effects are considerable today, and, therefore, Scientists have also suspected that smoking causes epigenetic changes, such as methylation, Thomas uses this concept because it plays an importance role in the regulation of the cell behavior that represents a problem still unsolved and existing longtimes before. So far, Smoking is the single biggest cause of cancer in the world, and years of research have confirmed that carcinogenic substances in tobacco smoke can damage DNA. Which alter gene expression without causing changes to the actual DNA sequence? When I understand the process and its root causes of this disease founding in the Thomas‘s message. It has been learned in the past decade (interdisciplinary prior knowledge and today medicine should work to find a solution with the modern medical system, I can say Thomas uses interdisciplinary throughout this word.

Jean Salnave

Second term is “cardiovascular”, (Thomas page 166), medical lesson from History (the Oxford of current English dictionary 127) is related to the heart and blood vessels. Thomas ,by using this term  that related to the past and   because it can be seen as working close to the center of things and it is important as an impenetrable mysteries as good for scientists and it is useful tool to facilitate research   today. If it can be used in the past and today to solve some health problems. I can say that it is also related to the interdisciplinary process. By the way, Thomas makes sure the readers have prior knowledge in history, and biology; in this case the interdisciplinary was at the rendezvous. And the way that the Thomas uses them, let us see that it is related the interdisciplinary process. As we know the medical field is extending on a long process of discovering.

Shannon Forte

“pneumococcus” (Thomas 168) “A spheroidal bacterium which causes human diseases including pneumonia, sinusitis, otitis media, and meningitis” that normally “occurs in the upper respiratory tract” (Britannica para. 1). Thomas uses this disease to show that before an antibiotic can be created a person needs to be able to recognize and diagnosis the disease. He uses this disease as an example of what is needed to be known about the diagnosis in order for it to be related back to other diseases. However, a person doesn’t need to know all the information on the disease just know that it is there and growing.

Shannon Forte

“Oliver Wendell Holmes” (Thomas 169) “An American physician, poet and humorist notable for his medical research and teachings” and “his most important medical contribution was that of calling attention to the contagiousness of puerperal fever (1843)” and for being “made the dean of Harvard Medical School” (Britannica para. 1). Thomas discusses Holmes because he is an important person in American medicine that made different contributions in the medical field. Thomas is discussing the issue of contagious disease and how they take over a body and cause complete destruction and Holmes is noted for calling attention to the contagiousness of certain diseases.

Derek Morey

“Poliomyelitis” (Thomas 170) “Polio, in full poliomyelitis, also called infantile paralysis, acute viral infectious disease of the nervous system that usually begins with general symptoms such as fever, headache, nausea, fatigue, and muscle pains and spasms and is sometimes followed by a more serious and permanent paralysis of muscles in one or more limbs, the throat, or the chest…. For those infected by the poliovirus, there is no cure, and in the mid-20th century hundreds of thousands of children were struck by the disease every year. Since the 1960s, thanks to widespread use of polio vaccines, polio has been eliminated from most of the world, and it is now endemic only in four countries: Nigeria, India, Afghanistan, and Pakistan…. Poliomyelitis means “gray marrow inflammation,” referring to the propensity of the poliovirus to attack certain cells in the spinal cord and brainstem…. The virus enters the body most often by the so-called fecal–oral route—that is, from fecal matter taken into the mouth through contaminated food or fingers...” ( para. 1-2).  Thomas uses this term as an example as a disease from the past that is treatable, and no “new disease” has emerged to take its place.

Derek Morey

“Ionosphere” (Thomas 171) “the outer regions of the earth’s atmosphere, from about 60 miles outward" (The New American Handy College Dictionary Third Edition 366) Thomas uses this term as a metaphor to help the reader understand just exactly how high costs could potentially rise.

Notes in need of further revision:

Marcus Rogers

Modern Medicine

Medicine in the 20th century. Received its impetus from Gerhard Domagk who discovered the first antibiotic, sulfanilamide, and the groundbreaking advancements in the use of penicillin. Further progress has been characterized by the rise of chemotherapy, especially the use of new antibiotics; increased understanding of the mechanisms of the immune system (see immunology) and the increased prophylactic use of vaccination; utilization of knowledge of the endocrine system to treat diseases resulting from hormone imbalance, such as the use of insulin to treat diabetes; and increased understanding of nutrition and the role of vitamins in health. (/) it relates to the article because the article is about the progression of medicine.

Human experimentation

Marcus Rogers

Human experimentation refers to the use of human beings as experimental subjects. (faq)

This relates to the article because in the early days of medicine they were not sure what would work and what would not work, so they were basically using human’s as the test dummies for there experiment on new and old drugs.

Sensation of thinking (Thomas p. 154) is sense of feeling which affect the brain function (receptor) to be able to think, created ideas , emotion. Thomas used “Sensation of thinking” to explain that “music is the effort we make to explain to ourselves how our brain work” Music can tell listeners about musician’s emotion, thoughts from his or her lyrics. Lyrics describe everything about his or her story, feeling, and situation. An example, when you believe from Whitney and Mariah song tell listeners about emotional, story, and sensation of thinking to persuade listeners to believe in their spiritual that they have their own strength to struggle with the world. On thinking about thinking is like combination of ideas. Example, A has one idea combine with his or her other ideas (interdisciplinary) which issue a perfect idea. “turn the volume up all the way that is the sound of the whole central nervous system of human being all at once” You will have more sensation of thinking when you turn the volume up; expand your receptor to understand the whole meaning of music. Your brain is working for thinking and thinks the music object. These are the processing of on thinking about thinking

Recombination (Thomas p.154) is recombining ideas or something else. Thomas used “Recombination” to explain that each ideas combine together again and again to issue an accomplished though.

Empirical the author write about the experiment of turn music volume up to hear the whole sound of song “turn the volume up all the way”(p. 154).

Inductive: the autor describe about the receptor and aggregated ideas (p. 152 and 153)

Deductive: the author suggest reader about “I suggest then we can guess at about the nature of though explain” (p.154).

Similarly: author compares the thinking process with listening music that “turn volume up all the way. That is the sound of the whole central nervous system of human being all at once.”

Stefanie McCarthy

“Illich”(Thomas 160) “Ivan. Austrian critic of modern education, medical care and technology”( Betzold. Scribner Encyclopedia of American Lives, Thematic Series: The 1960s) Illich’s ideas that medical services deprived people of the ability to heal naturally and that medicine and medical professionals at times mistakenly caused injury and illness to some patients correspond to Thomas’s point of view on the failures of medical care during the 1800s.

Stefanie McCarthy

“Typhoid” (Thomas 160) “ also known as typhoid fever is an infectious disease that is spread by ingesting food or water contaminated with the bacterium Salmonella typhi. Symptoms of Typhoid include fever, sweating , gastroenteritis and diarrhea.” (Encyclopædia Britannica Online) Thomas refers to typhoid as an illness that Professor Edward H. Clark refers to as an example of an ailment that patients could recover from without medical treatment. Prior to that time is was thought that all diseases required some sort of medical treatment.

Betzold, Michael. "Illich, Ivan." Scribner Encyclopedia of American Lives, Thematic Series: The 1960s. Ed. William L. O'Neill and Kenneth T. Jackson. Vol. 1. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 2003. 477-479. Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 12 Oct. 2010.

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"typhoid fever." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2010. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 13 Oct. 2010 .

Preliminary Endnote Responses "On Thinking..."

Asha Abdullahi

“Brownian Movement” (Thomas 151) “Motion of minute particle suspended in a colloidal solution caused by unbalanced impacts impact with molecules of the surrounding medium” (Dictionary and Handbook of Nuclear Medicine and Clinical Imaging., 75)

The way Brownian Movement relate to reading “On Thinking About Thinking” the author described how human head is filled with small molecules of thought called notion and they are bumping against each other. When author talks about the Brownian movement he is using it as analogy to discuss the way mind works while the mind is active just like when unbalance particle are jumping inside the beaker. 

Asha Abdullahi

“Probability” (Thomas 151) “Probability measures the odds of a given event taking place. In a mathematical sense, probability is defined as the number of ways an event can happen divided by the number of possible happenings. Calculation the probabilities of complex events can be a long, tedious process. And that is where the compute’s high-speed data processing capabilities are most useful” (Dictionary and Handbook of Nuclear Medicine and Clinical Imaging. 226) Thomas is using probability to explain to the readers when the mind is active and the motions are looking to find another matched one what probability (chance) they will find a match.

George Kiarie

“Docking and locking” (Thomas 152) [docking] “To bring or come together, 2. Join as two spacecraft mechanically in space” (The Merriam Webster Dictionary 228), [locking] “to confine or exclude by means of lock, to make or become motionless by the interlocking of parts”, (The Merriam Webster Dictionary 435), Thomas uses this two words to explain how receptors join together, just like the spacecrafts receptors that fit join together and lock.

George Kiarie

“Gravitational force” (Thomas 152) “a natural force of attraction that tends to draw bodies together and that occur because of mass of the bodies” (The Merriam Webster Dictionary 330), Thomas uses this term to explain how sleep occurs, after docking and locking of receptors, their mass increases this course them to move together, the attraction is strong just like the gravitational force and nothing can escape, it is then a black hole and the mind vanish triggering sleep to occurs.

Nelida Amado

“Motion” (Thomas 152-153) “senses relating to movement and change” (Oxford English Dictionary Online, para. 1) by using this term, Thomas is trying to help us to see how the human thinking is constantly changing.

Nelida Amado

“Notion” (Thomas 152-153) “A belief, opinion, theory, or view, held by a person or (now more usually) a group of people” (Oxford English Dictionary Online, para. 2) Thomas says that everyone has a theory of what is thinking and how it works.

Deborah Higginbottom

“Aggregates” (Thomas 152-154) “a whole formed by combining several different elements” (Little Oxford English Dictionary 13). In Thomas’s paper he uses the word aggregate metaphorically to describe how memories and thoughts are formed in the brain by combining pairs of notions that search out other pairs coming together to form ideas and cogitations.

Aaron Thai

“Counterpoint” (n.) (Thomas 153) “music in which one melody is accompanied by one or more other melodies all woven into a harmonious whole” (The Merriam-Webster Dictionary 182). Thomas describes how the brain automatically put all the different types of thinking together into one whole.

Maria Lomba

“Impulses” (Thomas 153): a force so communicated as to produce motion. From The Merriam Webster Dictionary online: ( para.b) Thomas was using this word to demonstrate the reader that sometimes thinking is a long and complicated process which allows a person to perform it step by step until the function is complete. Thinking allows a person to wonder about things.

Maria Lomba

“Elliptical” (Thomas 153) - of or relating to deliberate obscurity. From The Merriam Webster Dictionary online :( para. b) Thomas is using Elliptical path in order to show reader that thinking is a long process which is not easy to deal with and it occurs without our desire.

Binti Ghimire

“Harmony” (Thomas 153)'' The study of the structure progression and relation of chord '' (American Heritage Dictionary 632)Thomas uses this term to help reader to see connection on how human brain function with the rhythm by connecting the each chord like harmony to form a new notion.

Binti Ghimire

“Shimmering membrane '' ( Thomas153) '' A thin layer of tissues emitting sparking light''(OAmerican Heritage Dictionary 1279,866) Thomas uses this term to help reader to visualized how brain handles the process of sorting and selecting.

Aaron Thai

“St. Matthew Passion” (n.) (Thomas 154) “the sound of the whole central nervous system of human beings, all at once” (Bach 3) St. Matthew Passion is a very good example to describe how the brain put all the sound from different music instruments together to create counterpoint.

Apsorn Pattarakulpong

Sensation of thinking (Thomas p. 154) is sense of feeling which affect the brain function (receptor) to be able to think, created ideas , emotion. Thomas used “Sensation of thinking” to explain that “music is the effort we make to explain to ourselves how our brain work” Music can tell listeners about musician’s emotion, thoughts from his or her lyrics. Lyrics describe everything about his or her story, feeling, and situation. An example, when you believe from Whitney and Mariah song tell listeners about emotional, story, and sensation of thinking to persuade listeners to believe in their spiritual that they have their own strength to struggle with the world. On thinking about thinking is like combination of ideas. Example, A has one idea combine with his or her other ideas (interdisciplinary) which issue a perfect idea. “turn the volume up all the way that is the sound of the whole central nervous system of human being all at once” You will have more sensation of thinking when you turn the volume up; expand your receptor to understand the whole meaning of music. Your brain is working for thinking and thinks the music object. These are the processing of on thinking about thinking

Apsorn Pattarakulpong

Recombination (Thomas p.154) is recombining ideas or something else. Thomas used “Recombination” to explain that each ideas combine together again and again to issue an accomplished though.

Deborah Higginbottom

The Art of “Fugue” (Thomas 154) “a musical composition in which one or two themes are repeated or imitated by successively entering voices and contrapuntally developed in a continuous interweaving of the voice parts” (Merriam-Webster Dictionary online). Thomas uses the term Fugue to illustrate how thinking is not always a continual linear flow of ideas (“not a special pattern of thinking”), but it can be a brief, repetitive notions.

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