Teaching ethics to adults - The Citadel



Running Head: Teaching Leadership and Ethics to Adults

Teaching Leadership and Ethics to Adults

Ray. S. Jones

The Citadel

College of Graduate and Professional Studies

May 2007

Abstract

This paper addresses the question “What concepts and practices are particularly relevant to the teaching of leadership and ethics for adult learners?” The graduate course Leadership and Ethics: Organizational Development (Business Special Topics and Industrial/Organizational Psychology Special Topics course) was offered in Spring 2007 by the author. Preparation for the course included content relevant materials in leadership and ethical theory, as well as research into and application of the adult learning paradigm. The graduate students taking “Leadership and Ethics” are adults. A healthy body of literature establishes that adults learn in a qualitatively different manner than the pre-adult or young adult students who comprise the ranks of the undergraduate classes of South Carolina Low Country institutions. The adult learning approach is termed “andragogy” and has specific benefits for the teaching of ethics and leadership. This paper explores the andragological concepts relevant to the teaching of leadership and ethics as they were applied to the graduate course Leadership and Ethics at The Citadel in Spring 2007.

Teaching Leadership and Ethics to Adults

Ray. S. Jones

The Citadel, School of Business

INTRODUCTION

The graduate course Leadership and Ethics: Organizational Development (Business Special Topics and Industrial/Organizational Psychology Special Topics course) was offered in Spring 2007 by the author. The graduate students taking “Leadership and Ethics” were adults, and a robust body of literature establishes that adults learn in a qualitatively different manner than the pre-adult students who comprise the ranks of traditional undergraduate classes. The adult learning approach is termed “andragogy” and has specific benefits for the teaching of ethics and leadership. As proponent for applying the ideas, theories, and research of andragogy to the education of adult students I decided to examine my own effort as the course was being taught. My idea was based on a journal article that I felt spoke volumes to practitioners in my field of management and organizational psychology. I believed my course was designed and being taught using the andragological methods of Knowles (1977) and Meizrow (1991). The article, It’s called andragogy, by Forrest and Peterson, (2006) seemed to me an interesting benchmark to measure my efforts. Therefore, I drew on Forrest and Peterson’s explanation of four of Knowles’ andragological concepts as an informal qualitative measure from which to check my course design in action. The analysis is my own work subject to my own bias, but motivated by two factors. First a genuine desire to provide andragological experience to the graduate students who participate in my courses, and second an authentic appreciation of Forrest and Peterson’s effort to further the cause of adult education.

THE ARGUMENT FOR ANDRAGOGY

Considerable literature demonstrates that through primary schooling and the early undergraduate years the pre-adult student accumulates information in a more quantitative than qualitative manner. In other words, the physiological capability and the educational process are more oriented on collecting knowledge to build a data base than to allow time to reflect on that knowledge (Craik & Bailystok, 2006). The outcome of this process is that the relativistic thought necessary for mature decision making is developed through the liberal education process of the later undergraduate education (Chickering & Reisser, 1993). Thus, as educators we expect the developing undergraduates to become more thoughtful, to develop critical thinking skills, and to be able to differentiate from their early received knowledge as their identities develop. This process seems to adequately accommodate cognitive development and the desired American social moral development (Rest & Thoma, 1985). The development of autonomy follows in that the eventual college graduate should be an individual reflective of parental and social values, but not a hologram of their early developmental experiences.

Therefore, an adult who appears in a graduate management class is a composite of this prior development, but with adult potential capacities and capabilities that reflect the growing and subsequent maturity that each have experienced.

The average graduate student at The Citadel has been out of college and in the work force at least five years. In Spring 2007, the average age of the graduate class was 31. These are young adults with the increasing capacity to make sense of the world from a position of personal identity. Making sense of the world from a position of personal identity, rather than from predisposed position is a hallmark of adult level cognition. A particular ability of adult level cognition has been termed reflective judgment by Karen Kitchener and Patricia King (1981). Subsequent research (see Kitchener & King, 1994 and King & Kitchener, 2002) successfully described the development of complex reasoning during the late adolescent and early adult developmental periods, and established that many adults have developed epistemological assumptions that they will use to make judgments about ill-structured problems. The andragological practitioner, an educator who works with adult learners, has this potential to work with, much as the pedagological practitioner, an educator who works with children and young adolescents, has an enormous capacity for memorization and association to work with (Knowles, 1977). The capacity for memorization and association is, of necessity, the foundation for subsequent academic maturity.

As noted earlier, reasoning is a cognitive process, dependent upon brain structures to connect, store, process, and retrieve relevant information; and this is age and experience dependent. The adult student has passed earlier physiological developmental milestones, and can potentially maximize reflective judgment capabilities in the classroom. Conscious, unconscious, and preconscious knowing and learning and the adult’s interpretation of self cannot be separated from reflection. Conscious knowledge is of course available. However, the store of unconscious and preconscious knowledge sets the adult apart from the adolescent. Unconscious and preconscious knowledge has long been described by neuroscientists. Consider the amnesiac who remembers nothing of his conscious memories such as address, last meal, or plans for tomorrow, yet retains a full set of the unconscious knowledge acquired prior to the amnesia event (Reber, Gitelman, Parrish, & Mesulam, 2003). These non-conscious categories of knowledge consist of tacit and performance knowledge that accumulate with time, especially time in the work force. These knowledges include operating machinery, driving a car, or recognizing subtle changes in seasons. These knowledges, although not easily described are the mark of the expert. These differentiate the journeyman from the artisan, and are of much importance to the adult on the job.

Hoare (2006) described the implications of conscious, unconscious, and preconscious knowing and learning operations by noting that the adult “…in terms of motivation and with respect to perceptual cognitive filters. . .operates as the control who selects, reviews, revises, and sometimes rejects what is received and sometimes assimilated” (p. 13). Thus, the adult is the cognitive filter for subsequent learning, as opposed to the parent, instructor, or supervisor. The adult, like the amnesiac, possesses an ever increasing store of tacit and performance knowledge that is not directly applied to verbal reasoning, but is applied as expertise to problem solving. Observing only conscious knowledge in adult learners is akin to only reading the dust jacket on a book.

Second, the adult sense of self exists within the identity the adult has developed. “Who am I and how do I fit in the world around me.” This is a complex concept to explain in this paper, but for the purposes here, Merriam and Yang (1996, p. 66) used “personal agency” to describe outcomes from learning that is pertinent here. Merriam and Yang used data from the National Longitudinal Survey of the High School Class of 1972 (n = 12,800), which collected data in 1974 (n = 6,087) and 1986 (6,087). They reported on the co-variances of items that reflected autonomy versus dependence, authority over information, and internal locus of control[1], identifying this as personal agency. The findings of the study provide strong support for approaching the education of adults distinctly from that of adolescents where work experiences and educational attainment were significant predictors of political and social participation and personal agency. Higher levels of personal agency would be reflective of increased feelings of autonomy and independence, and higher internal locus of control. At this point, it must be noted that an optimum has been stated. Many adults will attain the introspection and perspectives to make decisions from a neutral position, some will not. Dependence and external locus of control are individual differences, and in a given group of students some will solidly operate from this position. As Kegan (1994) observed, psychological demands of life demand different individual responses. The adult classroom can be as diverse as the undergraduate classroom, but with a different set of potentials.

FOUR andragological concepts

There have been a number of excellent writings over the past forty-seven years that have described the characteristics of the adult learner (Kidd, 1959, 1973; Knowles, 1977; Darkenwald & Merriam, 1982; Meizrow, 1991) that I have recommend as readings for graduate and other educators of adults. Recently, Forrest & Peterson (2006) presented a case for the use of andragological practice in the instruction of graduate management education in the Academy of Management Learning & Education journal. This argument is rare in the field of management education, encouraging practitioners to rethink classroom methodologies and practices. Forrest & Peterson relied on the theory and research of Malcolm Knowles among others, and presented four concepts that underpin andragogy. I decided to use the Forrest & Peterson article as the basis to examine a course that I had recently developed to determine if the course were true to the andragological concepts. The course, Leadership and Ethics, was taught in Spring 2007, at The Citadel College of Graduate and Professional Studies, Charleston, South Carolina

Management education may have started a shift to a more learner-centered approach, but using “pedagogy” shows that the field’s mind-set still views students as dependent children rather than independent adults. . . In the current situation, the term pedagogy acts like a shackle holding management education to past notions of learning (Forrest & Peterson, 2006, p. 114).

Self directed learning is an adult concept of identity, and often one of an associated role in which knowledge acquisition is important for success at a task the adult has determined to be of some importance. For example success at parenting leads to the purchase of parenting books, on-line searches, attending community parenting classes, and so on. Contained within this behavior are the role of parent and the identity of a qualitative level of parenting. This role and identity did not solely occur from memorization of what a parent is and does, but from social observation resulting in tacit and procedural knowledge, reflection on how the role would be carried out after reflection on what is known, what is supposed, and what may be learned from the self-directed inquiries. The higher the level of personal agency, the more individualized the outcome.

In management education, Forrest & Peterson, 2006, point out that the adult student enters the classroom with a variety of adult roles; perhaps parent, employee, citizen, and volunteer. They do not leave these behind to become a student, instead by incorporating roles and responsibilities into their educational experiences the adult student directs their own experience. The andragological premise assumes that adult students are partners in the education process, not passive receptors. Within a classroom of self-directed learners there exists a potential for individual self-assessment, requiring trust and communications, and multiple opportunities for students to become facilitators of learning. The first concept to understand when teaching adults is that they possess at some level the capacity and will to be self-directed.

There is an old axiom “that you are what you where when” that fails to account for the experiences accumulated since the “when.” As the adult learners review knowledge and the tasks at hand, their experiences become a supplemental textbook, in which their involvement in the learning experience allows the instructor to breakout of the role as conveyer of knowledge and become a guide and mentor (Forrest & Peterson, 2006). Indeed, the self-directed process and the existing experiences of the learner are a dynamic organization that becomes important for maximizing the active participation of the body of learners in the class. Experiential techniques are useful in optimizing the partnership of self-direction and individual experience in a group setting, but do not stand alone; more on this later. Thus, the second concept of importance to the educator of adults is that experience exceeds that of the adolescent, in quantity and quality as discussed previously, and this makes for a powerful learning tool.

Earlier I wrote of the importance of roles to an adult embarking on a self-directed learning task. Many time roles have a large impact on the adult and learning outcomes. Knowles (1977) recognized that adults often have extrinsic motivations to embark on programs of study. A master’s degree may be a stepping stone for promotion, career advancement, or re-careering. Therefore, the adult student has expectations that courses of study will meet needs and fulfill obligations. They tend to be less interested in ideas that do not appear of relevance (Forrest & Peterson, 2006). This concept of readiness to learn is of interest to more than the admissions and marketing staff of the college; the concept has direct implication to the classroom. Contextualizing content, recognizing teachable moments, and incorporating student feedback during the semester are important techniques to maintain relevance. This third concept is verified in a familiar saying among adult educators, “Adults vote with their feet.” If a required course does not light the spark in the student’s readiness to learn, they will just do their personal minimum and check the block; if an elective it will attract the few students who need an elective. On the other hand, when readiness to learn is engaged, it can carry over across a program.

Finally, the fourth concept is orientation to learning. This concept is akin to the major field of study, and explains why a General Studies Master’s Degree would probably hold less interest to most participants. The adult student, as I have argued is for the most part, directed to the accomplishment of learning outcomes based on an achievement motive. For a topic to be of interest or desirable it should address a need. Granted there are adults who take degrees simply to learn, to collect multiple degrees, or to find their desired academic end state. However, public colleges do not exist to service these students. The adult students who attend most public colleges can be characterized by Knowles (1977) and (Forrest & Peterson, 2006). These students desire that the classroom experience prepare them to use the material they learn in the real world. They do not reject theoretical underpinnings and foundational concepts; they understand that real problems have no single answer. What they do not want is a school solution, but a method to solve problems in their world. Thus, memorization of names, dates, and concepts is often irrelevant. Instead they wonder how these knowledges apply to problem solving. This fourth concept is an orientation to the adult learner’s world; their needs perspectives, motivations, and how these match with the academic obligation of the college.

THE COURSE

This course was concurrently offered as BADM 650-84 (Ethics and Leadership: Organizational Development) and as Psychology 555-82 (Topic in Industrial/Organizational Psychology) in Spring 2007. The syllabus stated that “This course will explore ethical leadership as a behavioral competence developed and supported by organizational structures designed to maximize performance. There are many organizations that routinely perform in an ethically competent manner. Often these companies are well led; usually these companies are well staffed and properly structured. This course is about the processes of developing ethical leaders in good companies and providing the foundations for ethical performance. However, the best of companies can be led to ruin by unethical practices and unethical leadership. So this course also is about recognizing ethical pitfalls and the proactive processes of good stewardship.”[2]

The course was developed by the author over the period July – December 2006 after a scan of the curriculum revealed that there was no combined graduate offering in leadership and ethics. The Citadel’s Mission emphasizes the education of principled leadership. The school of business has an obligation to contribute to the young adult MBA student’s formulation of professional ethics on a number of levels. On the cognitive-developmental level Parks (1993) argued that a well developed personal trustworthiness and accountability was alone insufficient to ensure corporate ethical management practice. She noted that young adults are developmentally capable of the critical thinking necessary to handle the complexities of managerial challenges but they are limited by their models of action. Therefore, as managers “[t]hey will not be prepared adequately to create a positive corporate culture within which other decision makers will function” (p. 27). The impetus to develop more sophisticated models for dealing with the realities of ethical dilemmas in the corporate world are contained in experience, unfortunately, however, as the old saying goes “we’re made stronger by what doesn’t kill us.” The intellectual challenge of the classroom is considerably safer than the courtroom. The capacity for the young adult to learn to think critically can be enhanced with proper ethical “contradictions” as Parks calls them or dialectical and paradoxical problems as the adult developmental literature suggests. Presenting the complexities of the real world in new terms that cause the learner to make new meanings builds new frames of reference that are models for future use.

Parks (1993) suggested, and the adult developmental literature supports, the notion that MBA students will be less well equipped to manage ethical challenges in the corporate world absent exposure to critical reflection of self and conventional ethos. The business context often drives decisions, and the prevailing ethical context is often success or “bottom-line.” The state of adult development post baccalaureate is that of autonomy gaining identity. The young adult has differentiated from parents, but most retaining a solid parental cultural value core explained in their own terms. The danger is they lack their parent’s range of experiences and wisdom, which they as autonomous adults prefer to gain on their own. It is common for young business professionals to seek the wisdom of seasoned professionals as models. The idea of mentoring and coaching is thus perhaps the modern form of the tribal elder. However, I suggest that the role of formal education is the most regulated and most conducive to the development of business ethics during young adult development. Thus, when Parks states that “[c]ompassion is the taproot of ethical imagination (p. 38)” she establishes an element of a curriculum for ethics that is clearly present in developmental and ethics literature.

Parks (1993) observed that generational gaps exist between the young adult and the mentor. These cultural gaps help bridge generations in the business but they also create differences in shared meaning concerning perspectives on the relative importance of what is right and what is wrong. One generation grew up without fear of loosing jobs while another grew up with welfare supported classmates in public schools. Thus the meanings of some issues are not shared, and the issue of what is right and what is not right regarding economic policy might differ. The young adult is balancing growing needs for autonomy with achieving an identity, all within the roles dictated by corporation and perhaps family. As Parks suggests, a mentor alone is not enough, a community of mentoring is required. The business school is, from my perspective an integral part of this community. It is within this community that the development of ethics is nurtured. When Parks wrote of developing shared meanings she referred to the adult developmental theories. She framed some of her meaning making in terms of imagination, which is not flight of fancy, but is the freedom to create and frame discussion from a balance of knowledge and possibility, describing prescience for how well thought through events might turn out.

MEASURING TEACHING ETHICS AND LEADERSHIP TO ADULTS

Syllabus

The first place to measure the andragological concepts will be in the “Course Objectives” section of the syllabus. The syllabus is attached as Appendix A. The purpose of the objectives is to provide a necessary boundary around the theoretical content of the class. Objectives 1, 2, and 3 provided a foundation from which to explore and discuss within the structure of time allowed. These concepts are familiar to graduate students, and easily refreshed. Lecture, readings, and explorations provide the opportunity to see these ideas in a new light and challenge existing perspectives. It is Objective 4: “Be able to recognize the value of ethical leadership development for the sustaining of productivity” that suggests to the student the course will involve more than textual materials. In order to engage a learning orientation, this objective was developed in class, on the first evening. For the psychology students taking the course, as a group we redefined the objective as “socially” productive. This engendered discussion from the management students on the values of business participating in community activities. From the discussion I made notes on the amount of experience the students have had with corporate citizenship and their readiness to embark on these topics. Objective 5, “realize that leadership is not the pen-ultimate cause of all business success or failure” enforced the reality that there will be no school solution, and that the class will seek answers. This objective was discussed and explored from the perspective that self-directed exploration would be needed to supplement the limited amount of time and materials we could possibly cover. Clearly this would need reinforcement.

Also, provided in the syllabus and briefly discussed are five conditions of success that are the rules of good studentship. Adults are realistic and understand clear and unambiguous standards. Likewise assignments are written as Task, Condition, and Standard. This is a technique to save busy adults time. The elements are negotiable by group consensus when we decide that there is a more efficient way to learn the subject matter. By separating the tasks, conditions, and standards it is clear what are the components of the assignment.

Course Materials

Text. It is best to provide a structure from which to guide exploration. Yet, there are few management textbooks that are useful in advanced topical areas. However, for this class as a minimum, a text on ethics, leadership, and management would have been required. The texts would have been partially used and supplemented by the instructor. A second course of action would have been articles on reserve in the library. Most applicable articles are at a theoretical level that would be problematic. Selecting textual materials that demonstrate you respect the student’s financial and intellectual investment provides a first step to establishing communications and trust. This is conducive to orientation to learning.

In this case I prepared a composite text with McGraw Hill, of which I selected the contents from existing published text books (ISBN 0-390-77669-6) thereby achieving very close to the content I desired. There were no publisher prepared handouts, slides, or tests which is of little consequence as I prepare these myself, and do not test as a form of assessment. I prepared the textual materials to accomplish the core class objectives supporting basic andragological principles. Objectives that were negotiable would be supplemented by outside readings. This required that outside readings be structured after the class finalized the course objectives. I had selected a number of supporting outside sources from which I could tailor readings after the first night of class. The course objectives will not vary greatly from the basic core model and still achieve the core objectives, so this is not as difficult as it sounds. By the second class I had a course schedule of readings and links to the supplemental readings loaded on Web CT. I included many of the readings that were “left over” as additional sources.

The course began with a case study from the text on a team of skiers attempting to cross Iceland, unassisted, to establish a new world record. The objective was simple: Orientation to Learning. The class (20 in number) became familiar with me, each other, sharing their own experiences on teams, and trying to discover if leadership in a harsh environment and ethics are in any way related. It was established by the group that there is no “school solution,” but there are some common agreements on expectations. We used the case as a parallel to how the class would explore leadership and ethics, and how their input would make it work or not work. This became an opportunity to safely challenge ideas and establish trust.

Class. The subsequent five classes primarily focused on ethics, with sidebars on inauthentic leadership, authoritarianism, group behavior, and the development of leadership through education. This section of the course culminated in the first written paper. These classes consisted of about 25% lecture, 25% guided discussion, 25% exploration in groups, and 25% guided class discussion. The lecture supplemented the assigned readings, alternated with guided discussion that required individual participation and verbal engagement on the lecture topic. This is used as an attempt to set readiness to learn, to engage emotion about topics, and create energy that will spill over to the group tasks. The groups followed on with the discussion, returned and presented their group perspectives. They were encouraged to present a “minority view” if they didn’t reach consensus. The class discussion engaged critical thinking, allowing the students to use the tools learned about ethical argument, followed by a reasonable explanation—if not we explored one together. Self assessment and good humor should go hand-in-hand to encourage the learning orientation.

Individual Papers. The students completed two written papers. These papers posed an ethical leadership problem that the students explored and presented absent bias, use of biased support, and secondary source materials. For example the first paper concerned the invasion of Iraq. The students were required to evaluate the invasion of Iraq from Bass’s definition of pseudo-transformational (Bass, 1998) leadership and present an ethical justification. Their task was to argue either in support of or opposed to the proposition: “Psuedo-transformational leadership was a factor in the initial acceptance of the American Public’s approval of an invasion.” They were provided four background articles that do not address the question, but aid their thinking process. They were permitted to use only first source news items as chronological evidence of events. This was a very difficult assignment. This task required considerable self-direction; reliance on editorials or the thoughts of another person earned a chance to continue the assignment. The second paper followed the section on leadership development and was be equally difficult, but topically focused on organizational citizenship behavior and capital gains.

Web CT. The use of the Web CT site provided 24/7 availability for students to post assignments, review the work of other students, and to check their progress. The orientation to learning and readiness to learn are enhanced by the availability of Web CT, and when the instructor provided feedback the process was further improved. Students had five graded assignments on this medium. The assignments required reading and referencing the text, finding outside sources, and answering questions that depended upon making sense of situations from an experiential perspective. The responses were constrained to 1000 words, and posted for the class to review. The instructor graded with a private response, but provided public feedback on points that were useful for further exploration. On designated class periods the class discussion consisted of further development of themes from these postings. For example:

Read: Solomon, R. C. (1993). Chapter 18. Aristotelian virtues: Warrior, moral, business. Ethics and Excellence: Cooperation and Integrity in Business. NY: Oxford University Press, 199-206. Handed out in class.

Task: Prepare an operational description of Utilitarian, Deontological, and Virtue Ethics based on Solomon’s explanation of Aristotelian virtues.

Standard: Utilitarian, Deontological, and Virtue Ethics must remain basically true to their textual definitions while taking on an Aristotelian approach to behavior. Use examples of types of behavior.

In this instance an additional perspective on ethics, Aristotelian, had been provided. Utilitarian, Deontological, and Virtue Ethics had already been discussed and found incomplete tools for leadership. By design, this discrepancy in their knowledge was recognized, but momentarily left aside, and the class was assigned to explore the possibility of a lack of ethical leadership in certain world events as a self-directed endeavor. This sets up a level of frustration which is a catalyst for other self-directed learning, and provided an opportunity for some who will be so motivated. Now, in this Web CT assignment, they are provided a new possibility. For this reason I do not announce the Web CT assignments in advance. Experience, self-direction, and orientation to learning influenced their outcomes on the project. In class the instructor encouraged group discussion, sharing, and the results of those who explored other forms of ethics on their own. Such conditions will further the class learning.

Individual Portfolio. The individual leadership portfolio served to demonstrate progress and proficiency in ethical leadership competencies. It was started on the first week of class and turned in to the instructor a week before the last week of class. It contained all Web CT assignments with grades and corrections attached and a short synthesis of learning from these exercises—how they contributed to the class experience overall. It also contained the graded papers with corrections and a short synthesis of learning from these exercises. Finally, the students had taken a Personality, Multi Factor Leadership Questionnaire and leadership analysis exercises in the text. They wrote a personal perspective on their current state of leadership knowledge and proficiency in relationship to the textual exercises and MLQ. This portfolio is graded and returned to them. The portfolio is the student’s summary of her work, her perspectives on the corrections, the flow of the assignments, and the overall fit of the course.

In general, the only graded work on which a student does not receive feedback from which they may respond and correct errors is the portfolio. This work has for the most part been graded and returned to them as a document of their progress. All projects submitted during the term are reviewed by the instructor, comments to enhance learning are provided and the student may resubmit. The objective is always communicative learning. It is the portfolio that provides me the most comprehensive perspective on the journey each student has taken and at which destination each student has arrived.

CONCLUSION

After reviewing the design of BADM 650-84 Leadership and Ethics: Organizational Development, I believe that the course is fairly true to Knowles (1977) andragological concepts and to the principles represented in the article, It’s called andragogy, by Forrest and Peterson (2006).

The process outcomes were measured by the comments recorded in the portfolio and during the conduct of the class. These comments were directed at the text, the written assignments, the on-line assignments, and the portfolio assignment. Overall the students reported that the class was conducive to adult learning in meaningfulness to class objectives, personal learning goals, and foreseeable outcomes. Specifically the text was judged as readable, having good content, well organized, and useful for learning. I would add a brief section on Aristotelian ethics and delete that Web Ct assignment to save time. The Web CT assignments were judged as good supplements to the text, seen as a useful way to engage in group discussion and as a positive way to test ideas. My review suggests reducing the number from five to three to permit more interaction time. The two papers were evaluated as very difficult but in the final analysis, a most productive learning tool. The allowance to rewrite was reported as initially frustrating but beneficial to developing critical thinking skill. Interestingly, many students observed that the Web CT assignments contributed to their ability to accomplish the paper assignment. Most students felt the paper topics were relevant to their life and roles as managers and decision makers. In my own critical review I felt that I can provide additional information to assist the student find relevant data. A few students who had well honed research skills found good supporting evidence with little effort, many others struggled. The point of the assignment is exercising critical argument, not research, so more guidance from me will assist this process. Finally, the portfolio synthesis was for the most part useful; however a few students were cursory in their product. Providing more relevance to the learning objectives and outcomes should solve this issue. One way to do this would be to have a single integration task rather than separate tasks.

While the overall outcome was satisfactory, I believe that simply designing around the four concepts: Experience, Self Directed Learning, Readiness to Learn, and Orientation to Learning, remains a subjective endeavor. To truly benefit and build upon each class that is presented in a sequential manner, in other words to learn from the learning, an andragological assessment tool is needed. It would be a valuable effort to produce a tool that would subjectively and objectively measure the degree to which self-directed learning, readiness to learn, the influence of experience, and orientation to learning were incorporated in the course design and achieved. This might be more useful for graduate education than the end of course evaluations we currently utilize. Then perhaps true systems learning, instead of cybernetic learning, may be our hallmark.

References

Craik, F. I. M. & Bailystok, E. (2006). Cognition through the lifespan: mechanisms of change. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 10(3), 131-138.

Chickering, A. W. & Reisser, L. (1993). Education and identity. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Darkenwald, D. D. & Merriam, S. B. (1982). Adult education foundations of practice. New York, NY: Harper Row.

Depret, E. & Fisk, S. T. (1993). Social cognition and power: Some cognitive consequences of social structure as a source of control deprivation. In G. Weary, F. Gleicher, & K. L. Marsh (Eds.). Control motivation and social cognition. New York: Springer-Verlag.

Forrest III, S. P. & Peterson, T. O. (2006). It’s called andragogy. Academy of Management Learning & Education, 5(1), 113-122.

Hoare, C. (Ed.) (2006). Handbook of adult development and learning. NY: Oxford University Press, p. 13.

Kegan, R. (1994). In over our heads: The demands of modern life. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

Kidd, J. R. (1959, 1973) How adults learn. New York, NY: Association Press.

King, P. M. & Kitchener, K. S. (2004). Reflective judgment: Theory and research on the development of epistemic assumptions through adulthood. Educational Psychologist, 39(1), 5-18.

King, P. M. & Kitchener, K. S. (2002). The reflective judgment model: Twenty years of epistemic cognition. In B. K. Hofer and P. R. Pintrich (Eds.) Personal Epistemology The psychology of beliefs about knowledge. (pp. 37-61). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum, Associates.

Kitchener, K. S. & King P.M. (Eds.). (1994). Developing reflective judgment: Understanding and promoting intellectual growth and critical thinking in adolescents and adults. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Kitchener, K. S. & King P.M. (1981). Reflective judgment: Concepts of justification and their relationship to age and education. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology 2(2), 89-116.

Knowles, M. (1977). The modern practice of adult education: Andragogy versus pedagogy. New York, NY: Association.

Merriam, S. B & Yang B. (1996). A longitudinal study of adult experiences and developmental outcomes. Adult education quarterly, 46(2), 62-81.

Meizrow, J. (1991). Transformative dimensions in adult learning. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass

Parks, D. S. (1993). Is it too late? Young adults and the formation of professional ethics. In Piper, T.R., Gentile, M. C., & Parks, S. D. Eds.) Can Ethics Be Taught? Perspectives, Challenges, and Approaches at Harvard Business School. Boston: Harvard Business School.

Reber, P. J., Gitelman, D. R., Parrish, T. B., & Mesulam, M. M. (2003). Dissociating explicit and implicit category knowledge with fMRI.  Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 15(4), 574-583.

Rest, J. R. & Thoma, S. J. (1985). Relation of moral judgment development to formal education.   Developmental Psychology, 21(4), 709-714.

Solomon, R. C. (1993). Chapter 18. Aristotelian virtues: Warrior, moral, business. Ethics and Excellence: Cooperation and Integrity in Business. NY: Oxford University Press, 199-206.

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[1] Locus of control concerns the preference one has for assuming control over one’s fate. Internals assume they have personal control for what befalls them, externals fault outside sources. LOC is developed and adaptive (Depret & Fiske, 1993)

[2] From the syllabus, BADM 650-84/PSYC 555-82, The Citadel, College of Graduate and Professional Studies, Spring 2007.

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