Chapter 2 Outline - Mr. Hackbarth's Class Website

[Pages:14]Chapter 2 Outline

I. Introduction: Neuroscience and Behavior Biological psychology (also called biopsychology or psychobiology) is the scientific study of the biological bases of behavior and mental processes. Biological psychology makes important contributions to neuroscience--the scientific study of the nervous system.

II. The Neuron: The Basic Unit of Communication 1. Communication throughout the nervous system takes place via neurons, cells that are highly specialized to receive and transmit information from one part of the body to another. 2. The human nervous system is made up of other types of specialized cells, called glial cells, which support neurons by providing structural support and nutrition, removing cell wastes, and enhancing the communication between neurons. 3. There are three basic types of neurons. a. Sensory neurons convey information from specialized receptor cells in the sense organs, the skin, and the internal organs to the brain. b. Motor neurons communicate information to the muscles and glands of the body. c. Interneurons communicate information between neurons; they are the most common type of neuron found in the human nervous system.

A. Characteristics of the Neuron -- Most neurons have three basic components.

1. The cell body (also called the soma) contains the nucleus, which provides energy for the neuron to carry out its functions. 2. Dendrites are short, branching fibers extending out from the cell body that receive information from other neurons or specialized cells. 3. The axon is a single, elongated tube that extends from the cell body and carries information from the neuron to other neurons, glands, and muscles. Axons vary in length from a few thousandths of an inch to about four feet.

a. Many axons are surrounded by a myelin sheath, a white, fatty covering that insulates axons from one another and increases the

neuron's communication speed. b. Nodes of Ranvier are small gaps in the myelin sheath. B. Communication Within the Neuron: The All-or-None Action Potential -- In general, messages are gathered by the dendrites and cell body and then transmitted along the axon in the form of a brief electrical impulse called an action potential. 1. Each neuron has a stimulus threshold--a minimum level of stimulation from other neurons or sensory receptors to activate it. 2. While waiting for sufficient stimulation to activate it, the neuron is polarized; that is, the axon's interior is more negatively charged than the fluid surrounding the axon. The resting potential, or the negative electrical charge of the axon's interior, is ?70 millivolts. It has more sodium ions outside and more potassium ions inside. 3. When sufficiently stimulated by other neurons or sensory receptors--that is, when the neuron reaches its stimulus threshold--the axon depolarizes, beginning the action potential. a. Sodium ion channels open; sodium ions rush into the axon. b. Then sodium channels close, and potassium ion channels open, allowing potassium ions to rush out of the axon. c. Finally, potassium channels close. d. This sequence of depolarization and ion movement continues in a self-sustaining fashion down the entire length of the axon. e. The result is a brief positive electrical impulse (+30 millivolts) that progressively occurs at each segment down the axon--the action potential. 4. The all-or-none law is the principle that either a neuron is sufficiently stimulated and an action potential occurs or a neuron is not sufficiently stimulated and an action potential does not occur. 5. Following the action potential, a refractory period occurs during which the neuron is unable to fire. During this thousandth of a second or less, the neuron repolarizes, that is, it reestablishes the resting potential conditions. 6. Two factors affect the speed of the action potential.

a. Axon diameter--thicker axons are faster. b. Myelin sheath--myelinated axons are faster. C. Communication Between Neurons: Bridging the Gap 1. The point of communication between two neurons is called the synapse. a. The message-sending neuron is referred to as the presynaptic neuron. b. The message-receiving neuron is called the postsynaptic neuron. c. Synaptic gap: the tiny, fluid-filled space only fivemillionths of an inch wide between the axon terminal of one neuron and the dendrite of the adjoining neuron. 2. Transmission of information between neurons occurs in one of two ways. a. Electrical: Ion channels bridge the narrow gap between neurons; communication is virtually instantaneous. b. Chemical: The presynaptic neuron creates a chemical substance (a neurotransmitter) that diffuses across the synaptic gap and is detected by the postsynaptic neuron (over 99 percent of the synapses in the brain use chemical transmission).

(1) An action potential arrives at the axon terminals; these branches at the end of the axon contain tiny pouches or sacs called synaptic vesicles, which contain special chemical messengers called neurotransmitters. (2) The synaptic vesicles release the neurotransmitters into the synaptic gap. (3) Synaptic transmission is the process through which neurotransmitters are released by one neuron, cross the synaptic gap, and affect surrounding neurons by attaching to receptor sites on their dendrites. (4) After synaptic transmission, the following may occur.

(a) Reuptake: the process by which neurotransmitter molecules detach from a postsynaptic neuron and are reabsorbed

by a presynaptic neuron so they can be recycled and used again. (b) Enzymatic destruction or breakdown. (5) Each neurotransmitter has a chemically distinct, different shape. For a neurotransmitter to affect a neuron, it must perfectly fit the receptor site. 3. Excitatory and inhibitory messages -- A neurotransmitter communicates either an excitatory message or an inhibitory message to a postsynaptic neuron. a. An excitatory message increases the likelihood that the neuron will activate; an inhibitory message decreases the likelihood that it will activate. The postsynaptic neuron will depolarize only if the net result is a sufficient number of excitatory messages. b. Depending on the receptor site to which it binds, the same neurotransmitter can have an inhibitory effect on one neuron and an excitatory effect on another neuron. c. On the average, each neuron in the brain communicates directly with 1,000 other neurons. D. Neurotransmitters and Their Effects -- Researchers have linked abnormal levels of specific neurotransmitters to various physical and behavioral problems. 1. Important Neurotransmitters a. Acetylcholine stimulates muscles to contract and is important in memory, learning, and general intellectual functioning. Levels of acetylcholine are severely reduced in people with Alzheimer's disease. b. Dopamine is involved in movement, attention, learning, and pleasurable or rewarding sensations. c. Degeneration of neurons that produce dopamine in one brain area causes Parkinson's disease. Symptoms of Parkinson's disease can be alleviated by a drug called Ldopa, which converts to dopamine in the brain. d. Excessive brain levels of dopamine are sometimes involved in the hallucinations and perceptual distortions that characterize schizophrenia. Some antipsychotic drugs work by blocking dopamine receptors and reducing dopamine activity in the brain.

e. Serotonin is involved in sleep, moods, and emotional states, including depression. Antidepressant drugs such as Prozac increase the availability of serotonin in certain brain regions. f. Norepinephrine activates neurons throughout the brain, assists in the body's response to danger or threat, and is involved in learning and memory retrieval. Norepinephrine dysfunction is also involved in some mental disorders, especially depression. g. GABA (gamma-aminobutyric acid) usually communicates an inhibitory message to other neurons, reducing brain activity. Antianxiety medications work by increasing GABA activity. 2. Endorphins: Regulating the Perception of Pain a. Pert & Synder (1973) discovered the brain contains receptor sites specific for opiates. b. Endorphins are chemicals released by the brain in response to stress or trauma. c. Endorphins are associated with the pain-reducing effects of acupuncture. 3. Focus on Neuroscience: Is "Runner's High" an Endorphin Rush? a. "Runner's high," the rush of endorphins experienced after sustained aerobic exercise, was the subject of an experiment by Boecker et al., using a PET scan to detect a chemical that binds to opioid receptors. b. The experiment provided the first real evidence that "runner's high" is at least partly due to the release of endorphins in the brain. E. How Drugs Affect Synaptic Transmission -- Many drugs, especially those that affect moods or behavior, work by interfering with the normal functioning of neurotransmitters in the synapse. 1. Drugs may increase or decrease the amount of neurotransmitter released by neurons. 2. Drugs may affect the length of time the neurotransmitter remains in the synaptic gap, either increasing or decreasing the amount available to the postsynaptic receptor. 3. Drugs may prolong the effects of the neurotransmitter by blocking

its reuptake by the sending neuron. 4. Drugs can mimic specific neurotransmitters. 5. Drugs can mimic or block the effect of a neurotransmitter by fitting into receptor sites and preventing the neurotransmitter from acting. III. The Nervous System and the Endocrine System: Communication Throughout the Body -- The nervous system is the complex, organized communication network of neurons; its two main divisions are the central nervous system and the peripheral nervous system. In the peripheral nervous system, nerves are made up of large bundles of neuron axons. A. The Central Nervous System 1. The central nervous system includes the brain and the spinal cord, which are suspended in cerebrospinal fluid for protection. 2. Spinal reflexes are simple, automatic behaviors that are processed in the spinal cord. 3. One of the simplest spinal reflexes involves a three-neuron loop of rapid communication--a sensory neuron that communicates sensation to the spinal cord, an interneuron that relays information within the spinal cord, and a motor neuron leading from the spinal cord that signals muscles to react. B. The Peripheral Nervous System -- The peripheral nervous system comprises all the nerves outside the central nervous system; its two subdivisions are the somatic nervous system and the autonomic nervous system. 1. The somatic nervous system communicates sensory information received by sensory receptors along sensory nerves to the central nervous system and carries messages from the central nervous system along motor nerves to perform voluntary muscle movements. 2. The autonomic nervous system regulates involuntary functions such as heartbeat, blood pressure, breathing, and digestion; its two branches are the sympathetic nervous system and parasympathetic nervous system.

a. The sympathetic nervous system produces rapid physiological arousal in response to perceived threats or emergencies. These bodily changes collectively represent the fight-or-flight response--they physically prepare you to fight or flee from a

perceived danger. b. The parasympathetic nervous system conserves and maintains the body's physical resources. C. The Endocrine System -- The endocrine system is made up of glands located throughout the body that secrete hormones into the bloodstream. Communication in the endocrine system takes place much more slowly than in the nervous system. 1. Hormones are chemical messengers secreted into the bloodstream primarily by endocrine glands. They interact with the nervous system and affect internal organs and body tissues. Some of the processes they regulate are metabolism, growth rate, digestion, blood pressure, and sexual development and reproduction. 2. A brain structure called the hypothalamus serves as the main link between the nervous system and the endocrine system. It directly regulates the release of hormones by the pituitary gland. 3. The pituitary gland, a pea-sized gland just under the brain, controls hormone production in other endocrine glands. It also produces some hormones directly, such as growth hormone and prolactin. 4. A set of glands called the adrenal glands is involved in the human stress response. a. The adrenal cortex, the outer portion of each adrenal gland, also interacts with the immune system. b. The adrenal medulla, the inner portion of the adrenal glands, secretes epinephrine (or adrenaline) and norepinephrine. 5. The gonads, or sex organs, are the ovaries in females and testes in males. These sex hormones regulate sexual development, reproduction, and sexual behavior.

IV. A Guided Tour of the Brain 1. Science Versus Pseudoscience: Phrenology a. In the early 1800s, Franz Gall developed phrenology, which was based on the idea that specific skull locations were associated with various personality characteristics, moral character, and intelligence. b. Although later shown to be a pseudoscience, phrenology triggered

scientific interest in the possibility of cortical localization (or localization of function)--the idea that specific psychological and mental functions are localized in specific brain areas. A. The Dynamic Brain: Plasticity and Neurogenesis Plasticity is the brain's ability to change structure and function. Until the mid-1960s, it was believed that the brain's physical structure was hard-wired or fixed for life. 1. Functional plasticity is the brain's ability to shift functions from damaged to undamaged areas. 2. Structural plasticity is a phenomenon in which brain structures physically change in response to environmental influences. 3. Focus on Neuroscience: Juggling and Brain Plasticity a. Research by Draganski et al. (2004) provides evidence that learning a new skill produces structural changes in the brain. b. Participants in a study, divided into "jugglers" and "nonjugglers," were given MRI brain scans to detect changes over time. B. Neurogenesis 1. Neurogenesis is the development of new neurons after birth. a. Research by Gould (1998) showed generation of new neurons every day in the hippocampus in adult marmoset monkeys. b. Further research by Eriksson and Gage (1998) on adult cancer patients provided the first evidence that the human brain has the capacity to generate new neurons. C. The Brainstem: Hindbrain and Midbrain Structures The brainstem is made up of the hindbrain and the midbrain, which are located at the base of the brain. 1. The hindbrain connects the spinal cord with the rest of the brain. In the hindbrain, incoming sensory messages cross over to the other side of the brain, and outgoing motor messages cross over to the other side of the body. This is referred to as contralateral organization. Three structures make up the hindbrain: the medulla, the pons, and the cerebellum.

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