Part I- Global Diseases and epidemics



Name: ______________________________WHAP 101Key Concept 6.1?Science and the EnvironmentStandard4.0 3.53.0 Not a 3.0 yet3.10.2Create a system of organization to sequence ideas, concepts, and information to make important connections and distinctions 64 – 54 points 53.5 - 44 Points 43.5 – 38 pointsUnder 38 points Take notes of this packet_______/10 pointsSAQ ______/24 points Score on essay x 5_______/30 points Part I- Global Diseases and epidemicsSAQ for Part IIdentify ONE Similarity in global disease epidemics that existed in the developed and developing world during the period 1900-present Identify ONE Difference in global disease epidemics that existed in the developed and developing world during the period 1900-presentExplain one reason for the difference that existed in diseases in the developed and developing world during the period 1900-presentTake notes on the following video from Mr. Wood’s webpage- What is Malaria? - notes on the following video from Mr. Wood’s webpage - Are We Close To Ending Malaria? - notes on the following Wikipedia pageCholeraFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopediaCholera?is an?infection?of the?small intestine?by some?strains?of the?bacterium?Vibrio cholerae.[1]?Symptoms may range from none, to mild, to severe.[2]?The classic symptom is large amounts of watery?diarrhea?that lasts a few days.[3]?Vomiting?and?muscle cramps?may also occur.[2]?Diarrhea can be so severe that it leads within hours to severe?dehydration?and?electrolyte imbalance.[3]?This may result in sunken eyes, cold skin, decreased skin elasticity, and wrinkling of the hands and feet.[4]?The dehydration may result in the skin turning?bluish.[5]?Symptoms start two hours to five days after exposure.[2]Cholera is caused by a number of?types?of?Vibrio cholerae, with some types producing more severe disease than others. It is spread mostly by?unsafe water?and?unsafe food?that has been contaminated with?human feces?containing the bacteria.[3]Undercooked?seafood?is a common source.[6]?Humans are the only animal affected.?Risk factors?for the disease include poor?sanitation, not enough clean?drinking water, and?poverty. There are concerns that?rising sea levels?will increase rates of disease.[3]?Cholera can be diagnosed by a?stool test.[3]?A rapid dipstick test is available but is not as accurate.[7]Prevention involves improved sanitation and access to?clean water.[4]?Cholera vaccines?that are given by mouth provide reasonable protection for about six months. They have the added benefit of protecting against another type of diarrhea caused by?E.?coli. The primary treatment is?oral rehydration therapy—the replacement of fluids with?slightly sweet and salty solutions.[3]?Rice-based solutions are preferred.[3]?Zinc supplementation?is useful in children.[8]?In severe cases,?intravenous fluids, such as?Ringer's lactate, may be required, and?antibiotics?may be beneficial.?Testing to see which antibiotic?the cholera is susceptible to can help guide the choice.[2]Cholera affects an estimated 3–5?million people worldwide and causes 58,000–130,000?deaths a year as of 2010.[3][9]?While it is currently classified as a?pandemic, it is rare in the?developed world. Children are mostly affected.[3][10]?Cholera occurs as both?outbreaks?and?chronically in certain areas. Areas with an ongoing risk of disease include?Africa?and?south-east Asia. While the risk of death among those affected is usually less than 5%, it may be as high as 50% among some groups who do not have access to treatment.[3]?Historical descriptions of cholera are found as early as the 5th century BC in?Sanskrit.[4]?The study of cholera by?John Snow?between 1849 and 1854 led to significant advances in the field of?epidemiology.[4][11]Take notes on the following video- The Story of Cholera - Wikipedia, the free encyclopediaTuberculosis?(TB) is an?infectious disease?caused by the bacterium?Mycobacterium tuberculosis?(MTB).[1]?Tuberculosis generally affects the?lungs, but can also affect other parts of the body. Most infections do not have symptoms, in which case it is known as?latent tuberculosis. About 10% of latent infections progress to active disease which, if left untreated, kills about half of those infected. The classic symptoms of active TB are a chronic?cough?with?blood-containing?sputum,?fever,?night sweats, and?weight loss.[1]?The historical term "consumption" came about due to the weight loss.[2]?Infection of other organs can cause a wide range of symptoms.[3]Tuberculosis is?spread through the air?when people who have active TB in their lungs cough, spit, speak, or sneeze.[1][4]People with latent TB do not spread the disease. Active infection occurs more often in people with?HIV/AIDS?and in those who?smoke.[1]?Diagnosis of active TB is based on?chest X-rays, as well as?microscopic?examination and?culture?of body fluids. Diagnosis of latent TB relies on the?tuberculin skin test?(TST) or blood tests.[5]Prevention of TB involves screening those at high risk, early detection and treatment of cases, and?vaccination?with the?bacillus Calmette-Guérin?vaccine.[6][7][8]?Those at high risk include household, workplace, and social contacts of people with active TB.[8]?Treatment requires the use of multiple?antibiotics?over a long period of time.[1]?Antibiotic resistance?is a growing problem with increasing rates of?multiple drug-resistant tuberculosis?(MDR-TB).[1]One-third of the world's population is thought to be infected with TB.[1]?New infections occur in about 1% of the population each year.[9]?In 2014, there were 9.6 million cases of active TB which resulted in 1.5?million deaths. More than 95% of deaths occurred in?developing countries. The number of new cases each year has decreased since 2000.[1]?About 80% of people in many Asian and African countries test positive while 5–10% of people in the United States population tests positive by the tuberculin test.[10]?Tuberculosis has been present in humans since?ancient times.[11]Take notes on the following video- How The Body Reacts To Tuberculosis | MSF | - Influenza Pandemic of 1918- influenza pandemic of 1918-1919 killed more people than the Great War, known today as World War I (WWI), at somewhere between 20 and 40 million people. It has been cited as the most devastating epidemic in recorded world history. More people died of influenza in a single year than in four-years of the Black Death Bubonic Plague from 1347 to 1351. Known as "Spanish Flu" or "La Grippe" the influenza of 1918-1919 was a global disaster.In the fall of 1918 the Great War in Europe was winding down and peace was on the horizon. The Americans had joined in the fight, bringing the Allies closer to victory against the Germans. Deep within the trenches these men lived through some of the most brutal conditions of life, which it seemed could not be any worse. Then, in pockets across the globe, something erupted that seemed as benign as the common cold. The influenza of that season, however, was far more than a cold. In the two years that this scourge ravaged the earth, a fifth of the world's population was infected. The flu was most deadly for people ages 20 to 40. This pattern of morbidity was unusual for influenza which is usually a killer of the elderly and young children. It infected 28% of all Americans (Tice). An estimated 675,000 Americans died of influenza during the pandemic, ten times as many as in the world war. Of the U.S. soldiers who died in Europe, half of them fell to the influenza virus and not to the enemy (Deseret News). An estimated 43,000 servicemen mobilized for WWI died of influenza (Crosby). 1918 would go down as unforgettable year of suffering and death and yet of peace. As noted in the Journal of the American Medical Association final edition of 1918:"The 1918 has gone: a year momentous as the termination of the most cruel war in the annals of the human race; a year which marked, the end at least for a time, of man's destruction of man; unfortunately a year in which developed a most fatal infectious disease causing the death of hundreds of thousands of human beings. Medical science for four and one-half years devoted itself to putting men on the firing line and keeping them there. Now it must turn with its whole might to combating the greatest enemy of all--infectious disease,"?(12/28/1918).The effect of the influenza epidemic was so severe that the average life span in the US was depressed by 10 years. The influenza virus had a profound virulence, with a mortality rate at 2.5% compared to the previous influenza epidemics, which were less than 0.1%. The death rate for 15 to 34-year-olds of influenza and pneumonia were 20 times higher in 1918 than in previous years (Taubenberger). People were struck with illness on the street and died rapid deaths. One anectode shared of 1918 was of four women playing bridge together late into the night. Overnight, three of the women died from influenza (Hoagg). Others told stories of people on their way to work suddenly developing the flu and dying within hours (Henig). One physician writes that patients with seemingly ordinary influenza would rapidly "develop the most viscous type of pneumonia that has ever been seen" and later when cyanosis appeared in the patients, "it is simply a struggle for air until they suffocate," (Grist, 1979). Another physician recalls that the influenza patients "died struggling to clear their airways of a blood-tinged froth that sometimes gushed from their nose and mouth," (Starr, 1976). The physicians of the time were helpless against this powerful agent of influenza. In 1918 children would skip rope to the rhyme (Crawford):I had a little bird,Its name was Enza.I opened the window,And in-flu-enza.The influenza pandemic circled the globe. Most of humanity felt the effects of this strain of the influenza virus. It spread following the path of its human carriers, along trade routes and shipping lines. Outbreaks swept through North America, Europe, Asia, Africa, Brazil and the South Pacific (Taubenberger). In India the mortality rate was extremely high at around 50 deaths from influenza per 1,000 people (Brown).?The Great War, with its mass movements of men in armies and aboard ships, probably aided in its rapid diffusion and attack. The origins of the deadly flu disease were unknown but widely speculated upon. Some of the allies thought of the epidemic as a biological warfare tool of the Germans. Many thought it was a result of the trench warfare, the use of mustard gases and the generated "smoke and fumes" of the war. A national campaign began using the ready rhetoric of war to fight the new enemy of microscopic proportions. A study attempted to reason why the disease had been so devastating in certain localized regions, looking at the climate, the weather and the racial composition of cities. They found humidity to be linked with more severe epidemics as it "fosters the dissemination of the bacteria," (Committee on Atmosphere and Man, 1923). Meanwhile the?new sciences?of the infectious agents and immunology were racing to come up with a vaccine or therapy to stop the epidemics.The origins of this influenza variant is not precisely known. It is thought to have originated in China in a rare genetic shift of the influenza virus. The recombination of its surface proteins created a virus novel to almost everyone and a loss of herd immunity. Recently the virus has been reconstructed from the tissue of a dead soldier and is now being?genetically characterized. The name of Spanish Flu came from the early affliction and large mortalities in Spain (BMJ,10/19/1918) where it allegedly killed 8 million in May (BMJ, 7/13/1918). However, a first wave of influenza appeared early in the spring of 1918 in Kansas and in military camps throughout the US. Few noticed the epidemic in the midst of the war. Wilson had just given his 14 point address. There was virtually no response or acknowledgment to the epidemics in March and April in the military camps. It was unfortunate that no steps were taken to prepare for the usual recrudescence of the virulent influenza strain in the winter. The lack of action was later criticized when the epidemic could not be ignored in the winter of 1918 (BMJ, 1918). These first epidemics at training camps were a sign of what was coming in greater magnitude in the fall and winter of 1918 to the entire world.The war brought the virus back into the US for the second wave of the epidemic. It first arrived in Boston in September of 1918 through the port busy with war shipments of machinery and supplies. The war also enabled the virus to spread and diffuse. Men across the nation were mobilizing to join the military and the cause. As they came together, they brought the virus with them and to those they contacted. The virus killed almost 200,00 in October of 1918 alone. In November 11 of 1918 the end of the war enabled a resurgence. As people celebrated Armistice Day with parades and large partiess, a complete disaster from the?public health?standpoint, a rebirth of the epidemic occurred in some cities. The flu that winter was beyond imagination as millions were infected and thousands died. Just as the war had effected the course of influenza, influenza affected the war. Entire fleets were ill with the disease and men on the front were too sick to fight. The flu was devastating to both sides, killing more men than their own weapons could.With the military patients coming home from the war with battle wounds and mustard gas burns, hospital facilities and staff were taxed to the limit. This created a shortage of physicians, especially in the civilian sector as many had been lost for service with the military. Since the medical practitioners were away with the troops, only the medical students were left to care for the sick. Third and forth year classes were closed and the students assigned jobs as interns or nurses (Starr,1976). One article noted that "depletion has been carried to such an extent that the practitioners are brought very near the breaking point," (BMJ, 11/2/1918). The shortage was further confounded by the added loss of physicians to the epidemic. In the U.S., the Red Cross had to recruit more volunteers to contribute to the new cause at home of fighting the influenza epidemic. To respond with the fullest utilization of nurses, volunteers and medical supplies, the Red Cross created a National Committee on Influenza. It was involved in both military and civilian sectors to mobilize all forces to fight Spanish influenza (Crosby, 1989). In some areas of the US, the nursing shortage was so acute that the Red Cross had to ask local businesses to allow workers to have the day off if they volunteer in the hospitals at night (Deseret News). Emergency hospitals were created to take in the patients from the US and those arriving sick from overseas.The pandemic affected everyone. With one-quarter of the US and one-fifth of the world infected with the influenza, it was impossible to escape from the illness. Even President Woodrow Wilson suffered from the flu in early 1919 while negotiating the crucial treaty of Versailles to end the World War (Tice). Those who were lucky enough to avoid infection had to deal with the public health ordinances to restrain the spread of the disease. The public health departments distributed?gauze masks?to be worn in public. Stores could not hold sales, funerals were limited to 15 minutes. Some towns required a signed certificate to enter and railroads would not accept passengers without them. Those who ignored the flu ordinances had to pay steep fines enforced by extra officers (Deseret News). Bodies pilled up as the massive deaths of the epidemic ensued. Besides the lack of health care workers and medical supplies, there was a shortage of coffins, morticians and gravediggers (Knox). The conditions in 1918 were not so far removed from the Black Death in the era of the bubonic plague of the Middle Ages.In 1918-19 this deadly influenza pandemic erupted during the final stages of World War I. Nations were already attempting to deal with the effects and costs of the war. Propaganda campaigns and war restrictions and rations had been implemented by governments. Nationalism pervaded as people accepted government authority. This allowed the public health departments to easily step in and implement their restrictive measures. The war also gave science greater importance as governments relied on scientists, now armed with the new germ theory and the development of antiseptic surgery, to design vaccines and reduce mortalities of disease and battle wounds. Their new technologies could preserve the men on the front and ultimately save the world. These conditions created by World War I, together with the current social attitudes and ideas, led to the relatively calm response of the public and application of scientific ideas. People allowed for strict measures and loss of freedom during the war as they submitted to the needs of the nation ahead of their personal needs. They had accepted the limitations placed with rationing and drafting. The responses of the public health officials reflected the new allegiance to science and the wartime society. The medical and scientific communities had developed new theories and applied them to prevention, diagnostics and treatment of the influenza patients.Take notes on the following video -Spanish Flu Disaster notes on the following reading from the following reading - The Global HIV/AIDS?Epidemic Global HIV/AIDS?EpidemicJan 19, 2017??OverviewHIV, the virus that causes AIDS, “acquired immunodeficiency syndrome,” has become one of the world’s most serious health and development challenges. The first cases were reported in 1981 and today:There are approximately 36.7 million people currently living with HIV and tens of millions of people have died of AIDS-related causes since the beginning of the epidemic.1,2While new cases have been reported in all regions of the world, approximately two-thirds are in sub-Saharan Africa, with 46% of new cases in Eastern and Southern Africa.1,2Many people living with HIV or at risk for HIV do not have access to prevention, care, and treatment, and there is still no cure.HIV primarily affects those in their most productive years; about a third?of new infections are among young people (ages 15-24).1,2HIV not only affects the health of individuals, it impacts households, communities, and the development and economic growth of nations. Many of the countries hardest hit by HIV also suffer from other infectious diseases, food insecurity, and other serious problems.Despite these challenges, new global efforts have been mounted to address the epidemic and there has been significant progress. The number of people newly infected with HIV, especially children, and the number of AIDS-related deaths have declined over the years, and the number of people with HIV receiving treatment increased to more than 18 million in 2016.3?However, recent data shows that the declines in new infections among adults observed earlier in the epidemic have stalled and incidence is now rising in some areas of the world.4According to the latest estimates from UNAIDS:?1,2,4,5Figure 1: Adult HIV Prevalence, 2015There were?36.7 million?people living with HIV in 2015, up from 33.3 million in 2010, the result of continuing new infections, people living longer with HIV, and general population growth.Global prevalence (the percent of people ages 15-49 who are infected) has leveled since 2001 and was?0.8%?in 2015.1.1 million?people died of AIDS in 2015, a 45% decrease since its peak in 2005. Deaths have declined due in part to antiretroviral treatment (ART) scale-up. HIV remains a leading cause of death worldwide and the number one cause of death in Africa.There were about?2.1?million?new infections in 2015 or about 5,700 new infections per day. While there have been significant declines in new infections since the mid-199os, new infections among adults have failed to decline over the past 5 years and incidence is rising in some regions.Most infections are transmitted heterosexually, although risk factors vary. In some countries, men who have sex with men, injecting drug users, sex workers, transgender people, and prisoners are disproportionally affected by HIV.Although HIV testing capacity has increased over time, enabling more people to learn their HIV status, about 4 in 10 of people with HIV are still unaware they are infected.HIV has led to a resurgence of tuberculosis (TB), particularly in Africa, and TB is a leading cause of death for people with HIV worldwide.6, HYPERLINK "" \l "footnote-193996-7" \o "WHO. Tuberculosis and HIV: ." 7?In 2015, approximately 11% of new TB cases occurred in people living with HIV.8?However, between 2004 and 2014 TB deaths in people living with HIV declined by 32%, largely due to the scale up of joint HIV/TB services.Women represent half (51%) of all adults living with HIV worldwide. HIV is the leading cause of death among women of reproductive age.9?Gender inequalities, differential access to service, and sexual violence increase women’s vulnerability to HIV, and women, especially younger women, are biologically more susceptible to HIV.Young people, ages 15-24, account for approximately a third?of new HIV infections.2?In sub-Saharan Africa, young women 15-24 account for 25% of all new HIV infections among adults, even though they represent only 17% of the adult population.Globally, there were?1.8 million?children living with HIV, 110,000 AIDS-related deaths, and 150,000 new infections among children in 2015. Since 2001, new HIV infections among children have declined by more than 70%.Sub-Saharan Africa.?Sub-Saharan Africa, the hardest hit region, is home to nearly 70% of people living with HIV but only about 13% of the world’s population.1,10?The sub-region of Eastern and Southern Africa is home to more than half (52%) of all people living with HIV, as well as more than half of the children living with HIV (56%). Almost all of the sub-region’s nations have generalized HIV epidemics—that is, their national HIV prevalence is greater than 1%. In 8 countries, 10% or more of adults are estimated to be HIV-positive. South Africa has the highest number of people living with HIV in the world (7.0 million). Swaziland has the highest prevalence in the world (28.8%). New HIV infections among adults in Eastern and Southern Africa have declined by 4% since 2010.Latin America and the Caribbean.?An estimated 2.0 million people are living with HIV in Latin America and the Caribbean combined, including 100,000 newly infected in 2015. Annual new HIV infections among adults increased by 2% in Latin America and by 9% in the Caribbean between 2010 and 2015. Nine countries in Latin America and the Caribbean have generalized epidemics. Of the countries with available data, The Bahamas has the region’s highest prevalence (3.2%), and Brazil the greatest number of people living with the disease (830,000).Eastern Europe and Central Asia.?An estimated 1.5 million people are living with HIV in this region, including 190,000 newly infected in 2015. New HIV infections in the region increased by more than 50% between 2010 and 2015. The epidemic is driven primarily by injecting drug use, which accounted for more than half of new HIV infections in 2015, although heterosexual transmission also plays an important role.Asia and the Pacific.?An estimated 5.1 million people are living with HIV in Asia and the Pacific. The region’s annual number of new HIV infections declined by 3% since 2010. The region is also home to the two most populous nations in the world – China and India – and even relatively low prevalence translate into large numbers of people.Prevention and TreatmentNumerous?prevention?interventions exist to combat HIV, and new tools such as vaccines, are currently being researched.1,?3,?11Effective prevention strategies include behavior change programs, condoms, HIV testing, blood supply safety, harm reduction efforts for injecting drug users, and male circumcision. Additionally, recent research has shown that providing HIV treatment to people with HIV significantly reduces the risk of transmission to their negative partners. Pre-exposure antiretroviral prophylaxis (PrEP) has also been shown to be an effective HIV prevention strategy in individuals at high risk for HIV infection. In 2015, WHO recommended PrEP as a form of prevention for high-risk individuals in combination with other prevention methods. HYPERLINK "" \l "footnote-193996-12" \o "WHO. Guideline on When to Start antiretroviral Therapy and on Pre-Exposure Prophylaxis for HIV; September 2015." 12,13?Further, in 2016, the U.N. Political Declaration on HIV/AIDS stated PrEP research and development should be accelerated.14Experts recommend that prevention be based on “knowing your epidemic,” that is, tailoring prevention to the local context and epidemiology, and using a combination of prevention strategies, bringing programs to scale, and sustaining efforts over time.Access to prevention, however, remains limited, and there have been renewed calls for the strengthening of prevention efforts.4HIV treatment?includes the use of combination antiretroviral therapy to attack the virus itself, and medications to prevent and treat the many opportunistic infections that can occur when the immune system is compromised by HIV. In light of recent research findings, WHO released a guideline in 2015 recommending starting HIV treatment earlier in the course of illness. HYPERLINK "" \l "footnote-193996-1" \o "UNAIDS. Global AIDS Update 2016; 2016." 1,3,12,15,16Combination ART, first introduced in 1996, has led to dramatic reductions in morbidity and mortality, and access has increased in recent years, rising to over 18 million people in 2016.?3Approximately 38% of all people living with HIV are virally suppressed, which means they are likely healthier and less likely to transmit the virus.4?Viral suppression varies greatly by region, key population, and sex.4The percentage of pregnant women receiving ART for the prevention of mother-to-child transmission of HIV increased to 77% in 2015, up from 50% in 2010. Access to ART among children has also risen significantly, from 21% in 2010 to 49% in 2015.Take notes on the following video- HIV/AIDS in AFRICA: A 10 MINUTE OVERVIEW 1: HIV Prevalence & Incidence by Region, 20152RegionTotal No. (%) Living with HIVNewly InfectedAdult Prevalence [%]Global Total36.7 million (100%)2.1 million0.8Eastern and Southern Africa19.0 million (52%)960,0007.1Western and Central Africa6.5 million (18%)410,0002.2Asia and the Pacific5.1 million (14%)300,0000.2Western and Central Europe and North America2.4 million (7%)91,0000.3Latin America and the Caribbean2.0 million (5%)100,0000.5Eastern Europe and Central Asia1.5 million (4%)190,0000.9Middle East and North Africa230,000 (<1%)21,0000.1Overview2-3 details, no small details, but big picturePartsRead labels, look for symbols, Write 2-3 details about the individual parts/symbols I learned that Name two details that you learned from the image and the reading about itContext How does this fit into this chapter”?Watch the video and read from the following website that is linked to Mr. Wood’s website- Ebola Fast Facts - the following video from Mr. Wood’s website- The Story of Ebola - Diseases – How people live in the modern world can cause the following diseases:Watch the following video and take notes- Lifestyle and heart disease- from- 1:35 - and take notes on lifestyle choices and their effect on heart disease (cardiovascular diseases) Understanding Heart Disease (Heart Basics #1)- Heart Association statistical report tracks global figures for first time… Health data compiled from more than 190 countries show heart disease remains the No. 1 global cause of death with 17.3 million deaths each year, according to “Heart Disease and Stroke Statistics — 2015 Update: A Report From the American Heart Association.” That number is expected to rise to more than 23.6 million by 2030, the report found.Stroke remains the No. 2 cause of death in the world. The stroke death rate — the number of deaths per 100,000 people — went down between 1990 and 2010. However, the number of people having first and recurrent strokes each year went up, reaching 33 million in 2010.Overview2-3 details, no small details, but big picturePartsRead labels, look for symbols, Write 2-3 details about the individual parts/symbols I learned that Name two details that you learned from the image and the reading about itContext How does this fit into this chapter”?What Is Diabetes- REPORT ON DIABETES- SUMMARY Diabetes is a serious, chronic disease that occurs either when the pancreas does not produce enough insulin (a hormone that regulates blood sugar, or glucose), or when the body cannot effectively use the insulin it produces. Diabetes is an important public health problem, one of four priority noncommunicable diseases (NCDs) targeted for action by world leaders. Both the number of cases and the prevalence of diabetes have been steadily increasing over the past few decades. GLOBAL BURDEN: Globally, an estimated 422 million adults were living with diabetes in 2014, compared to 108 million in 1980. The global prevalence (age-standardized) of diabetes has nearly doubled since 1980, rising from 4.7% to 8.5% in the adult population. This reflects an increase in associated risk factors such as being overweight or obese. Over the past decade, diabetes prevalence has risen faster in low- and middle-income countries than in high-income?countries. Diabetes caused 1.5 million deaths in 2012. Higher-than-optimal blood glucose caused an additional 2.2 million deaths, by increasing the risks of cardiovascular and other diseases. Forty-three percent of these 3.7 million deaths occur before the age of 70 years. The percentage of deaths attributable to high blood glucose or diabetes that occurs prior to age?70 is higher in low- and middle-income countries than in high-income ?countries. Because sophisticated laboratory tests are usually required to distinguish between type 1 diabetes (which requires insulin injections for survival) and type 2 diabetes (where the body cannot properly use the insulin it produces), separate global estimates of diabetes prevalence for type 1 and type 2 do not exist. The majority of people with diabetes are affected by type 2 diabetes. This used to occur nearly entirely among adults, but now occurs in children too. COMPLICATIONS Diabetes of all types can lead to complications in many parts of the body and can increase the overall risk of dying prematurely. Possible complications include heart attack, stroke, kidney failure, leg amputation, vision loss and nerve damage. In pregnancy, poorly controlled diabetes increases the risk of fetal death and other complications. ECONOMIC IMPACT Diabetes and its complications bring about substantial economic loss to people with diabetes and their families, and to health systems and national economies through direct medical costs and loss of work and wages. While the major cost drivers are hospital and outpatient care, a contributing factor is the rise in cost for analogue insulins 1 which are increasingly prescribed despite little evidence that they provide significant advantages over cheaper human insulins.What is Alzheimer's disease? - Ivan Seah Yu Jun- Alzheimer’s Statistics- ’s WorldwideWorldwide,?nearly 44 million?people have Alzheimer’s or a related dementia. (Alzheimer’s Disease International)Only 1-in-4 people with Alzheimer’s disease have been diagnosed. (Alzheimer’s Disease International)Alzheimer’s and dementia is?most common in Western Europe?(North America is close behind).Alzheimer’s is?least prevalent in Sub-Saharan Africa.?(Alzheimer’s Disease International)Alzheimer’s and other dementias are the?top cause for disabilities?in later life. (Alzheimer’s Disease International)The Cost of Alzheimer’s CareThe cost of caring for Alzheimer’s patients in the U.S. is estimated to be?$236 billion in 2016. (Alzheimer’s Association)The global cost of Alzheimer’s and dementia is estimated to be?$605 billion, which is equivalent to 1% of the entire world’s gross domestic product.Medicare and Medicaid are expected to pay?$154 billion in 2015?for health care, long-term care and hospice for people with Alzheimer’s and other dementias.Aggregate?Cost of Care by Payer for Americans Age 65 and Older with Alzheimer‘s Disease?and Other Dementias:?Medicare?$113 Billion,?Medicaid?$41 Billion, ?Out of pocket?$44 Billion,?Other?$29 Billion.Alzheimer’s in the United States1-in-9 Americans over 65?has Alzheimer’s disease.?(Alzheimer’s Association)When the first wave of baby boomers reaches age 85 (in 2031), it is projected that more than 3 million people age 85 and older will have Alzheimer’s. (Alzheimer’s Association)One-third of Americans over age 85?are afflicted with the illness. (Alzheimer’s Association)5.3 million Americans?are living with Alzheimer’s disease. (Alzheimer’s Association)Unless a cure is found, more than?16 million?Americans will have the disease by 2050. (Alzheimer’s Association)Alzheimer’s disease is the?6th leading cause of death?in America. (Centers for Disease Control)1-in-3 seniors die with Alzheimer’s?or another kind of dementia. (Centers for Disease Control)Typical life expectancy after an Alzheimer’s diagnosis is?4-to-8 years. (Alzheimer’s Association)In 2016, the 85-years-and-older population includes about?2 million?people with Alzheimer’s disease, or?40%?of all people with Alzheimer’s age 65 and older. (Alzheimer’s Association)By 2050, there could be as many as?7 million?people age 85 and older with Alzheimer’s disease, accounting for half (51%) of all people 65 and older with Alzheimer’s. (Alzheimer’s Association)Proportion of?People With Alzheimer’s Disease in the United States?by Age: (Alzheimer’s Association)?85+ years – 38%, ?75-84 years, 44%,?65-74 years, 15%,?<65 years, 4%Who Gets Alzheimer’s Disease?2-in-3? people with Alzheimer’s are women. (Alzheimer’s Association)African Americans and Hispanic Americans are more likely to develop Alzheimer’s than Caucasian?Americans. (Alzheimer’s Association)North Dakota has a higher rate of Alzheimer’s mortality?than any other state. (54 Alzheimer’s deaths a year per 100,000 residents)Alzheimer’s mortality is lowest in Nevada.?(11 Alzheimer’s deaths a year per each 100,000 residents) (Alzheimer’s Association)30% of people with Alzheimer’s also have heart disease, and 29% also have diabetes. (Alzheimer’s Association)Overview2-3 details, no small details, but big picturePartsRead labels, look for symbols, Write 2-3 details about the individual parts/symbols I learned that Name two details that you learned from the image and the reading about itContext How does this fit into this chapter”?CCOT Essay - Use information from both Era 5 (especially for the industrial Revolution) and the rest of this packet (parts II- IV) to answer the following essay question Identify and explain the changes and continuities that existed in Inventions and scientific discoveries from the time period of 1750-1900 to 1900- today.Part II- Inventions , Scientific Theories and discoveriesGo to the following site on Mr. Wood’s web page - Inventions 1900 to 1990- down from the list what you think are the four most important inventions from 1900- 1990 and write down why these inventions were the most important InventionWhy do you think it was important 2-3 details Take notes on the following site from Mr. Wood’s website- Ford Model T - 100 Years Later notes on the following site from Mr. Wood’s website - The Invention of The Telephone - Take notes on the following site from Mr. Wood’s website - The History of Email- notes on the following video from Mr. Wood’s website - The Plane of the Wright Brothers (Milestones of Science) from 8:10 – 9:30, 11:10 – 14:05 – The Music alone makes this video worth watching! Take notes on the following Wikipedia page: Green RevolutionFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopediaFor other uses, see?Green Revolution (disambiguation).The?Green Revolution?refers to a set of research and development of?technology transfer?initiatives occurring between the 1930s and the late 1960s (with prequels in the work of the agrarian geneticist? HYPERLINK "" \o "Nazareno Strampelli" Nazareno Strampelli?in the 1920s and 1930s), that increased agricultural production worldwide, particularly in the developing world, beginning most markedly in the late 1960s.[1]?The initiatives resulted in the adoption of new technologies, including:...new,?high-yielding varieties?(HYVs) of cereals, especially?dwarf wheats?and rices, in association with?chemical fertilizers?and?agro-chemicals, and with controlled water-supply (usually involving?irrigation) and new methods of cultivation, including mechanization. All of these together were seen as a 'package of practices' to supersede 'traditional' technology and to be adopted as a whole.[2]The initiatives, led by?Norman Borlaug, the "Father of the Green Revolution", who received the?Nobel Peace Prize?in 1970, credited with saving over a billion people from starvation, involved the development of high-yielding varieties of cereal grains, expansion of irrigation infrastructure, modernization of management techniques, distribution of?hybridized seeds, synthetic fertilizers, and?pesticides?to farmers.The term "Green Revolution" was first used in 1968 by former?US Agency for International Development?(USAID) director?William Gaud, who noted the spread of the new technologies: "These and other developments in the field of agriculture contain the makings of a new revolution. It is not a violent?Red Revolution?like that of the Soviets, nor is it a?White Revolution?like that of the?Shah of Iran. I call it the Green Revolution."[3]The Green Revolution: Waging A War Against Hunger the following video from Mr. Wood’s website: Winner National History Day 2012 - The Green Revolution: Against All Odds- details, no small details, but big picturePartsRead labels, look for symbols, Write 2-3 details about the individual parts/symbols I learned that Name two details that you learned from the image and the reading about itContext How does this fit into this chapter”?Watch the following video from Mr. Wood’s website- The Polio Story - The Vaccine That Changed the World- from the beginning to 1:10 - How have vaccines affected human life and stopped disease over the past century? 1:30- 4:00 Why was polio such a problem in the 1930’s to 1952’s in the United States? 4:00 – 7:40 - What were some of the ideas people had about how the disease was spread? How was it actually spread? What did the disease do to the body? 15:25 – 16:00- What was Jonas Salk’s goal? 25:05 – 29:35 - How was the vaccinations from Jonas Salk tested? 37:45 – 40:05 - What are the results of Salk’s vaccine when it was tested around the country in the United States? 42:20 – 43:45 - What did Jonas Salk do with his vaccine after he created it? What large effect did his vaccine have? Read the following from Mr. Wood’s Website- The History of Antibiotics- History of AntibioticsAntibiotics: What’s in a Name?The term antibiotics literally means “against life”; in this case, against microbes. There are many types of antibiotics—antibacterials, antivirals, antifungals, and antiparasitics. Some drugs are effective against many organisms; these are called broad-spectrum antibiotics. Others are effective against just a few organisms and are called narrowspectrum antibiotics. The most commonly used antibiotics are antibacterials. Your child may have received ampicillin for an ear infection or penicillin for a strep throat.When a child is sick, parents worry. Even if he has only a mild cold that makes him cranky and restless or an achy ear that only hurts a little, these times can be very stressful. Of course, you want him to get the best possible treatment. For many parents, this means taking him to the pediatrician and leaving the office with a prescription for antibiotics.But that isn’t necessarily what will happen during the doctor’s visit. After examining your youngster, your pediatrician may tell you that based on your child’s symptoms and perhaps some test results, antibiotics just are not necessary.??Many parents are surprised by this decision. After all, antibiotics are powerful medicines that have eased human pain and suffering for decades. They have even saved lives. But most doctors aren’t as quick to reach for their prescription pads as they once were. In recent years, they’re realizing there is a downside to choosing antibiotics—if these medicines are used when they’re not needed or they’re taken incorrectly, they can actually place your child at a greater health risk. That’s right—antibiotics have to be prescribed and used with care, or their potential benefits will decrease for everyone.A Look BackSerious diseases that once killed thousands of youngsters each year have been almost eliminated in many parts of the world because of the widespread use of childhood vaccinations.In much the same way, the discovery of antimicrobial drugs (antibiotics) was one of the most significant medical achievements of the 20th century. There are several types of antimicrobials—antibacterials, antivirals, antifungals, and antiparasitic drugs. (Although antibacterials are often referred to by the general term antibiotics, we will use the more precise term.) Of course, antimicrobials aren’t magic bullets that can heal every disease. When used at the right time, they can cure many serious and life-threatening illnesses.Antibacterials are specifically designed to treat bacterial infections. Billions of microscopic bacteria normally live on the skin, in the gut, and in our mouths and throats. Most are harmless to humans, but some are pathogenic (disease producing) and can cause infections in the ears, throat, skin, and other parts of the body. In the pre-antibiotic era of the early 1900s, people had no medicines against these common germs and as a result, human suffering was enormous. Even though the body’s disease-fighting immune system can often successfully fight off bacterial infections, sometimes the germs (microbes) are too strong and your child can get sick. For example,Before antibiotics, 90% of children with bacterial meningitis died. Among those children who lived, most had severe and lasting disabilities, from deafness to mental retardation.Strep throat was at times a fatal disease, and ear infections sometimes spread from the ear to the brain, causing severe problems.Other serious infections, from tuberculosis to pneumonia to whooping cough, were caused by aggressive bacteria that reproduced with extraordinary speed and led to serious illness and sometimes death.The Emergence of PenicillinWith the discovery of penicillin and the dawning of the antibiotic era, the body’s own defenses gained a powerful ally. In the 1920s, British scientist Alexander Fleming was working in his laboratory at St. Mary’s Hospital in London when almost by accident, he discovered a naturally growing substance that could attack certain bacteria. In one of his experiments in 1928, Fleming observed colonies of the common Staphylococcus aureus bacteria that had been worn down or killed by mold growing on the same plate or petri dish. He determined that the mold made a substance that could dissolve the bacteria. He called this substance penicillin, named after the Penicillium mold that made it. Fleming and others conducted a series of experiments over the next 2 decades using penicillin removed from mold cultures that showed its ability to destroy infectious bacteria.Before long, other researchers in Europe and the United States started recreating Fleming’s experiments. They were able to make enough penicillin to begin testing it in animals and then humans. Starting in 1941, they found that even low levels of penicillin cured very serious infections and saved many lives. For his discoveries, Alexander Fleming won the Nobel Prize in Physiology and Medicine.Drug companies were very interested in this discovery and started making penicillin for commercial purposes. It was used widely for treating soldiers during World War II, curing battlefield wound infections and pneumonia. By the mid- to late 1940s, it became widely accessible for the general public. Newspaper headlines hailed it as a miracle drug (even though no medicine has ever really fit that description).With the success of penicillin, the race to produce other antibiotics began. Today, pediatricians and other doctors can choose from dozens of antibiotics now on the market, and they’re being prescribed in very high numbers. At least 150 million antibiotic prescriptions are written in the United States each year, many of them for children.Problems With AntibioticsThe success of antibiotics has been impressive. At the same time, however, excitement about them has been tempered by a phenomenon called antibiotic resistance. This is a problem that surfaced not long after the introduction of penicillin and now threatens the usefulness of these important medicines.Almost from the beginning, doctors noted that in some cases, penicillin was not useful against certain strains of Staphylococcus aureus (bacteria that causes skin infections). Since then, this problem of resistance has grown worse, involving other bacteria and antibiotics. This is a public health concern. Increasingly, some serious infections have become more difficult to treat, forcing doctors to prescribe a second or even third antibiotic when the first treatment does not work.In light of this growing antibiotic resistance, many doctors have become much more careful in the way they prescribe these medicines. They see the importance of giving antibiotics only when they’re absolutely necessary. In fact, one recent survey of office-based physicians, published in JAMA: The Journal of the American Medical Association in 2002, showed that doctors lowered the number of antibiotic prescriptions they prescribed for children with common respiratory infections by about 40% during the 1990s.Antibiotics should be used wisely and only as directed by your pediatrician. Following these guidelines, their life-saving properties will be preserved for your child and generations to come.Watch the video from Mr. Wood’s website- How Do Antibiotics Work?- details, no small details, but big picturePartsRead labels, look for symbols, Write 2-3 details about the individual parts/symbols I learned that Name two details that you learned from the image and the reading about itContext How does this fit into this chapter”?Take notes from the following Wikipedia siteArtificial heartFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopediaAn?artificial heart?is a device that replaces the?heart. Artificial hearts are typically used to bridge the time to?heart transplantation, or to permanently replace the heart in case heart transplantation is impossible. Although other similar inventions preceded it going back to the late 1940s, the first artificial heart to be successfully implanted in a human was the Jarvik-7 in 1982, designed by a team including?Willem Johan Kolff?and?Robert Jarvik.An artificial heart is distinct from a?ventricular assist device?designed to support a failing heart. It is also distinct from a?cardiopulmonary bypass?machine, which is an external device used to provide the functions of both the heart and lungs and are used only for a few hours at a time, most commonly during?cardiac surgery.Watch the video from Mr. Wood’s website- State of the Heart: A history of artificial heart development (1994) Watch from the beginning to 2:10 Part III- Resources use and environmental consequencesWatch the video from Mr. Wood’s website - Crude - The Incredible Journey Of Oil - – 4:05 – How is our current age an age of Oil?Watch the video from Mr. Wood’s website Where Does Our Oil Come From?- the video from Mr. Wood’s website Who Controls The World's Oil? - notes on the video on Mr. Wood’s website - Inside a nuclear reactor core - Bang Goes The Theory – BBC - note on the following reading from Mr. Wood’s websites - 11 Facts About Nuclear Energy power plants use “nuclear fission” (the process of splitting an atom in two). “Nuclear fusion” (the process of combining atoms into one) has the potential to be safer but has not yet been developed to operate within a large power plant.Nuclear energy comes from uranium, a nonrenewable resource that must be mined.Every 18 to 24 months, a power plant must shut down to remove its spent uranium fuel, which becomes radioactive waste.Nuclear power plants generate about 20% of U.S. electricity.Nuclear energy is being used in more than 30 countries around the world and even powers Mars rovers.Nuclear power plants use large quantities of water for steam production and for cooling. Some nuclear power plants remove large quantities of water from a lake or river, which could affect fish and other aquatic life.More than 70% of America’s emission-free power comes from nuclear energy sources.1 in 5 households and business in the US are electrically powered by nuclear energy.United States power plants produce 2,000 metric tons of radioactive waste every year.Electricity generated by nuclear energy is not as susceptible to fluctuations in coal and gas prices.American nuclear energy facilities are the highest regulated plants in the world, subject to scrutinous observations and regulations.Take notes on the video on Mr. Wood’s website - Climate Change 101 with Bill Nye - notes on the video on Mr. Wood’s website - Greenhouse Gases and Global Warming and take notes on the following website:?Deforestation- about the man-made and natural causes of deforestation–and how it's impacting our planet.Deforestation is clearing Earth's forests on a massive scale, often resulting in damage to the quality of the land. Forests still cover about 30 percent of the world’s land area, but swaths half the size of England are lost each year.The world’s?rain forests?could completely vanish in a hundred years at the current rate of The biggest driver of deforestation is agriculture. Farmers cut forests to provide more room for planting crops or grazing livestock. Often, small farmers will clear a few acres by cutting down trees and burning them in a process known as?slash and burn agriculture.Logging operations, which provide the world’s wood and paper products, also cut countless trees each year. Loggers, some of them?acting illegally, also build roads to access more and more remote forests—which leads to further deforestation. Forests are also cut as a result of growing urban sprawl as land is developed for dwellings.Not all deforestation is intentional. Some is caused by a combination of human and natural factors like?wildfires?and subsequent overgrazing, which may prevent the growth of young trees.EFFECTS OF DEFORESTATIONDeforestation can have a negative impact on the environment. The most dramatic impact is a loss of habitat for millions of species. Eighty percent of Earth’s land animals and plants?live in forests, and many cannot survive the deforestation that destroys their homes.Deforestation also drives climate change. Forest soils are moist, but without protection from sun-blocking tree cover, they quickly dry out. Trees also help perpetuate the?water cycle?by returning water vapor to the atmosphere. Without trees to fill these roles, many former forest lands can quickly become barren deserts.Removing trees deprives the forest of portions of its canopy, which blocks the sun’s rays during the day, and holds in heat at night. This disruption leads to more extreme temperature swings that can be harmful to plants and animals.Trees also play a critical role in absorbing the greenhouse gases that fuel global warming. Fewer forests means larger amounts of?greenhouse gasesentering the atmosphere—and increased speed and severity of global warming.The most feasible solution to deforestation is to carefully manage forest resources by eliminating clear-cutting to make sure forest environments remain intact. The cutting that does occur should be balanced by planting young trees to replace older trees felled. The number of new tree plantations is growing each year, but their total still equals a tiny fraction of the Earth’s forested land.Take notes on the following video from Mr. Wood’s website: CNN Explains: Deforestation- notes on the following video from Mr. Wood’s website: [GCSE] Desertification - Rate Across The Globe Reaches Historical Proportions- , Texas -- Half of all living bird and mammal species will be gone within 200 or 300 years, according to a botany professor at The University of Texas at Austin.Although the extinction of various species is a natural phenomenon, the rate of extinction occurring in today's world is exceptional -- as many as 100 to1,000 times greater than normal, Dr. Donald A. Levin said in the January-February issue of American Scientist magazine. The co-author is Levin's son, Phillip S. Levin, a National Marine Fisheries Service biologist who is an expert on the demography of fish, especially salmon.Levin's column noted that on average, a distinct species of plant or animal becomes extinct every 20 minutes. Donald Levin, who works in the section of integrative biology in the College of Natural Sciences, said research shows the rate of current loss is highly unusual -- clearly qualifying the present period as one of the six great periods of mass extinction in the history of Earth."The numbers are grim," he said. "Some 2,000 species of Pacific Island birds (about 15 percent of the world total) have gone extinct since human colonization. Roughly 20 of the 297 known mussel and clam species and 40 of about 950 fishes have perished in North America in the last century. The globe has experienced similar waves of destruction just five times in the past."Biological diversity ultimately recovered after each of the five past mass extinctions, probably requiring several million years in each instance. As for today's mass extinction, Levin said some ecologists believe the low level of species diversity may become a permanent state, especially if vast tracts of wilderness area are destroyed.Other experts, in contrast, say breaking up today's vast ranges into smaller habitats could promote the evolution of new species. That's because populations of the same type of organism that are separated from each other may diverge over time. As populations are reduced in size, genetic changes may accumulate more rapidly. Another reason diversity may rebound -- as it normally does after a major extinction episode -- is that disturbances caused by human beings do not eliminate habitats, but merely change them.Story Source:Materials provided by?University Of Texas, Austin.?Note: Content may be edited for style and length.Overview2-3 details, no small details, but big picturePartsRead labels, look for symbols, Write 2-3 details about the individual parts/symbols I learned that Name two details that you learned from the image and the reading about itContext How does this fit into this chapter”?Part IV- Improved Military Technology-1915 First tank produced - this day in 1915, a prototype tank nicknamed Little Willie rolls off the assembly line in England. Little Willie was far from an overnight success. It weighed 14 tons, got stuck in trenches and crawled over rough terrain at only two miles per hour. However, improvements were made to the original prototype and tanks eventually transformed military battlefields.The British developed the tank in response to the trench warfare of World War I. In 1914, a British army colonel named Ernest Swinton and William Hankey, secretary of the Committee for Imperial Defence, championed the idea of an armored vehicle with conveyor-belt-like tracks over its wheels that could break through enemy lines and traverse difficult territory. The men appealed to British navy minister Winston Churchill, who believed in the concept of a “land boat” and organized a Landships Committee to begin developing a prototype. To keep the project secret from enemies, production workers were reportedly told the vehicles they were building would be used to carry water on the battlefield (alternate theories suggest the shells of the new vehicles resembled water tanks). Either way, the new vehicles were shipped in crates labeled “tank” and the name stuck.The first tank prototype, Little Willie, was unveiled in September 1915. Following its underwhelming performance–it was slow, became overheated and couldn’t cross trenches–a second prototype, known as “Big Willie,” was produced. By 1916, this armored vehicle was deemed ready for battle and made its debut at the First Battle of the Somme near Courcelette, France, on September 15 of that year. Known as the Mark I, this first batch of tanks was hot, noisy and unwieldy and suffered mechanical malfunctions on the battlefield; nevertheless, people realized the tank’s potential. Further design improvements were made and at the Battle of Cambrai in November 1917, 400 Mark IV’s proved much more successful than the Mark I, capturing 8,000 enemy troops and 100 guns.Tanks rapidly became an important military weapon. During World War II, they played a prominent role across numerous battlefields. More recently, tanks have been essential for desert combat during the conflicts in the Persian Gulf.Tanks in World War IIFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopediaTanks?were an important weapons system in?World War II.?Although?tanks were the subject of widespread research in the inter-war years, production was limited to relatively small numbers in a few countries. However, during World War II most armies employed tanks, and production levels reached thousands each month. Tank usage, doctrine and production varied widely among the combatant nations. By war's end, a consensus was emerging regarding tank doctrine and design.The?tank?was invented by the British in?World War I, with nearly simultaneous development in?France. Tanks of the First World War reflected the novelty of the idea and the primitive state of the?automotive industry. World War I tanks moved at a walking pace, were relatively unreliable, and the best usage of them was still developing up to the war's end.[1]?A breakthrough in tank design was the?Christie suspension: a?suspension?system developed by American engineer?J. Walter Christie?which allowed considerably longer movement of the suspension than conventional?leaf-spring?systems then in common use, and allowed the tanks to have considerably greater cross-country speed.[2]The doctrine of?armored warfare?changed radically in the inter-war years as armies sought ways to avoid the deadlock imposed by modern firepower and looked for the means to restore offensive power on the battlefield. Initially, tanks had been used for close support of infantry, but as modern mechanized doctrine was developed by several armies, tanks became an essential part of the combined-arms team. In addition to infantry support, tanks fulfilled traditional?cavalry?roles, provided mobile artillery support, and were adapted to?combat engineering?roles.[3]Tank design gradually improved in the inter-war period also. Reflecting the growth of the automotive industry, tank engines, transmissions, and track systems were improved. By the beginning of the war in September 1939, tanks were available that could travel hundreds of miles on their tracks with a limited number of breakdowns.[4]The war accelerated the pace of change in design. In particular, the gun-vs-armor race of the war led to rapid improvements in firepower and armor (both in thickness and design).[3]World War II Tanks- notes from the following Wikipedia page- Military aviationHistory[ HYPERLINK "" \o "Edit section: History" edit]Further information:?Timeline of military aviationThe first military uses of aviation involved?lighter-than-air?balloons. During the?Battle of Fleurus?in 1794, the French observation balloon?l'Entreprenant?was used to monitor Austrian troop movements.[1]?The use of lighter-than-air aircraft in warfare became prevalent in the 19th century, including regular use in the?American Civil War. Lighter-than-air military aviation persisted until shortly after?World War II, gradually being withdrawn from various roles as heavier-than-air aircraft improved.Heavier-than-air aircraft were recognized as having military applications early on, despite resistance from traditionalists and the severe limitations of early aircraft. The?U.S. Army Signal Corps?purchased a?Wright Model A?on 2 August 1909 which became the first military aircraft in history.[2]?In 1911, the Italians used a variety of aircraft types in reconnaissance, photo-reconnaissance, and bombing roles during the? HYPERLINK "" \o "Italo-Turkish War" Italo-Turkish War.[3]?On October 23, 1911, an Italian pilot, Captain Carlo Piazza, flew over Turkish lines on the world's first aerial?reconnaissance?mission,[4]?and on November 1, the first ever?aerial bomb?was dropped by? HYPERLINK "" \o "Second Lieutenant" Sottotenente? HYPERLINK "" \o "Giulio Gavotti" Giulio Gavotti, on Turkish troops in?Libya, from an early model of? HYPERLINK "" \o "Etrich Taube" Etrich Taube?aircraft.[5]?The?Turks, lacking?anti-aircraft?weapons, were the first to shoot down an? HYPERLINK "" \o "Aeroplane" aeroplane?by?rifle?fire.[6]The earliest military role filled by aircraft was?reconnaissance, however, by the end of?World War I, military aviation had rapidly embraced many specialized roles, such as artillery spotting, air superiority, bombing, ground attack, and anti-submarine patrols. Technological improvements were made at a frenzied pace, and the first?all-metal cantilevered airplanes?were going into service as the war ended.Between the major?world wars?incremental improvements made in many areas, especially powerplants, aerodynamics, structures, and weapons, led to an even more rapid advance in aircraft technology during World War II, with large performance increases and the introduction of aircraft into new roles, including?Airborne Early Warning,?electronic warfare,?weather reconnaissance, and flying lifeboats. Great Britain used aircraft to suppress revolts throughout the Empire during the?interwar period?and introduced the first?military transports, which revolutionized?logistics, allowing troops and supplies to be quickly delivered over vastly greater distances.While they first appeared during World War I, ground attack aircraft didn't provide a decisive contribution until the Germans introduced?Blitzkrieg?during the?Invasion of Poland?and?Battle of France, where aircraft functioned as mobile flying artillery to quickly disrupt defensive formations. The Allies would later use rocket-equipped fighters in the same role, immobilizing German armored divisions during the?Battle of Normandy?and afterwards. World War I also saw the creation of the first strategic bomber units, however, they wouldn't be tested until the?Spanish Civil War?where the perceived effects of mass bombardment would encourage their widespread use during World War II.?Carrier aviation?also first appeared during World War I, and likewise came to play a major role during World War II, with most major navies recognizing the aircraft carrier's advantages over the?battleship?and devoting massive resources to the building of new carriers.During World War II,?U-boats?threatened the ability of the?Allies?to transport troops and war materiel to Europe, spurring the development of very long range?Maritime patrol?aircraft, whose capability of independently detecting and destroying submerged submarines was greatly increased with new detection systems, including? HYPERLINK "" \o "Sonobuoy" sonobuoys,?Leigh lights, and?radar, along with better weapons including?homing torpedoes?and improved?depth charges. This played a major role in winning the?Battle of the Atlantic. Aircraft also played a much expanded role, with many notable engagements being decided solely through the use of military aircraft, such as the?Battle of Britain?or the?attack on Pearl Harbor, and the conclusion of the?Pacific War?against Japan was marked by two lone aircraft dropping the?atomic bombs,?devastating?the cities of?Hiroshima?and?Nagasaki. The introduction of the?jet engine,?radar, early?missiles,?helicopters, and?computers?are World War II advancements which are felt to the present day.Post World War II, the development of military aviation was spurred by the?Cold War?stand-off between the super-powers. The?helicopter?appeared late in World War II and matured into an indispensable part of military aviation, transporting troops and providing expanded anti-submarine capabilities to smaller warships, negating the need for large numbers of small carriers. The need to out-perform opponents pushed new technology and aircraft developments in the?U.S.S.R.?and the?United States, among others, and the?Korean War?and the?Vietnam War?tested the resulting designs. Incredible advances in electronics were made, starting with the first electronic computers during World War II and steadily expanding from its original role of cryptography into communications, data processing, reconnaissance, remotely piloted aircraft, and many other roles until it has become an integral aspect of modern warfare. In the early 1960s, missiles were expected to replace manned interceptors and the guns in other manned aircraft. They failed to live up to expectations as?surface-to-air missiles?lacked flexibility and were not as effective as manned interceptors, and fighters equipped only with?air-to-air missiles?had limited effectiveness against opposing aircraft which could avoid being hit. Missiles were also expensive, especially against low-value ground targets. The 1970s saw the return of the gun-armed fighter, and a greater emphasis on maneuverability. The 1980s through to the present day were characterized by?stealth technology?and other countermeasures.Today, a country's military aviation forces are often the first line of defense against an attack, or the first forces to attack the enemy, and effective military aviation forces (or lack thereof) have proved decisive in several recent conflicts such as the?Gulf War.Oppenheimer, Fermi, and Einstein Urge Roosevelt to Commence the Manhattan Project - . The Manhattan Project - in 1939, the world's scientific community discovered that German physicists had learned the secrets of splitting a uranium atom. Fears soon spread over the possibility of Nazi scientists utilizing that energy to produce a bomb capable of unspeakable destruction.Scientists?ALBERT EINSTEIN, who fled Nazi persecution, and?ENRICO FERMI, who escaped Fascist Italy, were now living in the United States. They agreed that the President must be informed of the dangers of atomic technology in the hands of the Axis powers. Fermi traveled to Washington in March to express his concerns on government officials. But few shared his uneasiness.Einstein penned a letter to President Roosevelt urging the development of an atomic research program later that year. Roosevelt saw neither the necessity nor the utility for such a project, but agreed to proceed slowly. In late 1941, the American effort to design and build an?ATOMIC BOMB?received its code name — the?MANHATTAN PROJECT.At first the research was based at only a few universities — Columbia University, the University of Chicago and the University of California at Berkeley. A breakthrough occurred in December 1942 when Fermi led a group of physicists to produce the first controlled?NUCLEAR CHAIN REACTION?under the grandstands of?STAGG FIELD?at the University of Chicago.After this milestone, funds were allocated more freely, and the project advanced at breakneck speed. Nuclear facilities were built at Oak Ridge, Tennessee and Hanford, Washington. The main assembly plant was built at?LOS ALAMOS, NEW MEXICO.?ROBERT OPPENHEIMER?was put in charge of putting the pieces together at Los Alamos. After the final bill was tallied, nearly $2 billion had been spent on research and development of the atomic bomb. The Manhattan Project employed over 120,000 Americans.Secrecy was paramount. Neither the Germans nor the Japanese could learn of the project. Roosevelt and Churchill also agreed that the Stalin would be kept in the dark. Consequently, there was no public awareness or debate. Keeping 120,000 people quiet would be impossible; therefore only a small privileged cadre of inner scientists and officials knew about the atomic bomb's development. In fact, Vice-President Truman had never heard of the Manhattan Project until he became President Truman.Although the Axis powers remained unaware of the efforts at Los Alamos, American leaders later learned that a Soviet spy named?KLAUS FUCHS?had penetrated the inner circle of scientists.By the summer of 1945, Oppenheimer was ready to test the first bomb. On July 16, 1945, at?TRINITY SITE?near?ALAMOGORDO, NEW MEXICO, scientists of the Manhattan Project readied themselves to watch the detonation of the world's first atomic bomb. The device was affixed to a 100-foot tower and discharged just before dawn. No one was properly prepared for the result.A blinding flash visible for 200 miles lit up the morning sky. A mushroom cloud reached 40,000 feet, blowing out windows of civilian homes up to 100 miles away. When the cloud returned to earth it created a half-mile wide crater metamorphosing sand into glass. A bogus cover-up story was quickly released, explaining that a huge ammunition dump had just exploded in the desert. Soon word reached President Truman in Potsdam, Germany that the project was successful.The world had entered the nuclear age.BOMBING OF HIROSHIMA AND NAGASAKI- August 6, 1945, during World War II (1939-45), an American B-29 bomber dropped the world’s first deployed atomic bomb over the Japanese city of Hiroshima. The explosion wiped out 90 percent of the city and immediately killed 80,000 people; tens of thousands more would later die of radiation exposure. Three days later, a second B-29 dropped another A-bomb on Nagasaki, killing an estimated 40,000 people. Japan’s Emperor Hirohito announced his country’s unconditional surrender in World War II in a radio address on August 15, citing the devastating power of “a new and most cruel bomb.”THE MANHATTAN PROJECTEven before the outbreak of war in 1939, a group of American scientists–many of them refugees from fascist regimes in Europe–became concerned with nuclear weapons research being conducted in Nazi Germany. In 1940, the U.S. government began funding its own atomic weapons development program, which came under the joint responsibility of the Office of Scientific Research and Development and the War Department after the U.S. entry into?World War II. The U.S. Army Corps of Engineers was tasked with spearheading the construction of the vast facilities necessary for the top-secret program, codenamed “The Manhattan Project ” (for the engineering corps’ Manhattan district).Over the next several years, the program’s scientists worked on producing the key materials for nuclear fission–uranium-235 and plutonium (Pu-239). They sent them to Los Alamos,?New Mexico, where a team led by J. Robert Oppenheimer worked to turn these materials into a workable atomic bomb. Early on the morning of July 16, 1945, the Manhattan Project held its first successful test of an atomic device–a plutonium bomb–at the Trinity test site at Alamogordo, New Mexico.NO SURRENDER FOR THE JAPANESEBy the time of the Trinity test, the Allied powers had already defeated Germany in Europe. Japan, however, vowed to fight to the bitter end in the Pacific, despite clear indications (as early as 1944) that they had little chance of winning. In fact, between mid-April 1945 (when President?Harry Truman?took office) and mid-July, Japanese forces inflicted Allied casualties totaling nearly half those suffered in three full years of war in the Pacific, proving that Japan had become even more deadly when faced with defeat. In late July, Japan’s militarist government rejected the Allied demand for surrender put forth in the Potsdam Declaration, which threatened the Japanese with “prompt and utter destruction” if they refused.General?Douglas MacArthur?and other top military commanders favored continuing the conventional bombing of Japan already in effect and following up with a massive invasion, codenamed “Operation Downfall.” They advised Truman that such an invasion would result in U.S. casualties of up to 1 million. In order to avoid such a high casualty rate, Truman decided–over the moral reservations of Secretary of War Henry Stimson, General Dwight Eisenhower and a number of the Manhattan Project scientists–to use the atomic bomb in the hopes of bringing the war to a quick end. Proponents of the A-bomb–such as James Byrnes, Truman’s secretary of state–believed that its devastating power would not only end the war, but also put the U.S. in a dominant position to determine the course of the postwar world.“LITTLE BOY” AND “FAT MAN”Hiroshima, a manufacturing center of some 350,000 people located about 500 miles from Tokyo, was selected as the first target. After arriving at the U.S. base on the Pacific island of Tinian, the more than 9,000-pound uranium-235 bomb was loaded aboard a modified B-29 bomber christened?Enola Gay?(after the mother of its pilot, Colonel Paul Tibbets). The plane dropped the bomb–known as “Little Boy”–by parachute at 8:15 in the morning, and it exploded 2,000 feet above Hiroshima in a blast equal to 12-15,000 tons of TNT, destroying five square miles of the city.Hiroshima’s devastation failed to elicit immediate Japanese surrender, however, and on August 9 Major Charles Sweeney flew another B-29 bomber,?Bockscar, from Tinian. Thick clouds over the primary target, the city of Kokura, drove Sweeney to a secondary target, Nagasaki, where the plutonium bomb “Fat Man” was dropped at 11:02 that morning. More powerful than the one used at Hiroshima, the bomb weighed nearly 10,000 pounds and was built to produce a 22-kiloton blast. The topography of Nagasaki, which was nestled in narrow valleys between mountains, reduced the bomb’s effect, limiting the destruction to 2.6 square miles.At noon on August 15, 1945 (Japanese time), Emperor?Hirohito?announced his country’s surrender in a radio broadcast. The news spread quickly, and “Victory in Japan” or “V-J Day” celebrations broke out across the United States and other Allied nations. The formal surrender agreement was signed on September 2, aboard the U.S. battleship?Missouri, anchored in Tokyo Bay.By the Numbers: World War II's atomic bombs - Michelle Hall, CNN LibraryUpdated 12:27 PM ET, Tue August 6, 2013The first atomic bomb was used in battle 68 years ago in Hiroshima, JapanNearly 200,000 people were killed, including those who died in the aftermathMore than 70,000 were killed by the second bomb dropped three days laterThe decision by the United States to use the atomic bomb against Japan in August 1945 is credited with ending World War II. Here is some background information about the history of the atomic bomb, by the numbers:2 -?Number of atomic bombs dropped on Japan during World War II.80,000 -?People who died instantly in Hiroshima, Japan, on August 6, 1945, when the first ever atomic bomb was used in war. The code name of the uranium-based bomb was "Little Boy."192,020 -?Total number of those killed in Hiroshima, combining those killed instantly and those killed from radiation and other aftermath. The revised total was released at a ceremony on the 50th anniversary of the bombing.3 -?Number of days between the first and second atomic bombs dropped on Japan. On August 9, 1945, "an implosion-model plutonium bomb code-named "Fat Man," was detonated over Nagasaki.More than 70,000 -?Number of people killed instantly in?Nagasaki?by the bomb.5 -?Number of days after the bombing of Nagasaki that Emperor Hirohito announced Japan's acceptance of the terms of the Postdam Declaration and its unconditional surrender,?bringing an end to World War II.2 -?Number of possible targets for the second bombing: Nagasaki and Kokura. Nagasaki was chosen because of the weather.$2 billion -?The approximate cost of research and development of the atomic bomb by the United States, called the "Manhattan Project."A man wheels his bicycle thorough Hiroshima in August 1945, days after the city was leveled by an atomic bomb blast.130,000 -?The number of people employed by the?Manhattan Project.3 -?Research facilities involved in the development of the bombs: Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Tennessee, the Hanford Site, Washington, and Los Alamos National Laboratory, New Mexico.17 -?Physicists who worked on the Manhattan Project who already were or would later become?Nobel Laureates in physics.18,000 -?Tons of TNT equaled the blast from New Mexico test run on July 16, 1945.1,800+ feet -?The distance above ground that "Little Boy" detonated over Hiroshima after it was released from the B-29 Bomber "Enola Gay."9,700 lbs -?Weight?of the "Little Boy" atomic bomb.60,000 feet -?Height of the mushroom cloud following the detonation of "Fat Man" over Nagasaki.World War I- Trench Warfare- War I Trench Warfare Trench warfare is a type of fighting where both sides build deep trenches as a defense against the enemy. These trenches can stretch for many miles and make it nearly impossible for one side to advance. During World War I, the western front in France was fought using trench warfare. By the end of 1914, both sides had built a series of trenches that went from the North Sea and through Belgium and France. As a result, neither side gained much ground for three and a half years from October 1914 to March of 1918. Soldiers fighting from a trench by Piotrus How were the trenches built? The trenches were dug by soldiers. Sometimes the soldiers just dug the trenches straight into the ground. This method was called entrenching. It was fast, but left the soldiers open to enemy fire while they were digging. Sometimes they would build the trenches by extending a trench on one end. This method was called sapping. It was safer, but took longer. The most secret way to build a trench was to make a tunnel and then remove the roof when the tunnel was complete. Tunneling was the safest method, but also the most difficult. No Man's Land The land between the two enemy trench lines was called "No Man's Land." This land was sometimes covered with barbed wire and land mines. The enemy trenches were generally around 50 to 250 yards apart. Trenches during the Battle of the Somme by Ernest Brooks What were the trenches like? The typical trench was dug around twelve feet deep into the ground. There was often an embankment at the top of the trench and a barbed wire fence. Some trenches were reinforced with wood beams or sandbags. The bottom of the trench was usually covered with wooden boards called duckboards. The duckboards were meant to keep the soldiers' feet above the water that would collect at the bottom of the trench. The trenches weren't dug in one long straight line, but were built as more of a system of trenches. They were dug in a zigzag pattern and there were many levels of trenches along the lines with paths dug so soldiers could travel between the levels. Life in the Trenches Soldiers generally rotated through three stages of the front. They would spend some time in the front line trenches, some time in the support trenches, and some time resting. They almost always had some sort of job to do whether it was repairing the trenches, guard duty, moving supplies, undergoing inspections, or cleaning their weapons. German trenches like this were generally better built than those of the Allies Photo by Oscar Tellgmann Conditions in the Trenches The trenches were not nice, clean places. They were actually quite disgusting. There were all sorts of pests living in the trenches including rats, lice, and frogs. The rats were everywhere and got into the soldiers' food and ate just about everything, including sleeping soldiers. The lice were also a major problem. They made the soldiers' itch horribly and caused a disease called Trench Fever. The weather also contributed to rough conditions in the trenches. Rain caused the trenches to flood and get muddy. Mud could clog up weapons and make it hard to move in battle. Also, the constant moisture could cause an infection called Trench Foot that, if untreated, could become so bad that a soldier's feet would have to be amputated. Cold weather was dangerous, too. Soldiers often lost fingers or toes to frostbite and some died from exposure in the cold. Interesting Facts about Trench Warfare It is estimated that if all the trenches built along the western front were laid end-to-end they would total over 25,000 miles long. The trenches needed constant repair or they would erode from the weather and from enemy bombs. The British said it took 450 men 6 hours to build about 250 meters of a trench system. Most of the raids took place at night when soldiers could sneak across the "No Mans Land" in the dark. Each morning the soldiers would all "stand to." This meant that they would stand up and prepare for an attack as most attacks took place first thing in the morning. The typical soldier in the trenches was armed with a rifle, bayonet, and a hand grenade. Activities?Life in a Trench | History- Wikipedia, the free encyclopediaFirebombing?is a?bombing?technique designed to damage a target, generally an urban area, through the use of?fire, caused by?incendiary devices, rather than from the blast effect of large bombs.In popular usage, any act which an incendiary device is used to initiate a fire is often described as a "firebombing". This article is concerned with aerial incendiary bombing as a military tactic; for non-military (almost always criminal) acts, see?arson.Although simple incendiary bombs have been used to destroy buildings since the start of gunpowder warfare,?World War I?saw the first use of?strategic bombing?from the air to damage the morale and economy of the enemy, such as the German?Zeppelin?air raids conducted on London during the Great War. The Chinese wartime capital of?Chongqing?was firebombed by the Imperial Japanese starting in early 1939.?London,?Coventry, and many other British cities were firebombed during?the Blitz?by?Nazi Germany. Most large German cities were extensively firebombed starting in 1942, and almost?all large Japanese cities were firebombed?during the last six months of?World War II.This technique makes use of small?incendiary bombs?(possibly delivered by a?cluster bomb?such as the?Molotov bread basket[1]). If a fire catches, it could spread, taking in adjacent buildings that would have been largely unaffected by a high explosive bomb. This is a more effective use of the payload that a bomber could carry.The use of incendiaries alone does not generally start uncontrollable fires where the targets are roofed with nonflammable materials such as tiles or slates. The use of a mixture of bombers carrying high explosive bombs, such as the British?blockbuster bombs, which blew out windows and roofs and exposed the interior of buildings to the incendiary bombs, are much more effective. Alternatively, a preliminary bombing with conventional bombs can be followed by subsequent attacks by incendiary carrying bombers.Early in World War II many British cities were firebombed. Two particularly notable raids were the?Coventry Blitz?on 14 November 1940, and the?blitz on London?on the night of 29 December/30 December 1940, which was the most destructive raid on London during the war with much of the destruction caused by fires started by incendiary bombs. During the Coventry Blitz the Germans pioneered several innovations which were to influence all future strategic bomber raids during the war.[2]?These were: The use of pathfinder aircraft with electronic aids to navigate, to mark the targets before the main bomber raid; The use of high explosive bombs and?air-mines?coupled with thousands of incendiary bombs intended to set the city ablaze. The first wave of follow-up bombers dropped high explosive bombs, the intent of which was to knock out the utilities (the water supply, electricity network and gas mains), and to crater the road - making it difficult for the fire engines to reach fires started by the successive waves of bombers. The follow-up waves dropped a combination of high explosive and incendiary bombs. There were two types of incendiary bombs: those made of?magnesium?and?iron?powders, and those made of?petroleum. The high-explosive bombs and the larger air-mines were not only designed to hamper the Coventry fire brigade, they were also intended to damage roofs, making it easier for the incendiary bombs to fall into buildings and ignite them. As?Sir Arthur Harris, commander of?RAF Bomber Command, wrote after the war:In the early days of bombing our notion, like that of the Germans, was to spread an attack out over the whole night, thereby wearing down the morale of the civilian population. The result was, of course, that an efficient fire brigade could tackle a single load of incendiaries, put them out, and wait in comfort for the next to come along; they might also be able to take shelter when a few high explosives bombs were dropping. ... But it was observed that when the Germans did get an effective concentration, ... then our fire brigades had a hard time; if a rain of incendiaries is mixed with high explosives bombs there is a temptation for the fireman to keep his head down. The Germans again and again missed their chance, as they did during the London blitz that I watched from the roof of the Air Ministry, of setting our cities ablaze by a concentrated attack. Coventry was adequately concentrated in point of space, but all the same there was little concentration in point of time, and nothing like the fire tornadoes of Hamburg or Dresden ever occurred in this country. But they did do us enough damage to teach us the principle of concentration, the principle of starting so many fires at the same time that no fire fighting services, however efficiently and quickly they were reinforced by the fire brigades of other towns could get them under control.The?tactical innovation?of the?bomber stream?was developed by the RAF to overwhelm the?German?aerial defenses?of the? HYPERLINK "" \o "Kammhuber Line" Kammhuber Line?during World War II to increase the RAF's concentration in time over the target. But after the lessons learned during the Blitz, the tactic of dropping a high concentration of bombs over the target in the shortest time possible became standard in the RAF as it was more effective than a longer raid.[3]?For example, during the Coventry Blitz on the night of 14/15 November 1940, 515 Luftwaffe bombers, many flying more than one?sortie?against Coventry, delivered their bombs over a period of time lasting more than 10 hours. In contrast, the much more devastating raid on?Dresden?on the night of 13/14 of February 1945 by two waves of the RAF Bomber Command's main force, involved the bomb released at 22:14, with all but one of the 254?Lancaster?bombers releasing their bombs within two minutes, and the last one released at 22:22. The second wave of 529 Lancasters dropped all of their bombs between 01:21 and 01:45. This means that in the first raid, on average, one Lancaster dropped a full load of bombs every half a second and in the second larger raid that involved more than one RAF bomber Group, one every three seconds.The?United States Army Air Forces?(USAAF) officially only bombed precision targets over Europe, but for example, when 316?B-17 Flying Fortresses?bombed?Dresden?in a follow-up raid at around noon on 14 February 1945, because of clouds the later waves bombed using?H2X radar?for targeting.[4]?The mix of bombs to be used on the Dresden raid was about 40% incendiaries, much closer to the RAF city-busting mix than the?bomb-load usually used by the Americans in precision bombardments.[5]?This was quite a common mix when the USAAF anticipated cloudy conditions over the target.[6]In its attacks on Japan, the USAAF abandoned its?precision bombing?method that was used in Europe before and adopted a policy of?saturation bombing, using incendiaries to burn Japanese cities. These tactics were used to devastating effect with many urban areas burned out. The first incendiary raid by?B-29 Superfortress?bombers was against?Kobe?on 4 February 1945, with 69 B-29s arriving over the city at an altitude of 24,500 to 27,000?ft (7,500 to 8,200?m), dropping 152 tons of incendiaries and 14 tons of fragmentation bombs to destroy about 57.4 acres (23.2?ha). The next mission was another high altitude daylight incendiary raid against?Tokyo?on 25 February when 172 B-29s destroyed around 643 acres (260?ha) of the snow-covered city, dropping 453.7 tons of mostly incendiaries with some fragmentation bombs.[7]?Changing to low-altitude night tactics to concentrate the fire damage while minimizing the effectiveness of fighter and artillery defenses, the?Operation Meetinghouse?raid[8]?carried out by 279 B-29s raided Tokyo again on the night of 9/10 March, dropped 1,665 tons of incendiaries from altitudes of 5,000 to 9,000?ft (1,500 to 2,700?m), mostly using the 500-pound (230?kg) E-46 cluster bomb which released 38?M-69 oil-based incendiary bombs?at an altitude of 2,500?ft (760?m). A lesser number of?M-47 incendiaries?was dropped: the M-47 was a 100-pound (45?kg) jelled-gasoline and white phosphorus bomb which ignited upon impact. In the first two hours of the raid, 226 of the attacking aircraft or 81% unloaded their bombs to overwhelm the city's fire defenses.[9]?The first to arrive dropped bombs in a large X pattern centered in Tokyo's working class district near the docks; later aircraft simply aimed near this flaming X. Approximately 15.8 square miles (4,090?ha) of the city were destroyed and 100,000 people are estimated to have died in the resulting?conflagration, more than the immediate deaths of either the?atomic bombings?of?Hiroshima?or?Nagasaki.[10]?After this raid, the USAAF continued with low-altitude incendiary raids against Japan's cities, destroying an average of 40% of the built-up area of 64 of the largest cities.[11]Lessons Learned: The Firebombing of Tokyo- until 2:30Nanking MassacreFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopediaThe?Nanking Massacre?was an episode of?mass murder?and?mass rape?committed by?Japanese?troops against the residents of?Nanjing?(then spelled?Nanking), then the capital of the?Republic of China?during the?Second Sino-Japanese War. The massacre occurred over a period of six weeks starting on December 13, 1937, the day that the Japanese?captured Nanjing. During this period, soldiers of the?Imperial Japanese Army?murdered Chinese civilians and disarmed combatants who numbered an estimated 40,000 to over 300,000,[7][8]?and perpetrated widespread rape and looting.[9][10]Since most Japanese military records on the killings were kept secret or destroyed shortly after the?surrender of Japan?in 1945, historians have not been able to accurately estimate the death toll of the massacre.?The International Military Tribunal for the Far East?in Tokyo estimated in 1946 that over 200,000 Chinese were killed in the incident.[11]?China's official estimate is more than 300,000 dead based on the evaluation of the?Nanjing War Crimes Tribunal?in 1947. The death toll has been actively contested among scholars since the 1980s.[3][12]The event remains a contentious political issue, as aspects of it have been disputed by?historical negationists?and?Japanese nationalists,[8]?who assert that the massacre has been either exaggerated or fabricated for propaganda purposes.[13][14][15]The?controversy surrounding the massacre?remains a stumbling block in?Sino-Japanese relations?and in Japanese relations with other?Asia-Pacific?nations, such as?South Korea?and the?Philippines.[16]Although the?Japanese government?has admitted to the killing of a large number of non-combatants,?looting, and other violence committed by the Imperial Japanese Army after the fall of Nanking,[17][18]?and Japanese veterans who served there have confirmed that a massacre took place,[19]?a small but vocal minority within both the Japanese government and society have argued that the death toll was military in nature and that no such crimes ever occurred. Denial of the massacre and revisionist accounts of the killings have become a staple of?Japanese nationalism.[20]?In Japan, public opinion of the massacres varies, but few deny outright that the conflict occurred.[20]The event is also known as the?Rape of Nanking?or, using current official?Pinyin? HYPERLINK "" \o "Romanization of Chinese" romanization, the?Nanjing Massacre?or?Rape of Nanjing.NANJING MASSACRE- From the History Channel In late 1937, over a period of six weeks, Imperial Japanese Army forces brutally murdered hundreds of thousands of people–including both soldiers and civilians–in the Chinese city of Nanking (or Nanjing). The horrific events are known as the Nanking Massacre or the Rape of Nanking, as between 20,000 and 80,000 women were sexually assaulted. Nanking, then the capital of Nationalist China, was left in ruins, and it would take decades for the city and its citizens to recover from the savage attacks.PREPARING FOR INVASIONFollowing a bloody victory in Shanghai during the Sino-Japanese War, the Japanese turned their attention towards Nanking. Fearful of losing them in battle, Nationalist leader Chiang Kai-Shek ordered the removal of nearly all official Chinese troops from the city, leaving it defended by untrained auxiliary troops. Chiang also ordered the city held at any cost, and forbade the official evacuation of its citizens. Many ignored this order and fled, but the rest were left to the mercy of the approaching enemy.A small group of Western businessmen and missionaries, the International Committee for the Nanking Safety Zone, attempted to set up a neutral area of the city that would provide refuge for Nanking’s citizens. The safety zone, opened in November 1937, was roughly the size of New York’s Central Park and consisted of more than a dozen small refugee camps. On December 1, the Chinese government abandoned Nanking, leaving the International Committee in charge. All remaining citizens were ordered into the safety zone for their protection.ARRIVAL OF THE TROOPSOn December 13, the first troops of Japan’s Central China Front Army, commanded by General Matsui Iwane, entered the city. Even before their arrival, word had begun spreading of the numerous atrocities they had committed on their way through China, including killing contests and pillaging. Chinese soldiers were hunted down and killed by the thousands, and left in mass graves. Entire families were massacred, and even the elderly and infants were targeted for execution, while tens of thousands of women were raped. Bodies littered the streets for months after the attack. Determined to destroy the city, the Japanese looted and burned at least one-third of Nanking’s buildings.Though the Japanese initially agreed to respect the Nanking Safety Zone, ultimately not even these refugees were safe from the vicious attacks. In January 1938, the Japanese declared that order had been restored in the city, and dismantled the safety zone; killings continued until the first week of February. A puppet government was installed, which would rule Nanking until the end of?World War II.AFTERMATH OF THE MASSACREThere are no official numbers for the death toll in the Nanking Massacre, though estimates range from 200,000 to 300,000 people. Soon after the end of the war, Matsui and his lieutenant Tani Hisao, were tried and convicted for war crimes by the International Military Tribunal for the Far East and were executed. Anger over the events at Nanking continues to color Sino-Japanese relations to this day. The true nature of the massacre has been disputed and exploited for propaganda purposes by historical revisionists, apologists and Japanese?World War II Documentary- the following about the massacre at Nanjing- Watch from 6:10- 7:50BOMBING OF DRESDEN- February 13 to February 15, 1945, during the final months of World War II (1939-45), Allied forces bombed the historic city of Dresden, located in eastern Germany. The bombing was controversial because Dresden was neither important to German wartime production nor a major industrial center, and before the massive air raid of February 1945 it had not suffered a major Allied attack. By February 15, the city was a smoldering ruin and an unknown number of civilians—estimated at somewhere between 35,000 and 135,000–were dead.BOMBING OF DRESDEN: BACKGROUNDBy February 1945, the jaws of the Allied vise were closing shut on Nazi Germany. In the west, Nazi leader Adolf Hitler’s (1889-1945) desperate counteroffensive against the Allies in Belgium’s Ardennes forest had ended in total failure. In the east, the Red army had captured East Prussia and reached the Oder River, less than 50 miles from Berlin. The once-proud Luftwaffe was a skeleton of an air fleet, and the Allies ruled the skies over Europe, dropping thousands of tons of bombs on Germany every day.From February 4 to February 11, the “Big Three” Allied leaders–U.S. President Franklin Roosevelt (1882-1945), British Prime Minister Winston Churchill (1874-1965) and Soviet Premier?Joseph Stalin?(1878-1953)–met at Yalta in the USSR and compromised on their visions of the postwar world. Other than deciding on what German territory would be conquered by which power, little time was given to military considerations in the war against the Third Reich. However, Churchill and Roosevelt did promise Stalin to continue their bombing campaign against eastern Germany in preparation for the advancing Soviet forces.WORLD WAR II AND AREA BOMBINGAn important aspect of the Allied air war against Germany involved what is known as “area” or “saturation” bombing. In area bombing, all enemy industry–not just war munitions–is targeted, and civilian portions of cities are obliterated along with troop areas. Before the advent of the atomic bomb, cities were most effectively destroyed through the use of incendiary bombs that caused unnaturally fierce fires in the enemy cities. Such attacks, Allied command reasoned, would ravage the German economy, break the morale of the German people and force an early surrender.Germany was the first to employ area bombing tactics during its assault on Poland in September 1939. In 1940, during the?Battle of Britain, the Luftwaffe failed to bring Britain to its knees by targeting London and other heavily populated areas with area bombing attacks. Stung but unbowed, the Royal Air Force (RAF) avenged the bombings of London and Coventry in 1942 when it launched the first of many saturation bombing attacks against Germany. In 1944, Hitler named the world’s first long-range offensive missile V-1, after “vergeltung,” the German word for “vengeance” and an expression of his desire to repay Britain for its devastating bombardment of Germany.The Allies never overtly admitted that they were engaged in saturation bombing; specific military targets were announced in relation to every attack. However, it was but a veneer, and few mourned the destruction of German cities that built the weapons and bred the soldiers that by 1945 had killed more than 10 million Allied soldiers and even more civilians. The firebombing of Dresden would prove the exception to this rule.BOMBING OF DRESDEN: FEBRUARY 1945Before?World War II, Dresden was called “the Florence of the Elbe” and was regarded as one the world’s most beautiful cities for its architecture and museums. Although no German city remained isolated from Hitler’s war machine, Dresden’s contribution to the war effort was minimal compared with other German cities. In February 1945, refugees fleeing the Russian advance in the east took refuge there. As Hitler had thrown much of his surviving forces into a defense of Berlin in the north, city defenses were minimal, and the Russians would have had little trouble capturing Dresden. It seemed an unlikely target for a major Allied air attack.On the night of February 13, hundreds of RAF bombers descended on Dresden in two waves, dropping their lethal cargo indiscriminately over the city. The city’s air defenses were so weak that only six Lancaster bombers were shot down. By the morning, some 800 British bombers had dropped more than 1,400 tons of high-explosive bombs and more than 1,100 tons of incendiaries on Dresden, creating a great firestorm that destroyed most of the city and killed numerous civilians. Later that day, as survivors made their way out of the smoldering city, more than 300 U.S. bombers began bombing Dresden’s railways, bridges and transportation facilities, killing thousands more. On February 15, another 200 U.S. bombers continued their assault on the city’s infrastructure. All told, the bombers of the U.S. Eighth Air Force dropped more than 950 tons of high-explosive bombs and more than 290 tons of incendiaries on Dresden. Later, the Eighth Air Force would drop 2,800 more tons of bombs on Dresden in three other attacks before the war’s end.BOMBING OF DRESDEN: AFTERMATHThe Allies claimed that by bombing Dresden, they were disrupting important lines of communication that would have hindered the Soviet offensive. This may be true, but there is no disputing that the British incendiary attack on the night of February 13 to February 14 was conducted also, if not primarily, for the purpose of terrorizing the German population and forcing an early surrender. It should be noted that Germany, unlike Japan later in the year, did not surrender until nearly the last possible moment, when its capital had fallen and Hitler was dead.Because there were an unknown number of refugees in Dresden at the time of the Allied attack, it is impossible to know exactly how many civilians perished. After the war, investigators from various countries, and with varying political motives, calculated the number of civilians killed to be as little as 8,000 to more than 200,000. Estimates today range from 35,000 to 135,000. Looking at photographs of Dresden after the attack, in which the few buildings still standing are completely gutted, it seems improbable that only 35,000 of the million or so people in Dresden at the time were killed. Cellars and other shelters would have been meager protection against a firestorm that blew poisonous air heated to hundreds of degrees Fahrenheit across the city at hurricane-like speeds.At the end of the war, Dresden was so badly damaged that the city was basically leveled. A handful of historic buildings–the Zwinger Palace, the Dresden State Opera House and several fine churches–were carefully reconstructed out of the rubble, but the rest of the city was rebuilt with plain modern buildings. American author Kurt Vonnegut (1922-2007), who was a prisoner of war in Dresden during the Allied attack and tackled the controversial event in his book “Slaughterhouse-Five,” said of postwar Dresden, “It looked a lot like Dayton,?Ohio, more open spaces than Dayton has. There must be tons of human bone meal in the ground.” ................
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