Independence High School



Independence High School

Global History Regents

Mr. Wisell

Golden Ages Review

Throughout history, different civilizations have contributed to the cultural and intellectual life of humanity. These periods are often called Golden Ages, as society enjoys not only cultural and intellectual achievements, but also stable government and a strong economy.

In Asia, China experienced several periods of achievement, with the Han Period qualifying as a true Golden Age. Japan also achieved greatness in these areas, under the strong leadership of the Tokugawa Shogunate.

The rise of Islam gave way to an empire stretching across three continents. Contributions in the areas of math, science, art, and literature influenced many different peoples, including the African Trading Kingdoms and later, the Europeans during the Renaissance.

In Europe, several civilizations contributed cultural and intellectual achievements. The Greeks under both Pericles of Athens, and Alexander the Great during the Hellenistic period, excelled in areas such as art, architecture, math, and science. The Romans enjoyed a 200 year long peace that enabled some of the greatest achievements in human history. The rebirth of cultural and intellectual life during the Renaissance, and later the Enlightenment, would be strongly influenced by both the Greeks and the Romans.

Greek-Hellenistic

Background

Ancient Greek and Hellenistic cultural achievements span two different eras. The Ancient Greek golden age occurs under the leadership of Pericles in the 5th century BCE. These achievements were mainly confined to the city-state of Athens, where a strong economy and good government created the conditions necessary for such advancements.

The Hellenistic golden age occurs under the leadership of Alexander the Great, who conquered an empire stretching from the Greek mainland all the way to the Indus River Valley. Hellenistic society was a blending of Greek, Egyptian, Persian, and many other cultures that gave rise to advancements in math, science, art, and literature.

Government

The Ancient Greeks were the first to use democracy as a form of government. Under Pericles, male citizens in Athens participated in the daily running of government. This form of direct democracy excluded all non-citizens, such as women and slaves. Today, many governments around the world practice some form of democracy.

Philosophy

Greek philosophers, or "lovers of wisdom," used observation and reason to study the world around them. This spirit of inquiry led to advancements in the arts and sciences, as well as examining the best form of government for men to live under. Famous philosophers include Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle.

|Socrates |Plato |Aristotle |

|Socratic Method of questioning as a |Wrote The Republic  |Developed ideas on government |

|learning tool. |Favored a strong, controlling government|Favored the one strong and wise rule as |

| | |best form. |

|Considered to be first western |Society has three classes: Philosophers,|Human Reason was the key to learning |

|philosopher |Soldiers, and Workers | |

Literature

Early Greek literature was in the form of plays developed for religious ceremonies. Famous writers, such as Aeschylus and Sophocles, wrote tragedies and comedies about human conflict and interaction between the gods and man. These stories were very popular, and became the basis for modern literature. The Greeks were also the first historians. Herodotus, known as the Father of History, wrote books chronicling historical events, such as the Persian War.

Art & Architecture

Greek artists portrayed the human figure in idealized realism. Paintings and sculptures show humans in the perfect form. Greek architects build elaborate buildings using marble and the Greek column. The most famous example of Greek architecture is the Parthenon in Athens. Many buildings around the world today use Greek architectural ideas.

Math & Science

Greek mathematician Pythagoras, developed a formula to calculate the relationship between the sides of a right triangle, a method still in use today. Aristarchus, a Greek astronomer, discovered that the earth rotated on its axis, and revolved around the sun. Eratosthenes discovered that the earth was round, and accurately calculated its circumference. Euclid wrote a book called The Elements, which is the basis for modern geometry. A Greek scientist named Archimedes tried to use science for more practical matters, he showed how the use of a lever and pulley system could lift just about any weight.

Medicine

Hippocrates, a 5th century BCE physician, studied the causes of illnesses and experimented with various cures. He is also credited with creating a set of ethical standards for doctors called the Hippocratic Oath.

Pax Romana

Background

The Roman Republic was founded in 509 BCE. The government was run by elected officials called Senators, who were chosen from the upper class called Patricians. The lower class, Plebeians, made up the majority of the population and were generally farmers, artisans, and merchants.

By 270 BCE, Rome controlled all of Italy. They also soon conquered Carthage, Macedonia, Greece, and parts of Asia Minor. This expansion led to civil war and the end of the Republic when Julius Caesar took power in 48 BCE. After his murder, Caesar's grandnephew, Augustus, became Emperor. This began a 200 year long peace called the Pax Romana. The Pax Romana became a time of cultural and intellectual achievements for Rome.

Law

Rome's greatest achievement was its system of laws. Some of the features of this system include, men being equal under the law, having the right to face their accusers, and being considered innocent until proven guilty. Later, these laws were written down and named the Laws of the Twelve Tables. Many aspects of this system of justice survive today in law codes around the world.

Art & Architecture

Roman art and architecture is a blending of Greek and Roman elements. In art, Rome copied many Greek statues, but also produced a more realistic style of portraiture art instead of the idealized forms favored by the Greeks. In architecture, Rome used Greek columns, but modified them to be more elaborate, as well as using the arch and dome quite extensively, something the Greeks did not do. An example of Roman use of arches and domes can be seen in the Pantheon.

Engineering

The Romans built engineering marvels across their empire, such as roads, harbors, and bridges,. They were well known for the building of aqueducts, which were bridge like structures used to carry fresh water across long distances. In Segovia, Spain the Roman aqueduct still functions today.

Science and Medicine

As with Hellenistic civilization, Alexandria, Egypt remained a center of learning under the Romans. In Roman controlled Alexandria, the astronomer - mathematician Ptolemy proposed that the earth was the center of the universe. The geocentric model offered by Ptolemy was the accepted view until Copernicus offered the heliocentric, or sun centered theory of the universe. In medicine, the Greek physician Galen compiled an encyclopedia that became the standard medical text until the Islamic doctor Ibn Sina wrote his Canon on Medicine.

Golden Age of Islam

Background

Islam began in the Arabian Peninsula in the early 7th century CE. It quickly spread throughout the Middle East before moving across North Africa, and into Spain and Sicily. By the 13th century, Islam had spread across India and Southeast Asia. The reasons for the success of Islam, and the expansion of its empire, can be attributed to the strength of the Arab armies, the use of a common language, and fair treatment of conquered peoples.

Arab armies were able to quickly conquer territory through the use of advanced tactics and the employment of horse and camel cavalry. Islamic rulers were very tolerant of conquered peoples, and welcomed conversion to the Islamic faith. All Muslims must learn Arabic, so they can read the Qur'an, the Islamic holy book. This common language helped to unite many different ethnic groups within the Islamic empire. It also made possible the easy exchange of knowledge and ideas.

Golden Age

Islamic civilization experienced a golden age under the Abbassid Dynasty, which ruled from the mid 8th century until the mid 13th century. Under the Abbassids, Islamic culture became a blending of Arab, Persian, Egyptian, and European traditions. The result was an era of stunning intellectual and cultural achievements.

Arts & Literature

According to the teachings of the Qur'an, Islamic artists were forbidden from using human figures in religious art. Therefore, they developed a style of geometric shapes and patterns that were used to decorate religious buildings called Mosques. These geometric patterns usually contained verses from the Qur'an written in a stylized form of decorative handwriting called calligraphy.

Non-religious artists were allowed to use human figures. This type of work most often appears in scholarly works of science or literature, which were lavishly illustrated.

Islamic architects borrowed heavily from the Byzantine Empire which used domes and arches extensively throughout their cities. An example of this use can be seen in the Dome of the Rock, a famous mosque in Jerusalem.

There were many different styles of Islamic literature. Most works were based on the Qur'an, but some Islamic artists wrote poetry about the joys and sorrows of love. Also, stories from other cultures were adapted and rewritten for Islamic civilization. The most famous collection is called The Thousand and One Nights, which is a collection of tales that includes such well known stories as Aladdin and His Magic Lamp.

Philosophy

Islamic scholars translated philosophic texts from a variety of cultures. These include works from China, India, and Ancient Greece. Scholarly commentary written about these texts influenced a variety of cultures, including European civilizations.

Math & Science

Islamic scholars studied both Greek and Indian mathematics before making important contributions of their own. The most well known Islamic mathematician was al-Khwarizimi, who pioneered the study of algebra. His textbook on the subject became a standard in European universities for centuries.

Islamic scholars were also skilled in astronomy. They studied eclipses, the rotation of the planets, and calculated the circumference of the earth to within a few thousand feet.

Medicine

Many advances were also made in the field of medicine. Physicians and pharmacists were required to pass exams before treating patients. They setup hospitals that had separate areas for trauma cases, this is the basis for today's emergency rooms. Physicians developed treatments for cataracts, used a variety of herbal remedies, and were adept at treating a variety of injuries. Islamic pharmacists were the first to mix sweet tasting syrups with medicine, ensuring that they would be taken.

Ibn Sina, a famous Islamic physician, wrote a book called Canon on Medicine, which was an encyclopedia of Greek, Arabic, and his own knowledge of medicine. This book became the standard medical text in Europe for over five hundred years.

Economic Achievements

Under the Abbassids, a vast trading network was created which helped to spread religion, culture, and technology among the different peoples of the empire. New business practices such as, partnerships, the use of credit, and banks to exchange currency, were developed to handle the increase in trade. The establishment of such vast trading networks made the many nations within the Islamic Empire very wealthy, and helped to stimulate many of their cultural and intellectual achievements

Law

Islam developed a system of law based on the Qur'an. This system was created to help people apply the Qur'an to everyday life and situations. The book of laws, called the Sharia, regulates all aspects of life including, moral behavior, family life, business dealings, and government.

African Trading Kingdoms

Background

The African Trading Kingdoms consist of three main cultures, Ghana, Mali, and Songhai, all located in West Africa. All three kingdoms maintained vast trading networks across the Sahara desert and into the Middle East and North Africa. The main export was gold, which made each kingdom wealthy and strong, and provided them with the conditions necessary for cultural and intellectual achievement.

Islamic Influences

Ghana, Mali, and Songhai were all influenced by Islam to different degrees. The kings of Ghana often had Islamic advisors, while Mali and Songhai established Islamic Empires after converting. In Mali, the emperor Mansa Musa was famous for his pilgrimage to Mecca, one of the Five Pillars of Islam. This pilgrimage gained Mali closer ties with the Islamic world, and increased trade between Mali and the Muslim Empire.

Arts & Literature

African art is often religious in nature. Religious statues and masks were carved from ivory, wood, and bronze. Some art was decorative, usually identifying royalty or membership in a particular clan.

Africans used both oral and written literary traditions. Most written material is in Arabic due to the influence of Islam. These writings contain information on government and law. Histories and folktales were usually passed from generation to generation orally. These stories often contained moral lessons and were used as a teaching device.

Education

During the 1400s, Timbuktu became a center of learning under the leadership of Mali emperor, Mansa Musa. Again, this is the influence of Islam, with Islamic scholars traveling from around the Muslim world to study and teach and the University of Timbuktu.

Commerce

Ghana, Mali, and Songhai established trade routes that were in use for centuries. Besides gold, these kingdoms transported a number of agricultural products to the Mediterranean and then on to Europe. A negative effect of this interaction was the start of the slave trade

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