Islamic Approaches to Peace and Conflict Resolution ...



Islamic Approaches to Peace and Conflict Resolution – Introduction

By Abdul Aziz Said, Nathan C. Funk, and Ayse S. Kadayifci

(summary by Nayla SAMMOUR SAWAYA)

In a world where boundaries between cultures, religions and civilizations have collapsed, there is a profound need for cross-cultural and multi-religious studies of peace.

Non-western approaches to peace and conflict resolution are important not only for the development and refinement of existing theories derived in the Western cultural context, but also for the promotion of cross-cultural dialogue and understanding.

WESTERN AND ISLAMIC APPROACHES TO PEACE

In the dominant western conception, peace is associated with the absence of war or organized violence and justice with an absence of gross violations of human rights. Peace is maintained through the threat of coercion and the institutionalization of regulations and decision-making procedures. Peace and conflict resolution are thought about in terms of rational order or problem solving predicated upon reason.

Peace occupies a central position among Islamic precepts, where it is closely linked to justice and human flourishing. Indeed, peace signifies an additional presence of human dignity, economic well-being and ecological balance. Peace in Islam begins with God; God is peace, for peace (al-salam) is one of the “most beautiful names” of God.

A COMMUNALLY EMBEDDED APPROACH TO CONFLICT RESOLUTION

From western perspective, conflict is viewed as natural and potentially positive, and not merely as a source of instability and threat; attempts to merely suppress conflict through coercive power and authoritative rules are viewed with disfavour in contrast to attempts to broker durable, mutually beneficial resolutions to problems, satisfying the interests of competing parties in a “win-win” solution.

Muslim approaches to conflict resolution draw on religious values, traditional rituals of reconciliation and historical practices of communal and inter-communal coexistence.

These mechanisms aim to empower family groups and community members to participate in matters of common concern, strong emphasis is placed on linkages between personal and group identity.

PROBLEMS OF REPRESENTATION

While Muslim writers assert that Islam can contribute to international peace and human dignity, Islam has been viewed as an actual or potential problem, and research questions have been framed around threat perceptions rather than potentially positive aspects of intercultural encounter.

Given the extent to which narratives of confrontation have defined the parameters of popular as well as academic literature on Islam, much contemporary debate about Islam revolves around issues of representation and misrepresentation.

Karl Marx and Max Weber both studied non-Western cultures and presumed that because of the unique power of Western innovations in technology, social organization and production, the West was unambiguously on the cutting edge of history and that to study Islam was to study the human past.

Thus, it is assumed from the nineteenth century that the separation of religious and political authority is good not only for both religion and politics but also that public dialogue about matters of spiritual or religious significance is either dangerous or simply unacceptable.

Operating within the framework of such assumptions, social science has tended to ignore the vigorous Islamic revivalist movements, to explain them away, or to identify them as atavistic reactions to modernization. The focus has been largely on the more militant expressions of Islamic identity, and on the extent to which they constitute a threat to Western interests.

The dominant frame of reference is the “confrontation vs. compatibility”.

The future development of cross-cultural inquiry is of considerable importance in so far as it can help to provide both fresh contributions to theories of conflict resolution and constructive channels for the perennial religious impulse. Studies of Islamic approaches to peace and conflict resolution provide new angles of insight into universal human dilemmas, as well as important supplementation to studies to recognize contemporary Islamic activism not as backward-looking rejection of the modern world, but as deeply felt expression of cultural identity and a critique of domestic as well as international political orders.

FIVE ISLAMIC APPROACHES TO PEACE

- Power Politics: Peace through Coercive Power

Based on pessimistic reading of human nature, Islam is used as a language for legitimation of power and authority and for the preservation or social order; threats to a given political order are often framed as a threat to Islam. The power-political approach views peace as an absence of war, and underscores political necessities created by the restlessness of political subjects and the threatening posture of external enemies.

- World Order: Peace through the Power of Law

Peace is a condition of order defined by the presence of such core Islamic values as justice, human dignity, cultural coexistence and ecological stability, and not merely by an absence of direct violence. A situation in which these values are not present may be characterized as disorderly, unstable and un-Islamic.

- Conflict Resolution: Peace through the Power of Communication

Traditional Islamic approaches are explored: reconciliation, methods of mediation and arbitration. These methods affirm a restorative conception of peace and justice, encompassing notions of compensations for losses, attentiveness to issues of “face” or social esteem, renunciation for the sake of the whole and forgiveness.

- Non-Violence: Peace through Will Power

Adherence to Islam requires non-violent solidarity against oppression, the promotion of renewal through broad-based social movements and training for programs of direct non-violent action. Only a linkage of just ends with just means can secure authentic justice, peace and human dignity.

- Transformation: Peace through the Power of Love

This approach defines peace as a condition of all embracing harmony perceived through the inward renewal and transformation of human consciousness. The cultural community is the context and the receptacle of human realization; renewal takes place within each person through inward cleansing and loving surrender to the divine.

The purpose of this study is to suggest new ways of organizing knowledge about Islam, within the context of emerging global perspectives on the promotion of human solidarity and the full utilization of cultural and spiritual resources for the advancement of peace.

Theory of the State – Chapter 1

By Majid Khadduri

(summary by Wioletta STOPA)

SOCIETY AND THE STATE

Muslim thinkers, inspired by Greek predecessors believe that “man is a social animal”: he can live only as a member of society. No individual, except God - Allahu ahad - can live alone; men were created to live together. To Muslim thinkers, from the Prophet Muhammed to Ibn Khaldum, the individual’s rights and obligations were always defined in terms of the community interests.

In the Qur’an it is often referred to as a distinct “nation” (umma) or a “brotherhood”, bound by common obligation to a superior, divine authority. The conception of the umma or brotherhood constituted the basis of the Islamic community. The greater emphasis seemed to have been attached to the group; the individual counted for little by himself. Only through the family, clan or cavitas, to which the individuals belonged, could they claim the right to protection by means of custom or social mores.

Not only is Society regarded as indispensable for the survival of man, but also inherent in it is the concept of authority. The Islamic conception of umma presupposes the existence of a set of divine commands, endowed by a Supreme Legislator, constituting its “fundamental law” or “constitution”. This is regarded as absolutely necessary since society without authority was impossible.

THE JURIDICAL BASIS OF THE STATE

The foundation of the Islamic social polity was made on the basis of a compact of agreement, being understood that this agreement was by no means one between two equals. It was a compact of submission which reflects the nature of Allah’s covenant with man.

Was the Islamic state based on a single-contract theory or two contracts? According to al-Farabi and Hobbes, the isolated individuals agreed on a universal contract of submission to a ruler who is vested at once with exclusive power. Only the possession of sovereignty resided with Allah, while its exercise was instructed to rule with justice. Allah accordingly was the titular head of the state and its source of governing authority; Muhammad was its head of government. The position of Muhammad as the executive head of the governing authority was filled by a caliph, but not his prophetic function of communication and promulgating the divine law. The caliph declared that he was merely to administer and enforce the divine law. The caliph’s powers were derived from and limited by the divine law; only his appointment was made by the people.

THE DIVINE UNIVERSAL NOMOCRACY

It is to be noted that in Judaism, Christianity, and Islam god never had been regarded as the immediate ruler of this subjects; only his representatives on earth were the real executives. Hence the divine law, regarded as the source of governing authority, was the essential feature in the process of control under these systems. According to the definition of nomocracy which is defined as “a system of government based on a legal code; the rule of law in a community”, Israelite, Christian and Islamic states, which were based on divine legal orders, can be called nomocracies. The universal nomocracy of Islam, like the Republica Christiana in the West, assumed that mankind constituted one supra-national community, bound by one law and governed by one ruler. While Islam tolerated Christianity and Judaism as religion, Islamdom and Christendom, as two universal states, could not peacefully coexist.

Foundations and Purposes of Political Authority — Chapter 2

by Ibn Khaldun

(summary by Sotirios PETROVAS)

The article is an arrangement from An Arab philosophy of History: Selections from the Prolegomena of Ibn Khaldun of Tunis (1332-1406). It is a series of political theory considerations

STATE AND SOCIETY

“State is to society as form is to matter”. State and society cannot exist without one another. Any disturbance of either of them will cause a disturbance in the other (e.g.: downfall of empires; the change of ruler is not disturbing, for each successor resembles his predecessor. The true force which operates on society is solidarity and power, both persist through successive rulers. If solidarity vanishes, the whole ruling class disappears.

SOCIAL SOLIDARITY IS BASED ON KINSHIP

Solidarity is based on blood ties or other relationship that has the same effect; indeed, all men are concerned by the injury inflicted on their next of kin, and resent the oppression of their relative. Even with a distant degree of kinship, there is a widespread knowledge of kinship.

Solidarity in tribes

Characteristics of men: aggressiveness and lust for power. The state or the rulers restrain their subjects from attacking each other and preserve them from oppression, unless it be the oppression of the state itself. External aggression is warded off by a defence which can succeed only when men are united by a strong solidarity arising out of kinship.

SOLIDARITY IS THE BASIS OF SOVEREIGNTY

The end of solidarity is sovereignty. Solidarity is what makes men unite their efforts and defend themselves. But every society needs a restraint, a chief who will keep men from injuring each other — the chief must have a powerful support, otherwise he will not be able to carry out his function. This domination is called sovereignty, which exceeds the power of a simple leader followed by others whom he cannot compel. The sovereign ruler has such power. A leader will always to try to turn his rule into sovereignty, as power is the desire of men’s souls.

Solidarity is the basis of kingship

Kingship and dynasties can only be founded upon solidarity; victory goes indeed to the side with the most solidarity and whose members are most ready to die for each other. But kingship is fought over with much competition, war occurs. And the masses are not aware of this struggle as they have forgotten the origin of their ruler, whose power is consolidated and no longer based upon social solidarity.

Nature of Kingship

It is a position natural to mankind. Man can only survive in groups, and if they co-operate — it is therefore impossible to survive in a state of anarchy, without a sanction which restrains them from mutual aggression. This sanction is provided by a strong king.

Concentration of authority

It is in the nature of states that authority becomes concentrated in one person. Why? Because of solidarity, formed by the union of many groups, from which emerges a leading family. A prominent individual is at the head of this family. He will then have pride and soon think himself as a god. Were there many rulers, the result would be chaos.

Territorial limits of the state

Each state has appointed territories that it cannot exceed; its functions thereon are to protect against enemies, enforce orders, raise taxes, awe the population, etc. The state is stronger at the centre than at the periphery, the centre being like a heart, if it is defeated, all provinces will be wiped out.

Religion as the basis of the empire

A dominion can only be secured by victory, and victory goes to the side with more unity of purpose and solidarity. Religious fervour can put aside the competitiveness and jealousy felt by the embers of the group by turning them towards the truth, a truth they are prepared to die for. Inversely, when religious fervour weakens and gets corrupted, religion ceases to play a role and victory belongs to the more cohesive side.

spiritual and temporal powers

Kingship arises out of the necessary association of human beings and is based on coercion, which is an animal tendency. Stemming from his aims and desires, the orders of the king may soon become unbearable burdens for the subjects, who will feel the need to rebel themselves. It is therefore imperative to impose political laws. The state cannot establish or consolidate itself without them. Laws are founded on reason.

The laws laid down by God are useful for both this and for the after life, for men are not created for this world of vanity and evil whose end is death and annihilation. Religion leads to happiness in the afterlife and divine laws seek to prescribe the conduct of men in all affairs. The state is therefore patterned on religion. Aspects that arise from the sole requirements of statecraft are blameworthy as they lack the light of God.

Political law reflect apparent, worldly interests, whereas God’s aim is the salvation of mankind. It is therefore imperative to have the people conform themselves to religious laws in matters concerning both worlds. Thus Kingship is founded on reason for the proportion of worldly interests. The Caliphate is the ruling of the people according to the insight of religious dictates and worldly matters derived from them. The caliphate is thus a guardian of religion and a director of worldly affairs in the light of that religion.

spiritual and temporal powers in islam and christianity

A chief is needed to lead men towards advantageous things and keep away from harmful ones. This is the King’s objective.

Islam, as all-inclusive, calls for the Jihad, which is obligatory for infidels. In other religions, holy war is permissible for self defence only, and religious leaders do not concern themselves with worldly affairs. These religions do not demand dominion over other peoples, but merely the establishing of their faith among themselves.

The Ottoman Jihad Fatwa of November 11, 1914 - Chapter 3

By

(summary by Senem YAZAK)

In 1914, the Ottoman Empire entered World War I on the side of the central powers and to legitimate this effort enjoin Muslim support beyond the boundaries of the Empire, the official mufti pronounced a jihad fatwa. The jihad fatwa was a legal ruling declaring that the Ottoman war policy was consistent with Sharia’s rules defining the parameters of righteous military struggle and that the support for the Empire’s jihad was incumbent (obligatory) upon all Muslims whether they lived under the Ottoman rule or under the rule of the Allied powers. This illustration of the use of Islam to advance the interests of a state created fear in Europe.

Islamic Jurisprudence and Modern Needs: the Challenge of Renewal - Chapter 4

By AbdulHamid, A.AbuSulayman

(summary by Farida OMAR)

Before, the Muslim world was the center and master of the civilized world.

Today, the Muslim world is weak, relatively backward, frustrated, suffering from internal tensions, full of conflicts, and controlled and abused by foreign powers.

( Muslims are often regarded as a problem in world politics.

Question: How did such a state of affairs come about?

How can the Muslims alter this condition?

HISTORICAL BACKGROUND AND DEFINITIONS

Islam appeared in the early 7th century.

The Prophet is the descendant of Ishmael (son of Abraham).

The Prophet Muhammad recieved the wahy (the revelation) that he has been appointed Messenger of Allah.

The wahy recorded in the Qu’ran constitutes the first source of the Shari’ah.

Shari’ah = the revealed Will of Allah through the Prophet regarding the conduct of all human life on earth.

Sunnah (way) = reported sayings, actions

Fiqh = Muslim jurisprudence (systematic deduction of law).

Usul = source and methods of Muslim jurisprudence.

By the end of the 10th century, the number of recognized schools of jurisprudence had been reduced to 4. Since then, Muslim thought has been = Taqlid.

19th century modernists introduce the Ijtihad = use of human reason in the elaboration of Islamic Law.

TRADITIONALISM AND WESTRENIZATION

With Taqlid ( Muslim thought, technology, social system is stagnant.

Europe develops new ideas and methods. ( 7th century Europe had surpassed the Muslims.

Closer contact with Europe ( Muslim authorities aware of the need to learn and adapt European technology ( cooperation in the military sector/education in Europe.

( problems: religious sector of the society versus secular sector ( polarization of education between religious and secular areas.

Ulama ( Muslim theologician and learned man.

Religious education ( symbol of a rigid set of historical religious traditions

Secular education ( absorbed European ideas and attitudes.

Consequences of this dichotomy: isolation of the Ulama, separation of the bureaucracy and government from the people, polarisation of the traditionalists and secularists.

SIYAR: A SOURCE OF LAW

Islamic Shari’ah = the divine will revealed to the Prophet pertaining to the conduct of human life in this world.

Usul al-fiqh = the science of deducting and extrapolating rules and injunctions from their sources in the data of revelation.

Fiqh = body of rules and injunctions deduced from the Qu’ran ( total sum of legal decisions and opinions written by Muslim jurists.

Siyar = conduct of the Muslims in their relations with the non-believers. (e.g.: with the Dhimmis, the non-Muslim subject of a Muslim state).

Definition of Law: Islamic sense: set of value-oriented guidelines toward the divine purposes of Allah. Islamic law is normative rather than prescriptive and is designed for moral education and legal enforcement.

Western sense: body of rules and directions accepted and approved for enforcement by nations. E.g: treaties, legislation, custom, moral and religious commitment.

CONCLUSION

Contemporary Muslims feel the urge to reexamine the works of fiqh in the light of modern needs and challenges in conformity with with the spirit and goals of the Shari’ah.

Opinions of jurists = not law but just a source of law.

With respect to international relations, the Islamic works of fiqh and siyar concerning Jihad must be analysed.

Islam as an Ethical Tradition of international relations - Chapter 5

By Mohammed Muqtedar Khan

(summary by Sarra SEFRIOUI)

This article explores the ethical traditions of Islam in order to examine its potential as a source that would help precipitate ethical and peaceful, as opposed to political and conflictual, relations between nations, faiths, and cultural groups. While using philosophical and ethical categories borrowed from the Western epistemes, this paper in a way reintroduces Islam as an ethical tradition. Given the significance that Islamic sentiments and Islamic symbolism have for a billion people and over fifty nation states, this paper recommends the inclusion of Islamic traditions in discourses whose concern is the proliferation of ethical consideration in international and intercultural relations. Having said that, the paper proceeds to elaborate foundations for an Islamic ethic of international relations.

The contemporary resurgence of islam has focus attention on political and revolutionary dimensions of Islam in the post cold war era, as theorists of international relations exploit the opportunity to develop the ethnical dimensions of international thought, Islamic contributions to this project are not in the proportion to its potential as a source of ethical tradition and an influence of the behaviour of states in the international arena.

States in the international system can be construed as Islamic states, not on the basis of their political organization but on the religious beliefs on their population.

Islam plays a major role in determining the political legitimacy of leadership and policies in Muslim societies (whether they are absolute monarchies: Morocco, Saudi Arabia…).

According to the author’s opinion, the concept of “religion” requires a sophisticated treatment. Religion was defined in opposition to the secular in a way that privileges the secular as forward looking and liberating and undermines the religion as backward, traditional and incarcerating.

Islam is a value system which covers comprehensively the scared and the secular. It is not a value that applies to the personal and spiritual sphere of human existence. Islam claims to have its own framework that offers procedures and processes for developing institutions that can cater to the secular sphere.

Terry Nardin has elaborate a systematic study of ethical involving both the authority of traditional beliefs in the Qur’an and Sunna and allowing sufficient room for independence judgement and reasoning: ijtihad that oppose ethical arguments such as those of the Mu’tazilities and Ash’arites.

It is difficult to define Islam as a way of life that gives meaning and purpose to life, or as a civilization. Considering “Islam as ethical tradition” is a useful way of understanding Islam, it is constituted by the Shari’a (the constitution of Islam) and ethics.

the Qur’an is the book in which muslums believe was revealed to the prophet muhammed, and the sunna is the collection of sayings, deeds and sanctions made by the prophet himself.

THE NATURE OF ISLAMIC ETHICAL TRADITION

There are three broad categories of ethical traditions:

Deontological ethics: privilege rules, means duties and obligations.

Utilitarian ethics: give primacy to ends and consequences.

Aristotelian: character and motive.

There are central debates about authority and limits of human agency to exercise independent reasoning in interpreting religious authority. It is a debat about the role of reason in understanding Islamic obligations.

Challenging the Mu’tazilites main ethical thesis that man is the creator of this actions, the ash’arites contended that God was the author of all action and nothing happened without his consent.

The largely utilitarian interpretation and application of Islamic ethical considerations can be seen in the political discourse of contemporary Islamic resurgence. Their focus is to realize Islamic law and social ethics in Muslim states.

In modern world, of nation states, with its global interdependence, separation of politics and ethics, it would be extremely difficult unilaterally ethical in political pursuits. Also, Islamic terrorism and militancy is a response to a western hypocrisy.

ISLAMIC ETHICS AND INTERNATIONAL TRADITIONS

Schaybany, is the articulator of the theory of international relations. At the time of the Arabic domination of Spain, Morocco, Egypt and Turkey.

The sources of Islamic law means that law-making was not only based on interpretation of the authoritative texts, but had became a more complex process involving an empirical reality and necessities besides traditionalism.

The mediaeval Islamic conception of the international arena looks very similar to the realist, neorealist and neorealiberal visions of international relations, but there are several differences.

For the realists, anarchy implies complete absence of any central authority.

Shaybani’s theory is the only systematic theory of international relations advanced from an Islamic perspective tempred by the political conditions and also by the needs of empire, for by the time Islam was not just an idea or a philosophy but an empire and a civilization.

In the light of the modern development in international relations, we do need a modern Islamic theory of international politics.

CONCLUSION

It is in the analysis of contemporary international relations that the hiatus between the proliferation of normative discourses and the paucity of empirical analysis becomes apparent in the Islamic scholarship.

Most scholar in the international relations treat the treaty of Westphalia as the moment that marks changes in the character of human civilization this starting point of international relations as we know it today is generally accepted.

In fact the current system of nation states and international relations based on the principal of the state sovereignty did not become globalize until after the process of decolonization was complete.

The author at the end expresses that it is hopefully initiate a practice which will hold Muslim states accountable to the principles of Islamic ethics to protect both Muslims and non Muslims. Criticism and opposition will be the first step toward the development of an Islamic ethical tradition in the contemporary international relations.

Islamic Ethics in International Society - Chapter 6

By Sohail Hashmi

(summary by Senem YAZAK)

Hashmi’s article observes a very important subject which is highly debated nowadays. He talks about the place of Islamic ethics in international society and tries to refute the western approach to Islamic law and ethics. He starts by arguing that Western and Islamic civilizations have common origins and history although their relations are dominated by confrontation. He suggests there is a need to “disentangle Islamic ethics from medieval Islamic law (shari’ah)” – this plea runs throughout his chapter. This is necessary for Westerners to understand the role of Islamic ethics in international society.

International politics focus on civilizations and Hashmi argues that international society consists of civilizations that clash rather than cooperate. Islamic civilization is the biggest threat to international order. But he finds necessary to emphasize the fact that Islamic civilization is not a monolithic force; it is in a state of flux and the current Islamic revival is a response to a world order shaped by the West.

Hashmi’s main concern and strategy in bridging the gap between classical Islamic legal tradition and modern international law is to take the Qur’anic message as a “moral code upon which a legal system can be constructed”. The author reminds us that the Qur’an is the source of Islamic ethics and that its ethical framework is presented as of universal applicability. To describe better how ethics take place in Islam, he talks about two approaches: ethical objectivism favored by Mutazillites and ethical voluntarism as argued by Asharites.

The Mutazillites represent the earliest school of Islamic jurisprudence where legal judgment was based on reason, namely ethical objectivism. According to this approach, revelation should be supplemented by reason; right and wrong are independent of God’s will

Then, there is another approach where legal interpretation is based on analogy. The jurist should deduce law through analogy with cases of the Qur’an. These are the Asharites who defend that God’s power can’t be subject to any objective ethical values.

For the Asharites, the emphasis is on the particular aspect of Qur’anic revelation rather than universalistic. Human beings could gain true knowledge of right and wrong through strict adherence to God’s revealed will.

To enforce the analogy between the Mutazillites and the Asharites, Hashmi talk about the difference between the modernist and fundamentalist approach. Although they are both based upon claims of Qur’anic authenticity, there exist significant differences between them.

The modernist approach is the rationalist one to Islamic reform, arguing that Qur’anic messages should be seen as a moral code upon which a legal system can be constructed. The fundamentalist approach on the other hand, is the interpretation saying that the Qur’an ends with the confirmation of divine law. The duty of the Muslim community is to apply this law. There is one Islam and there is no other meaning of Islam

Hashmi also analyzes the challenges that the modern international world system poses to contemporary Islamic thought and argues that the international norms accepted by Muslim states have not been addressed in modern Islamic political thought. He also examines such key issues as justice, human rights, democracy, distributive justice, and diversity from the point of view of an Islamic political body.

For example in the field of human rights, he poses the question: “is there a conception of human rights in Islam?” and answers that the discriminatory provisions of Sharia are based upon specific verses that were held by jurists to be legal injunctions. He adds that modern Muslims must return to the full ethical context of the Qur’an in order to derive new legal injunctions. For him the full ethical context leads us to the principle of equity and reciprocity. In the domain of democracy, although the West argues that democratic institutions lack in Muslim countries, the idea of the author is that Muslim societies are influenced by the spread of democracy throughout the world and organizations adopting democracy spread in Muslim countries too.

Pointing to the disillusionment of Muslim intellectuals and leaders with Western political ideals and their disturbingly poor implementation and failure in the Islamic world, Hashmi concludes by emphasizing the positive role that religion has played in building a just and moral human habitat. He argues that religion has been the most uniting force for human beings in moral community for motivating them towards constructive behavior. Although religion can make international order difficult; it can contribute to the evolution of a universal, representative, just society.

Conflict Resolution in an Islamic Context: Some Conceptual Questions - Chapter 7

By Mohammed Abu-Nimer

(summary by Louis DENISTY)

Since the 1990s, scholars and practitioners have applied Western conflict resolution theories and other intervention models like cultural diversity or coexistence to Middle Eastern countries. This study seeks to ask some basic questions regarding conflict resolution in an Islamic context.

Three objectives can be identified in the application of Western conflict resolution models: -Teaching and exporting Western perceptions of conflict resolution to Middle Eastern and Islamic groups, assuming that they are more developed and effective.

-Exploring alternatives to learn how to control radical groups within the existing conflict management frameworks of their countries.

-Acquiring more knowledge of the background of Islamic movements, utilizing it to legitimize new tools of conflict management and settling political and religious differences among political, social and religious groups.

To implement Western approaches, we must first remember that Islamic societies have beliefs, customs and a history that are the bases of conflict resolution processes. To study and understand the Islamic societies’ approach implies that the researcher will not ignore or impose his cultural basis. He will integrate social patterns to the appropriate concept and to his experience. We also must acknowledge that there are some techniques of the West that cannot be applied in the Middle East.

As a field of study, conflict resolution is grounded in a Western context, and was stimulated by management techniques derived from the study of organizations, the introduction of problem-solving workshops, interest-based negotiation and mediation, the redirection of religious leaders to “peacemaking”, the emergence of ADR (Alternative Dispute Resolution) and of interpersonal dispute practices.

The main processes of conflict resolution are conciliation, facilitation, mediation, negotiation, arbitration and problem-solving.

Middle Eastern procedures are not defined as disciplinary approaches but those techniques are practiced as traditional processes, to settle interpersonal, community and inter-religious disputes for hundreds years. Negotiation is an integral part of the individual’s life (souk) but also of the social organization (the Kadi is also a mediator and arbitrator).

There is no basis for implementing Western strategies in an Islamic context without adjusting such processes according to local experience. We can describe three categories of conflict resolution. The actual application of each of these processes is generally different:

-Conflict resolution levels and processes implemented in both cultures.

The assumption, practices and roles of the third party are totally different; in their definition but also in the aspects of life concerned, wider in the West, in areas like labor and organizational management or environmental concerns. The West has a distinctive and professional approach that does not exist in Islamic societies where conflict resolution is used only where traditional norms legitimize such actions. It points out that practices from the West could enrich the process of professionalization and institutionalization of the conflict resolution field in Islamic societies.

-Basic assumptions in conflict resolution

Western and Middle Eastern approaches to conflict resolution illustrate the sometimes profound differences between the two cultures. In the Western context, conflict is normal, positive, and can bring growth and creativity, based on cooperative frameworks. Any conflict is managed through rational planning, with legal formality and procedures, leading to a written agreement that is task-oriented. In the Middle Eastern context, conflict is negative and dangerous, and brings destruction. Group affiliation is the most central identity, in a process in which social norms and hierarchical procedures prevail over legal forms, characterized by emotion and spontaneity, leading to a relationship-oriented outcome.

-Third party roles

The main features in the West of a third party are professionalism, impartiality, a focus on the individuals’ interests, needs and rights, conformity to legal procedures and the objective of achieving a fair deal for both parties. The distinctive features in the Middle Eastern context are the age of the intervener, the political and military power, religious affiliation, the knowledge of the customs and norms. The mediator can have a direct or indirect interest in the dispute. This contributes to his credibility, which is very important.

The teaching of conflict resolution in the Middle East must be performed by people who know the history, social values and local norms of Islamic societies.

There are various obstacles to this implementation. Western frameworks assume a different approach to power relations. Stress is placed more on common interests and implies a desire to live alongside the other party and manage interactions peacefully. The Western approach is based on acknowledging the legitimacy or differences in beliefs and interests. It is not compatible with the fundamentalist groups who see themselves as supreme in their beliefs and wishes. Such an approach to conflict resolution could be rejected as have been other exported Western ideas, especially without any adaptation.

We must also examine conflict resolution considering the religious and historical texts such as the Qur’an, Shar’ia and Hadith. Arabi also deal with power disparity between the parties involved in a conflict. Researchers should also consider Islamic society itself. It is important to distinguish processes at the interpersonal or community level and those involving policy making and political groups’ interactions. One of the limitation of scholars is that they mainly focus on the second level. The indigenous processes could be used to bridge gaps on the local level but also between Middle Easterners and Westerners.

Having looked at all the obstacles to imposing a Western model of conflict resolution in the Middle East, we can see the pressing need to first examine the principles and procedures that exist within the Islamic society.

An Islamic model for political conflict resolution: Tahkim (Arbitration) - Chapter 8

By Ahmad S. Moussalli

(summary by Federica GALLI)

The practice of arbitration is still widespread in Middle Eastern and Muslim societies and indeed it is historically rooted in the pre-Islamic period.

Conceived as an instrument of dispute resolution in a region that continues to be one of the most troubled spots on earth, the Tahkim emerged as a cheap mechanism employed among tribes to put an end to their conflicts.

The arbitrator, whose most important qualifying merit was justice, was presumed to be a wise and fair person appreciated for his or her superior moral qualities and with a wide knowledge of tribal customs. Arbitration, however, was not a job and this made it dependent on people themselves who were free to decide whether to recur to it or not in case of dispute.

When Islam finally gained a central role in the framework of government, many practices related to pre-Islamic arbitration became part of the Islamic law as customary law, provided that no contradiction would rise and although no executive power was recognized to arbitrators, submission to their arbitration was considered as a moral imperative that very often led to the execution of arbitral settlements.

Muhammad gained legitimacy both as a political leader and a final arbitrator, the latter being a role that he started exerting even before his prophethood. As disposed by the Constitution that both Muslims and non-Muslims signed, he was designated as the chief political administrator and legal authority that had to be referred to in case of conflicts that could not be handled otherwise.

Being recognized as the political leader by the entire community, which did not just include Muslims, Muhammad disposed that political judgements be subject to legal enforcement, however, when it came to arbitration on religious affairs, his arbitrations were never subject to legal enforcement. Non-Muslims were allowed to choose the method of arbitration in their legal, social and religious affairs, Muslims were not. The Prophet’s authority was therefore restricted with regard to the religious dimension, but definitely wide when considering his political role.

Tahkim however was not limited to economic, social, religious and political affairs but it could be applied to private law as well.

Muhammad’s arbitration was reinforced by what God revealed to him, with revelation being deemed as the final and divine arbitrator.

After Muhammad’s death, arbitration did not lose its legitimacy and it was transferred to the entire community, ummah, which was to confer it to the new leader, the caliph; a new political institution which made Tahkim one of its characteristics.

Moreover, the community also had religious power in the sense that it could interpret the divine text, a prerogative that was rooted in the need to unify the different interpretations of the Qur’an that were eventually leading to the split of the ummah. No one in the community claimed to be the inheritor of Muhammad’s power. Members of the ummah consulted first with the caliph and then decisions became binding as soon as they got the approval of the people through consensus. All the process was based on arbitration.

Arbitration thus continued to be exerted, but its results were far from being unquestioned to the point of creating serious frictions. The Khawarij, comparable to nowadays fundamentalists, for instance, refused arbitration by demanding the pure application of the Qur’an. They did not accept any human interpretation, and their position was deeply questioned by those who, on the contrary, argued that although the Qur’an was to be considered the highest arbitrator it did not speak for itself and therefore needed a human interpreter. The arbitrators spoke for the Qur’an.

In the years that followed arbitration kept on being exerted though doubts arose on whether to consider its results as binding or not.

Later on, arbitration became more politicized and progressively started playing a less relevant role.

Arbitration had therefore proven to be effective as long as no religious implications intervened. The difference between the first Islamic state and the period that followed the Prophet’s death, lay exactly in Muhammad’s capacity to act both as a national arbitrator and as a religious authority. This made it possible for him to solve disputes and arbitrate although his religious authority was not unanimously accepted, with the Jews being part of the community as well.

This means that when dealing with conflict resolution involving religious groups, the “divine” element of the conflict must be taken into account and then deconstructed into its political components. On this basis arbitration can later work as a method to solve conflicts.

Nowadays political rule does not represent the divine will because the legislative power is given to the community through arbitration. The ummah is the sovereign whose application of the divine will is not limited to an individual or a group’s interpretation. No individual or group can claim exclusive rights to interpretation, government or arbitration except by way of delegation.

Arbitration rests on the contractual authority of the people with the government. The legitimacy of arbitration could be restored to deal with an even wider set of issues both at the internal as well as at the international level.

Rituals of Reconciliation: Arab-Islamic Perspectives - Chapter 9

By George E. Irani and Nathan C. Funk

(summary by Diana CAKULE)

Can we use Western conflict resolution techniques in the Middle East? This technique was usually greeted with distrust in Lebanon, Jordan, Egypt etc. At the same time the US model of conflict resolution is accepted primarily for facilitation of the process of peace and situation normalisation between Israel and its Arab neighbours.

In the Middle East, still, the peace process is a superficial phenomenon and diplomatic agreements are linked to capitulation or “pacification”.

As a result theoreticians and practitioners started focusing on cultural differences, rituals and reconciliation processes. In particular, mediators can integrate some principles and symbolic practices in Middle East reconciliations methodologies – such as sulh (settlement) and musalaha (reconciliation).

The basic assumption made by Western conflict resolution theorists is that conflicts can and should be fully resolved. Arab-Islamic culture is less optimistic, saying that conflicts may be intractable. US-based approaches espouse that conflict erupts either because of different interpretations regarding data, issues, values, interests and relationships or because of unsatisfied human needs – it means that there is a positive and also a negative dimension.

Non-Western cultures often consider Western assumptions about conflict resolution provocative and they may find them difficult to accept and apply to their own circumstances. They are likely to be sensitive to the lack of correspondence between the principles and practices promoted by Western conflict resolution professionals and the actual conduct of Western nation states in the international system.

In conflict resolution, communication skills are very important. In many conflicts, the art of listening is drowned out by arguments and the never-ending struggle to get one’s own point across first. Listening is not equivalent to ignoring, it is preparing to respond – it is a Western approach! But can we use it in the Middle East? In “heart-to-heart” conversations, for example in Lebanon, people frequently interrupt each other with expressions of empathy, of support. It is not a rude interruption; it simply means that people are very expressive. In another example, in some rural areas of Lebanon, if you don’t talk, it means you are dull; the more you talk, the more it is assumed you know.

Also, we have to note another difference between Western and non-Western approaches. Lebanese representatives think that conflict management is better than conflict resolution. It is impossible to completely solve conflicts; the existence of conflicts goes together with human existence.

Western techniques in Arab-Islamic societies are adopted by businessmen, bankers and engineers. But still, for most people, conflict resolution is handled by the state controlled courts.

Another aspect of cultural difference is the role of gender in society. For example, in Lebanon, the majority of social workers are women. But in conflicts involving couples, men refuse to deal with social workers. Also, in the case of divorce children stay with their father.

Arab states don’t have individuals with rights and duties, they have individuals belonging to communities. In resolving conflicts we have to take in account the towns/villages aspect.

THE ROLE OF RITUALS

Rituals, ceremonies, customs – are a part of the culture. There is a close connection between rituals and communicative behaviour, especially concerning efforts to control, reduce and resolve conflict.

The largest contrast between Western and non-western conflict resolution is that the Western approach underscores the primacy of individual choices in facilitation of the process, whilst the traditional Arab-Islamic process is communally oriented. In Western mediation, the practitioner is a neutral, unaffiliated outsider, but in the Arab-Islamic approach the “third party” has connections to the major disputants, as well as good relations with the community (age, experience, status, leadership). Similarly, in Western life the responsibility lies with the participants, but in Arab-Islamic world it is guaranteed by the communal leader.

The Western third party relies on guidelines, experience and legal texts but in Arab-Islamic situations it is based on sacred texts, religious ideals, history and traditions.

The goals of the Western process are pragmatic, trying to achieve a win-to-win scenario that will delete the past and commence a new page in history. In contrast, the Arab-Islamic process is continuity-oriented; history is the source of stability, it shapes the future. Also in the Western world we solve our own problems, whilst the Arab-Islam approach integrates family and community in this matter.

The Western process includes very structured problem resolution (“separate the person from the problem”) which leads to a formal, written agreement. In contrast, the Arab-Islamic approach prioritizes the issues – harmony, solidarity, dignity and prestige.

Sulh and musalaha

One of the most important unofficial responses to conflict in Middle Eastern societies is sulh and musalaha, which are often simply called “sulh”. Suhl and musalaha has its origins in tribal and village contexts, although not legitimated by Middle Easter states. Today it is used in some rural areas of Lebanon where state control is not very strong. In Jordan however, the ritual of sulh is officially recognised.

The purpose of sulh is to end conflict and hostility, so that parties can conduct a relationship in peace and amity. It is a form of legal contract.

In general, there are two types of sulh processes: public sulh (treaties between two countries – to suspend fighting and to establish peace – for a specific time period) and private sulh (when both the crime and the guilty party is known and the purpose is to make sure that revenge will not take place leading to another conflict). The most common condition is to forget what happened and to initiate new and friendly relations. The mediators in this process are called Jaha – who gain the esteem of the community. But the sulh ritual is not a zero-sum game!

Conclusions: The application of Western style conflict control, reduction and resolution in the Middle East can be effective but we can never forget about the importance of traditional methods and rituals!

The non-violent Crescent: Eight Theses on Muslim Nonviolent Actions – Chapter 10

By Chaiwat Satha-Anand (Qader Muheideen)

(summary by Charlotte BENNBORN)

This chapter suggests that Islam is not the cause of violence but that it in fact contains - within its 5 pillars - the fundamentals for non-violent actions.

Jihad is sometimes considered the sixth pillar of Islam. Generally translated as “holy war”, it tends to conjure up images (among non-Muslims) of desperate acts by irrational and fanatical people who want to impose their world-view on others. However, the Qur’an states “let there be no compulsion in religion”. It can be argued that historically, in Arab conquests, especially in Southeast Asia, Islam seemed to stress continuity rather than conflict with previous cultures.

The purpose of Jihad is to put an end to structural violence. Jihad is the command of Allah and the traditions of Prophet Mohammad that demand continuous personal re-examination in terms of one’s potential for achieving peace and moral responsibility. Jihad can be differentiated according to the direction (inner and outer) and method (violent and non-violent). There is greater Jihad and lesser Jihad. Greater Jihad is an inner, individual struggle against one’s own weaknesses and inner evil. Lesser Jihad, is fought against external enemies – to eliminate evil within the ummah (community). The inner and greater jihad guides the lesser Jihad in both its objectives and conduct. Jihad places war and violence in the moral realm, indicating that fighting has its limits. The Qur’an states that;

Fight in the cause of Allah

Those who fight you,

But do not transgress limits;

For Allah loveth not transgressors. (2:190)

Fighting in the cause of God in Islam is basically synonymous with fighting for justice.

According to the Qur’an and the Sunnah (secondary source of Islamic law after the Qur’an), the lives of non-combatants are sacred. In addition, unnecessary destruction of an enemy’s crops or property is also strictly forbidden.

Clearly, modern warfare which includes nuclear and atomic weapons violates these principles as they kill indiscriminately. Similarly, terrorism fails to distinguish among its victims.

The author proposes that because Muslims cannot use violence the way it is used in contemporary society (because it invariably involves indiscriminate killing of “innocent” people), the community must explore non-violent ways of conducting Jihad (the struggle against injustices). The author suggests that this still means taking action (albeit non-violent) – jihad can be performed by the heart, the tongue or the hand,

The author uses the example of protests staged by Muslims in response to the massacre of civilian Muslims in Southern Thailand in the mid-1970s. He outlines “Five Pillars of Muslim Nonviolent Action” as the reason for their successful, non-aggressive action.

1. The protestors possessed the will to disobey - without which no nonviolent action can be realised. Muslims are willing to disobey because for them there is no other authority than Allah, not even the state.

2. These Thai Muslims were courageous despite severe repression by the state. Because they submitted to Allah alone, they did not have to fear any mortal.

3. Muslim discipline enabled the gathering, the protest march. Muslims are disciplined in their everyday life; they pray five times a day.

4. The concept of ummah (community) is very strong among Muslims

5. Islam repeatedly encourages action.

The author claims these pillars correspond well with the sacred Five Pillars of Islam

Shahadat – a vow that proclaims there is no god but God and Muhammad is His messenger

Salat – Prayers at specific times five times a day from sunrise to sunset, each preceded by proper ablution (the practice of using ritual washing as one part of a ceremony to remove sin or disease)

Zakah – compulsory religious tax that every Muslim has to pay

Sawm – Fasting in the month of Ramadan every year by abstaining from food and drink from sunrise to sunset while purifying both the tongue and the heart in the process

Hajj – Pilgrimage to the holy city of Mecca at least once in a lifetime if one can afford it

A practicing Muslim should possess the potential for disobedience, discipline, social concern and action, patience and willingness to suffer for a cause, and the idea of unity – all of which a crucial for successful nonviolent action

Thus, the eight theses on Muslim non-violent action are suggested as a challenge for Muslims and others who seek to reaffirm the original vision of Islam so that the true meaning of peace – the absence of both structural as well as personal violence - can be obtained.

1. For Islam, the problem of violence is an integral part of the Islamic moral sphere

2. Violence, if any, used by Muslims must be governed by rules prescribed in the Qur’an and Hadith

3. If violence used cannot discriminate between combatants and non-combatants, then it is unacceptable in Islam

4. Modern technology of destruction renders discrimination virtually impossible at present

5. In the modern world, Muslims cannot use violence

6. Islam teaches Muslims to fight for justice with the understanding that human lives, as parts of God’s creation – are purposive and sacred

7. In order to be true to Islam, Muslims must utilise non-violent action as a new mode of struggle

8. Islam itself is fertile soil for non-violence because of its potential for disobedience, strong discipline, sharing and social responsibility, perseverance and self-sacrifice, and the belief in the unity of the Muslim community and the oneness of mankind.

Nonviolence, Ethics and Character Development in Islam – Chapter 11

By Karim Douglas Crow

(summary by Charlotte BENNBORN)

The article focuses on how there is a need for a new tactic in the way we approach the importance of religion in conflict resolution and nonviolence. The Arabic language does not have a specific term for the notion of “nonviolence”, however the author highlights that there are a number of concepts that embrace aspects of the idea of nonviolence. He proposes that it is through these concepts of ethics and character development that non-Muslims can gain a deeper understanding of Islam and Muslims themselves can grasp the concept of nonviolence.

Today there are two main trends in the analysis of the relevance of religion in nonviolence and conflict resolution;

• Apologies are being made for historical events involving particular faiths which has lead to generalisation and idealisation of complex, contemporary realities

• Major religions selectively take on board the more favourable aspects of higher universal values, whilst attempting to extract essential attitudes and practices supporting current efforts to encourage non-violence on the ground.

The author proposes that there should be a third approach to religion – beyond apologies for or appeals to the religious past. This may in turn allow a deeper understanding of Islam regarding notions of integrity, intelligence and ignorance and in this way, toward deeper understanding of nonviolence in the heritage of Islam.

There is no specific term for the notion of “nonviolence” in the Arabic language. It is often denoted through expressions such as;

al unf; “no force”, “no violence” or “no-vehemence”

sabr; Stems from the root for “patience” and “fortitude”

Nonetheless, there are concepts that embrace aspects of nonviolence.

One reason for the lack of the concept of nonviolence in Muslim teachings comes from unfamiliarity with the textual and conceptual bases of the term.

What has until now inhibited a proper grasp of Islamic teachings on peace and conflict is a blind-spot among non-Muslims concerning the real nature of Islamic thought and practice. This is rooted in the events of Medieval times as well as ignorance. Today it is exasperated by efforts to demonise Islam as the antithesis to Judaeo-Christian-Hellenistic cultural values which stems from the threat posed by Muslim “fundamentalism” and the exploitation of the term “terrorism” by certain governments.

Misconceptions of Islam also stem from the failure of many Muslims to actively promote an intelligent presentation of their own tradition in a language and in a manner accessible to the masses and understandable in the contemporary mentality of the world.

The author suggests that the growing Muslim Diaspora in Europe and North America, alongside the longstanding Muslim minority communities in India, China and South East Asia may be the place to find a fresh approach to promoting an understanding of Islam.

A popularised tradition which has a profound impact on the formation of values at all levels of society is the religious teachings which centre on the discipline of the akhlaq (virtuous character traits). These originate from the Qur’an and the hadith (sometimes referred to as hadith-based ethics). This states that within a person, there is an internal psychological dualism – not a body/mind dualism. There is a dichotomy between a person’s al aql (“intelligence” and “self restraint”) and al-hawa (“passion”, “whim” or “desire”). Aql is also opposed to jahl (“folly” or “ignorance”). Aql reflects wisdom in the sense of moral self-restraint and harmonious conduct in a social communal context, while jahl signifies all that is perverse and discordant in the person leading to inner blindness, conflict and social disorder. In other words, the dialectic notion of “aql-jahl” can be said to be fundamental in leading one ultimately toward a human predisposition toward “nonviolence” as a poised spiritual trait.

The cultivation of character traits remains the basis for the individual’s personal engagement with God in service and devotion, and for loving-kindness and charity in the self-sacrificing service of one’s fellows. Relevant character traits in Islam include;

Ihsan; putting the good and the beautiful into practice

Ikhlas; “purity of sincerity” or the internalisation of works and faith

Taqwa; “God-mindfulness”, as the perfection of works and faith

The above traits show that the refinement and cultivation of a person’s emotional life was conceived to be the axis balancing the realisation of human possibilities – both in a social setting and within the self.

The core of Islamic ethical practice consists of an amalgam of knowledge – “the moral transformation of the personality” through a “process of grooming”.

Peter Brown, and observer of the reciprocity between Islam and other world religions observes that the counter balancing core of Islamic authority and traditions stems from how it is “effectively internalised and passed onto others”.

The traditional aspects of Islam then, call for self-restraint and the transformation of animal impulses that will cease to be heard only when violence loses its force for “suppressing our internal stirrings to transform our self and our world”. The author writes that “the vitality of this tradition has not been exhausted, despite the irascible vehemence of the fundamentalists whose angry roar fills our ears drowning out the quiet hum of the veritable practitioners of Islam”

Nonviolence in Islam: The Alternative Community Tradition - Chapter 12 

By Rabia Terri Harris

(summary Nayla SAMMOUR SAWAYA)

Islam makes no distinction between « church » and « state ». There is scarcely any such entity as an Islamic church, and an Islamic state has always been a controversial institution.

THE PROPHET’S JIHAD

Jihad means struggle or effort, it is traditionally divided the Greater Struggle, the inward effort of confronting our lower nature and the Lesser Struggle, the outward effort of confronting social injustice. It includes teaching and the active pursuit of a culture of peace, as well as resistance to oppression.

There is no license in Islam for any war that falls outside the bounds of the divine commandments and prophetic practice.

THE LIFE OF THE PROPHET

To understand the problems of interpreting the Islamic tradition and applying this tradition to contemporary political issues, the life of the Prophet must be considered and the role of the “lesser struggle” against social injustice in it should be examined.

The first task of Muhammad, the Messenger of Allah, was to persist with unwavering endurance in the face of an increasingly bitter communal repression.

Al-Husayn is known in Islamic tradition as the Prince of Martyrs; he died willingly in pursuit of the best work of faith. The Massacre of Kerbala horrified the Muslim world, religiously delegitimized the early state’s authority, made irrevocable the great sectarian schism Sunni and Shi’I Islam, and sowed a seed of conscientious opposition to power deep into the fertile ground of the Muslim spiritual tradition.

Al-Hallaj is another martyr. Muslims proponents of non-violence are faced with a dilemma. Muslims know that unarmed resistance to oppression draws the eternal blessing of Allah and manifests a sublime and noble soul. The question is, is armed resistance a reliable tool for removal of oppression?

ISLAMIC JUST WAR THEORY

The Prophet has clearly taught Muslims that power is not what the ego takes it to be, and the winning is not necessarily a visible satisfaction. Power and victory are with God alone, and God is neither a banner nor an abstraction. Without a wider understanding of power among Muslims that parallels the Prophetic understanding, oppressor will merely succeed oppressor and the secret of the Prophet’s victory will remain a secret.

NONVIOLENCE: RETURN TO THE REPRESSED

Several interpretations:

- Unarmed struggle has been superseded by armed struggle, which is now obligatory upon then faithful until Islam is acknowledged everywhere.

- The armed struggle is superior, but must wait, for practical reasons, upon the accumulation of sufficient military power.

- Armed struggle is only a branch, which dies if torn from its root – for it is only unarmed struggle that teaches reliance on God. The assumption here is that power, by essence, is non-coercive.

Muslim proponents of non-violence can challenge the world peace community to reconsider its fundamental goal. Is the universal core of non-violence the quietism, which is appropriate to some spiritual traditions, or is it to struggle for justice in a just fashion with the goal that our current opponents might gladly become our future allies?

Peace in the Sufi Tradition: An Ecology of the Spirit – Chapter 13

By Abdul Said and Nathan C. Funk

(summary by Gary SETTE)

The Sufi understanding of peace is rooted in tawhid, the principle of unity that provides a fertile soil for Islamic faith and spirituality. Islam underscores the unity of God, the unity of humanity, and ultimately the unity of existence. If unity is the truth or essence of Islam, humans and other creatures approach this truth through harmony. The strength of Islam is its capacity to reconcile seeming opposites and harmonize diversity until the underlying unity is perceived and disharmony returns to peace.

Tawhid: an affirmation of wholeness

The unity of Existence

The message of peace and unity expressed in the Sufi tradition applies to the inner person, to society, and to the cosmos. Islam is the process of submission to God, through which the part – the human microcosm - becomes reconciled with the Whole, with the Universe or macrocosm. Tawhid then, is a conception whose reality enters into human life at many levels.

From a Sufi perspective, tawhid expresses the Islamic ideal of the fundamental unity of all humankind and of all life, and rejects a vision of reality rooted in exclusiveness. Universalism and tolerance is the core of Islam. At the heart of this message of universalism in Islam lies respect for cultural pluralism. The unity of humankind is not premised on uniformity. Rather, unity embraces a myriad of cultural differences. Sufism emphasizes respect in inter-religious relations, and condemns racial and ethnic discrimination.

The Practice of Peace

To experience peace, the seeker must become passive with respect to the divine yet active with respect to the world. Peace requires not only outward human effort, but also a spiritual attitude of receptivity and continual inward cleansing. Purification of the self, remembrance of the divine and proper attention to relationships creates a space for the presence of peace to manifest. The essential theme of the Qur’anic revelation is surrender to and integration in God, suggesting a world view premised on universalism and pluralism. Sufism recognizes that intoxication with modern technology and the nationalist imperatives of the nation-state system have overridden traditionalist imperatives for cultural diversity. They also affirm the clear preference in Islam for non-violence over violence, and forgiveness over retribution.

ecological harmony: upholding the pattern of existence

The Role of the Human Being within Creation

Sufi perspectives on ecology mirror their perspectives on peace. Though human beings posses a special dignity, they are ultimately at one with the rest of creation through surrender to the presence of the divine. All created things are Muslim, in the sense that they live in submission

to God. Both human beings and other creatures are part of a single harmonious order. While human beings share with non-human creations the common condition of submission, they are also endowed with special privileges and responsibilities which reflect their actual capacities. The Earth and its resources are placed in the care of human beings as custodians for their preservation, development and enhancement. The Sufi tradition links the stature and dignity of the human being to acceptance of responsibility, self-effacement, and active pursuit of knowledge. Ignorance of the divine and failure to live in a way which activates the higher faculties of the human being results in an actual loss of existential freedom and stature. A person who fails to subdue and efface his or her ego can do far more harm to creation than a predatory animal. Animals which act upon their instincts incur no blame, but human beings who fail to respond to the grace of their Creator with gratitude and service risk great loss to themselves and to others. Eventually, humans are absolutely free internally; externally they are limited in their powers and rights in relation to God, nature and fellow human.

The Sacral Dimension of Nature

Nature is a mirror of God; nature is filled with the signs of God. Remembrance of God, and concomitant recognition of the presence of the divine in the ecological harmonies of nature, is the surest guarantee of both human well-being and harmony between humanity and non-human creations.

Implications of the sufi outlook

Sufi teachings suggest that peace exists with harmonization of the human being. Contemporary wars and environmental crises offer a warning that modernization and the celebration of technology are no substitutes for the sustainable and balanced development of human societies and personalities. Islam does not demand the sacrifice of the material needs of humanity for transcendent aims nor does it sanctify the worship of the means of earthly subsistence. Islam does not oppose the spiritual to the material, but rather underscores the spiritual as the context of the material. Eventually, in the contemporary world, there is a need to renew the Sufi understanding of tawhid (unity).

Weapons for the Battle Within – Chapter 14

By M. R. Bawa Muhaiyaddeen

(summary by Gary SETTE)

What was given to Islam? God gave formal prayer to Islam as a weapon for this world and the next. He ordained that the fifty times of prayer be made into five. We must use these weapons of prayer to fight the inner war and eliminate the enmity and hatred within ourselves. We must dispel our base desires, our prejudices, our religious and racial differences. Pride, jealousy, and all other evils must be fought with this weapon.

In addition to the five-time prayer, God ordained five obligatory duties to the Muslim community. The first obligatory duty is to surrender to Allah with absolute faith. The second duty is to worship Allah alone, without thinking for a moment that He might have any equal or partner. Charity, fasting, and pilgrimage were three other duties made obligatory for those who had not fully comprehended the first two duties.

Beyond these five outer weapons, Allah has also given six inner weapons, which the Sufis have explained. You may find them in your eye, your nostril, your ear, your tongue, and your heart. We who are in Islam must understand and act in accordance with both the inner and outer duties.

Those who do not govern peoples’ hearts, but instead rule over the earth, really govern in hell. Pride is hell, and the attractions of earth, gold, sensual pleasures, and possessions are advertisements that lure us to the seven hells. To overcome those hells we must begin to govern hearts with good qualities, with prayer, and with worship.

The wars we are engaged in today are being fought for the sake of conquering nations, capturing countries, and killing and vanquishing others. This is not the kind of war that true Islam wages. We must realize that it is not right for us to harbour hatred.

Enmity cannot be overcome with enmity. Hostility cannot be overcome by hostility. Vengeance cannot be overcome by vengeance. Jealousy cannot be overcome by jealousy. Hatred cannot be overcome by hatred. It is our own satanic qualities that must be overcome with inner patience, contentment, trust in God, giving all praise to God. Once we understand what the true weapons of Islam are, we will never take a life, we will not murder, we will not even see any brother separate from ourselves.

But over the last hundred years some people of Islam and of other religions have changed. Faith has decreased to the point where many say God does not exist. The satanic qualities of jealousy, vengeance, anger, sin, and pride have come into us. We must strengthen our faith and using the weapons of the five-time prayer and of patience, contentment, trust in god, and praise of God. If everyone in the community of Islam understand this and tried to establish peace, tolerance, and patience, that alone would bring peace to the world. The weapons of peace and tranquillity will grant us victory no matter what enmity, what hostility, threatens us.

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