Chapter 7, Section 3
Chapter 7, Section 3I. An End to Isolation (page 397)By 1800 the Tokugawa shogunate had ruled the Japanese islands for two hundred years. The country was virtually isolated from foreigners. Foreign ships were driven away, and the little foreign trading was done only through Nagasaki.Western powers approached Japan in the hope of opening it up to their economic interests. The United States was the first foreign country to succeed with Japan. In 1853 four warships under Commodore Matthew Perry arrived in Edo Bay (now Tokyo Bay).The purpose was to bring the "isolated people into the family of civilized nations." Perry carried a letter from President Millard Fillmore, asking to open relations between the two countries. Some shogunate officials argued against contact and others recommended concessions, or political compromises. The shogunate's response was ultimately dictated by the guns of Perry's ships when he returned for an answer with a larger fleet.Under military pressure Japan agreed to the Treaty of Kanagawa. It provided for the return of American shipwrecked sailors, who previously were treated as criminals, the opening of two ports to Western traders, and the establishment of a U.S. consulate in Japan.In 1858 a new treaty called for the opening of several new ports to U.S. trade and residence, and an exchange of ministers. Several European nations soon signed such treaties with Japan.II. Resistance to the New Order (page 398)Resistance to this change in relations with the West was especially strong among the samurai warriors in the territories of Satsuma and Choshu. In 1863, the Sat-Cho alliance forced the shogun to promise to end relations with the West.The Sat-Cho rebels were convinced they needed to strengthen their military after losing an exchange with Western ships. They also demanded that the shogun resign and restore the power of the emperor. Sat-Cho armies attacked the shogun's palace in Kyoto in 1868. They declared the emperor restored. The shogun's forces and the shogunate soon collapsed.III. The Meiji Restoration (pages 398-401)Although the Sat-Cho leaders mistrusted the West, they soon realized Japan must modernize. The new leaders embarked on reforms that transformed Japan into a modern industrial nation.The young emperor Mutsuhito called his reign the Meiji, or "Enlightened Rule." This period is known as the Meiji Restoration. Mutsuhito was controlled by the Sat-Cho leaders, and the capital was moved to their location, Edo (now Tokyo).To undercut the power of the daimyo—the local nobles—the new leaders stripped them of the titles to their lands in 1871. Their territories were organized into prefectures, and the daimyo were named governors of their previous holdings. Today, Japan is divided into 45 prefectures.The Meiji reformers set out to create a Western-style political system. The leaders pledged in the Charter Oath to create a new legislative assembly within the framework of continued imperial rule.A commission under Ito Hirobumi traveled to Great Britain, France, Germany, and the United States to study their governments. Two factions appeared in Japan—Liberals and Progressives. Each wanted a government with power divided between the legislature (parliament) and the executive, but the Liberals wanted power ultimately to reside with the legislature and the Progressives wanted it to reside with the executive. The Progressives won.Real executive authority lay not with the emperor but with the prime minister and his cabinet ministers, handpicked by the Meiji leaders. Further, the members of the upper house were appointed, not elected. The government was democratic in form but authoritarian in practice, therefore. The traditional ruling class kept its influence and economic power.Meiji leaders set up a new system of land ownership. Peasants were given the lands of the daimyo, who were compensated with government bonds. The leaders levied an annual 3 percent land tax, which brought in revenues but was a real burden to the farmers.The government turned to promoting industry, wanting to create a "rich country and a strong state." The government subsidized industries, brought in foreign advisors, improved transportation, and started a new educational system that stressed applied science.From the start, a unique feature of the Meiji model of industrial development was the close relationship between government and private business. Businesspeople were given money and privileges to start new enterprises, and the government played some role even after the business was on its feet.The Meiji reformers transformed other institutions, especially the military. In 1871 a new army based on compulsory military service was formed. All men served for three years.A ministry of education guided the change to universal education and instruction in modern technology. Soon the ministry adopted the American educational system. Bright students were sent to study abroad. However, much emphasis was still placed on the virtues of loyalty to family, community, and, especially, the emperor.The Meiji Restoration changed Japan's social structure considerably. Before, community and hierarchy ruled society, and women especially were ruled by the "three obediences": child to father, wife to husband, widow to son. Now, for the first time women were allowed to seek an education. The shift to industry meant thousands of Japanese took jobs that signaled a change in the social structure.Western fashions became the rage among the elite. Baseball was imported from the United States. Young people were increasingly influenced by Western culture and values, imitating Western clothes, hairstyles, and social practices.The social changes had a dark side. Many workers were ruthlessly exploited in the coal mines and textile mills. Miners trying to escape their horrible conditions sometimes were shot. Even so, resistance was not unknown. Many sought political rights and recognition of basic human rights. Women played a role in the resistance. They formed the Freedom and People's Rights Movement and demanded voting rights for women as early as 1876.The change to a "modern society" did not undermine the old loyalties, however. They were taught in the new schools and codified in the constitution of 1890 and the Civil Code of 1898, where, for example, individual rights were played down, the right to vote was limited to men, and women were placed within the context of their family role exclusively.IV. Joining the Imperialist Nations (pages 401-402)Japan also copied the Western imperialist approach to foreign affairs, in part because it had no natural room for expansion. To compete with the West, Japan believed it would need colonies as a source of wealth and power.In 1874 the Japanese claimed control of the Ryukyu Islands, previously subject to Chinese rule. Japan's navy forced Korea to open its ports to Japanese trade. In the 1880s, tension between China and Japan over Korea grew. They warred, and the Japanese destroyed the Chinese fleet and entered the Manchurian city of Port Arthur.Rivalry with Russia over influence in Korea led to strained relations. Russia was supremely confident it could defeat Japan in a war.Japan launched a surprise attack on the Russian naval base at Port Arthur, which Russia had taken from China (Japan had earlier returned the port to China). Japanese forces moved into China, and the Russian troops were not a match for them.Meanwhile, the Japanese navy defeated the Russian navy. Russia agreed to a humiliating peace in 1905. They gave the strategic Liaodong Peninsula to Japan, as well as part of an island north of Japan. The victory established Japan as a world power.Japan consolidated its position in northeastern Asia, annexing Korea in 1910. The United States recognized the annexation in return for Japan's support for American authority in the Philippines. Mutual suspicion between the two countries was growing, however. Japan resented U.S. restrictions on immigration, and many Americans feared Japan's growing power.V. Culture in an Era of Transition (pages 402-403)The wave of Western technology and ideas that entered Japan greatly changed traditional Japanese culture, especially in literature. Japanese authors began imitating the Western models.Other aspects of culture also changed. The Japanese invited technicians, engineers, architects, and artists from Europe and the United States to teach modern skills to Japanese students.By the end of the 1800s, however, a national reaction had set in. In 1889 the Tokyo School of Fine Arts was established to promote traditional Japanese art. Some Japanese artists searched for a new but traditional means of expression.Cultural exchange flowed East to West, as well. Japanese porcelains, textiles, fans, woodblock prints, and folding screens became fashionable in Europe and North America. Japanese art influenced Western painters, and Japanese gardens became especially popular in the United States. ................
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