Bibliography - Shane Sheedy



Title of academic paper: The Philosophy of EducationSubmitted to: Dr. Carina GintySubmitted by: Shane SheedyStudent No: G00184562Date: 03rd January 2018AbstractThis literature review takes a detailed look at the work of Jarome Bruner, Lev Vygotsky and Jean Piaget, three cognitive theorists. The introduction gives a comparison between cognitivism and behaviourism theorists. The literature analysis compares and contrasts each of their cognitive theories on children and education and how this has had an effect on how an educator would now deliver their teaching. It then finishes with my own developed philosophy of education relating to the work of Bruner, Vygotsky and Piaget. Key WordsCognitivismBrunerVygotskyPiagetPhilosophy of EducationIntroductionThis literature review is based on the work of three educational philosophers. I will take a detailed look at the work of Jarome Bruner, Lev Vygotsky and Jean Piaget. I will break down, compare and contrast their work. Bruner, Vygotsky and Piaget are all cognitive theorists. Cognitivism is the scientific study of the mind as an information processor. These type of educational philosophers focus on the thinking, perception, attention, language, memory and consciousness inside people’s minds CITATION Mcl15 \l 6153 (Mcleod, 2015) as opposed to behaviourist theorists who merely focus on the observational stimulus response of humans believing all learning occurs through the external environment disagreeing with cognitive theorists CITATION McL17 \l 6153 (McLeod, 2017). It was not until the 1950’s that the cognitive approach came to great importance when many educational theorists developed dissatisfaction with the behaviourist approach having such a simple emphasis on external behaviour neglecting internal behaviour patterns. During this time there was a call for better experimental methods CITATION Mcl15 \l 6153 (Mcleod, 2015).Literature AnalysisJarome Bruner“The outcome of cognitive development is thinking. The intelligent mind creates from experience generic coding systems that permit one to go beyond the data to new and possibly fruitful predictions” CITATION Bru57 \p 234 \l 6153 (Bruner, 1957, p. 234).Therefor to Bruner the ability to invent these things for oneself is an essential outcome of learning as well as the categories, concepts and problem solving techniques invented by cultures previously. Bruner believes that in order to have cognitive growth there must be an interaction between basic human capabilities and culturally invented technologies that serve as amplifiers of these capabilities. Bruner is not just suggesting technologies such as computers, television and media but in a more abstract manner on how cultures would classifies phenomena and languages. This would suggest that Bruner would agree with Vygotsky that language serves to arbitrate between environmental stimuli and the individual’s reaction CITATION McL08 \l 6153 (McLeod S. A., 2008).Bruner dedicated a lot of his professional career researching the cognitive development of children, proposing three models of representation:Enactive representation (action –based)Iconic representation (image – based)Symbolic representation (language – based)These three models represent Bruner’s interpretation of how knowledge or information are stored and encoded in the memory as opposed to Piaget who’s models of representation are integrated and are loosely progressive as they render into each other.Enactive (0-1yr)The first representation involving encoding action based information and storing it in our memory. For example, using muscle memory, a baby may remember the sound of a squeezed squeaking teddy bear. A child then represents past events through mechanical responses, for example a toddler will squeeze the teddy bear which has just been squeezed as if the movements alone are expected to produce the sought after accustomed sound. This is also reflected in adults in how they may perform a variety of mechanical tasks that they could find difficult to describe in iconic or symbolic form.Iconic (1-6yr) Information is now stored visually in the way of images a form of mental picture in the mind’s eye. For many, this is conscious, for others this is not experienced. This would assist in explaining why, it is often helpful to have illustrations or diagrams to accompany verbal information when learning a new subject.Symbolic (7 years +)The last development stage of representation. Now the information is stored in the way of a symbol or code, such as language which is the most adaptable form of representation. Symbols are flexible in how they can be classified, manipulated and ordered therefor the user isn’t inhibited by images or actions. At the symbolic stage, knowledge is stored predominately as words, or other symbol systems such as mathematics CITATION McL08 \l 6153 (McLeod S. A., 2008)Bruner’s theory suggests that it is effective when challenged with new material to follow a progression pattern from enactive to iconic to symbolic representation which he believed is also true for adult learners. In contrast to Piaget, Bruner believes that even at a very early age a learner is capable of leaning any material once the instruction is organized appropriately. He believes that the infant is an active and intelligent problem solver from day one with intellectual abilities like those of a mature adult. According to Bruner, the sole purpose of education is not to just off load knowledge but to enable a child’s thinking and problem solving skills. Education should develop symbolic thinking in children. CITATION McL08 \l 6153 (McLeod S. A., 2008) Bruner believes that a child of any age is capable of understanding complex information suggesting that this is achieved through the concept of the spiral curriculum involving information been organized so complex ideas can be taught at a more simplified level first, then later revisited at a more complex level suggesting that subjects be thought at a more gradually increasingly difficult level representing the spiral analogy. This method of teaching should enable the children to think and problem solve themselves. This would also aid the notion of discovery learning implying that students construct their own knowledge themselves also known as the constructivist approach CITATION McL08 \l 6153 (McLeod S. A., 2008)Bruner disagreed with Piaget’s notion of readiness where schools match a child’s cognitive stage of development to the complexity of subject material arguing that students are often held back by teachers who believe that certain topics are too difficult for the student to understand and should not be thought until the teacher believes that the student has reached the relevant level of cognitive maturity. In The Process of Education published by Bruner in 1960 suggests that students are active learners and that they construct their own knowledgeCITATION Bru60 \l 6153 (Bruner, The Process of Education, 1960)Lev Vygotsky“Learning is the necessary and universal aspect of the process of developing culturally organised specifically human psychological function” CITATION Vyg78 \l 6153 (Vygotsky, 1978).Vygotsky believes that social learning comes before a child’s development in contrast to Piaget who argued that a child’s development must necessarily precede their learning. Vygotsky’s theories stress the importance of the role of social interaction in the development of cognition where he believed that community plays a key role in the process of making meaning. Vygotsky developed his theories and social cultural approach to cognitive development during the same era as Piaget started developing his but Vygotsky died at the age of 38 therefore his theories are known to be incomplete. Saying this, Vygotsky’s work is known to be the foundation of much of the research and theory in cognitive development over the past decades, in particular his Social Development Theory CITATION McL14 \l 6153 (McLeod S. A., 2014)For one to develop an understanding of Vygotsky’s theories on cognitive development, they must understand Vygotsky’s two main principles of work:More Knowledgeable OtherThe Zone of Proximal DevelopmentMore knowledgeable Other (MKO)This refers to an individual who would have a greater ability level or better understanding than the learner in relation to a certain task, process or concept. This would give the implication that the MKO would be an older adult of a teacher but this is not necessarily the case. Often the adult’s children may be the individuals with greater experience or knowledge depending on the subject matter. For example, a teenager is more likely to know about the latest teenage music scene or social media trends than an adult parent therefore the teenager is the MKO.In many cases the MKO may be an electronic source. This is often used in companies to support staff in their learning process while in the educational system electronic tutors are regularly used to assist students through the learning process.MKO is closely related to Vygotsky’s second principle, Zone of Proximal Development. The Zone of Proximal DevelopmentThis important principle discusses the difference between what a child can learn independently and to what a child can learn with some guidance and motivation from an MKO such as a parent or teacher. For example, Shaffer gives the example of the young girl trying to complete a jigsaw who was having some difficulty and the task would take a considerable amount of time, when her father assisted her with some slight direction in how to take on the task by filling the corner pieces first and letting her match other obvious pieces of the jigsaw together thus offering encouragement when she does so. The father than gradually allows the child to work more independently as she becomes more competent. This according to Vygotsky promotes cognitive development through social interaction. Vygotsky viewed the Zone of Proximal Development as an area where the most sensitive of instruction should be given allowing the child to develop skills they will use on their own thus developing higher mental skills. He also suggests that within the zone of proximal development that teachers use cooperative learning exercises that gives the opportunity for less competent children to develop from more skilful peers CITATION McL14 \l 6153 (McLeod S. A., 2014).According to Vygotsky, from the ages of 0-2 years of age language and thought are initially separate systems where they begin to merge at around 3 years of age where thought now becomes verbal and speech representational. At this stage Vygotsky believes that a child develops inner speech which is essential in driving cognitive development at this stage. In an article published in Cambridge in 1962 Vygotsky suggests that “Inner speech is not the interior aspect of external speech - it is a function in itself. It still remains speech, i.e., thought connected with words. But while in external speech thought is embodied in words, in inner speech words dies as they bring forth thought. Inner speech is to a large extent thinking in pure meanings”CITATION Vyg62 \p 149 \l 6153 (Vygotsky L. S., 1962, p. 149)In contrast to Piaget’s view of private speech leading to a developmental cul-de-sac CITATION Pia59 \l 6153 (Piaget, 1959), Vygotsky believed private speech to be the earliest form of inner speech considering private speech as the changing point between inner and social speech where language and thought come together to constitute verbal thinkingCITATION Vyg87 \t \l 6153 (Vygotsky L. S., 1987)Jean PiagetPiaget’s theory of cognitive development explains how a child builds a psychological model of the world where he believed that biological maturation and interaction with the environment form the process for cognitive development in childrenCITATION Pia36 \t \l 6153 (Piaget, 1936)Piaget was the first psychologist to introduce a systematic study of cognitive development. Different stages of development. According to McLeod, both Bruner and Vygotsky opposed to this believing that a more continuous flow of development should occur CITATION McL15 \t \l 6153 (McLeod S. A., 2015)Piaget was best known for his detailed observational studies of cognition in children, a collection of inventive tests that revealed many different cognitive abilities and his stage theory of child cognitive development CITATION Pia36 \t \l 6153 (Piaget, 1936). Piaget was most interested in how fundamental concepts like the idea of time, a number or quantity emerged to a child as opposed to measuring how well a child could read, spell, count or problem solve. Before Piaget developed his theories, the basic assumption in psychology was that children were less capable thinkers than adults. In McLeod’s opinion, Piaget ‘showed that young children think in strikingly different ways compared to adults’CITATION McL15 \t \l 6153 (McLeod S. A., 2015)The three basic components that make up Piaget’s theory are:SchemasAdaption processes that enable the transition from one stage to another (equilibrium, assimilation and accommodation).Stages of Cognitive Development – sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, formal operational)Schemas“A cohesive, repeatable action sequence possessing component actions that are tightly interconnected and governed by a core meaning” CITATION Pia52 \p 7 \l 6153 (Piaget J. &., 1952, p. 7).Basically these are cognitive models of basic building blocks of behaviour, a means of organising knowledge which enable us to form a psychological representation of the world. These could be considered as units of knowledge representing objects, actions and theoretical concepts. CITATION McL15 \t \l 6153 (McLeod S. A., 2015)Assimilation and AccommodationPiaget believed that intellectual growth was a process of adjustment to the world which occurred through assimilation, accommodation and equilibration. Assimilation refers to using an existing schema to assist with a new situation or object. Accommodation occurs when the existing schema does not work and may need to be changed to work with a new situation or object. Equilibration is the force that moves these developments along. Piaget believed that progress with cognitive development occurs in leaps and bounds as opposed to a steady rate of progress CITATION McL15 \l 6153 (McLeod S. A., Jean Piaget, 2015). To Piaget, assimilation and accommodation require an active learner as he believed that problem solving skills could not be thought, that they must be discovered CITATION Pia58 \t \l 6153 (Piaget J. , 1958).Stages of Cognitive DevelopmentPiaget’s four stages of cognitive development reflect the increasing complexity of a child’s thought:Sensorimotor stage (birth to age 2)Pre-operational stage (age 2 to age 7)Concrete operational stage (age 7 to 11)Formal operational stage (age 11 to adulthood)Piaget believed that every child goes through the stages in the same order. No stage can be missed out on yet there is difference in individuals at the rate in which they progress through the stages where some children may never attain the later stages.In Piaget’s opinion, learning in the class room should be student – centred learning that should be achieved through active discovery learning insisting that the roll of the teacher was not to direct tuition but to facilitate learning. ConclusionAll three theorists each have their own cognitive beliefs and methods in which they deem best to follow. Their studies and theories were mainly focused on children. For example, Bruner’s Enactive, Iconic, Symbolic representations and the Spiral Analogy. Vygotsky’s More Knowledgeable Other (MKO) and Zones of Proximal Development. Piaget’s Schemas, Assimilation & Accommodation and Stages of Cognitive Development. There are many similarities amongst them yet they have their differences in opinion. Bruner and Vygotsky are heavily focused on a child’s social environment believing that the role of the adult could be more active in assisting a child’s learning, yet Piaget would disagree with this notion of the social environment. Bruner stresses the role of the adult in influencing education believing that if the correct explanation of a topic, one that is normally only understood by an adult is given to a child in a suitable manner would enable a child to grasp the concept of it where he views his stages of cognitive development to occur more organically also suggesting that symbolic representation is crucial throughout these stages. CITATION McL08 \l 6153 (McLeod S. A., 2008) Similarly to Vygotsky with his theory on language and Inner Speech. CITATION Vyg62 \l 6153 (Vygotsky L. S., 1962) Both Bruner and Vygotsky would approve the notion that language serves to mediate between environmental stimuli and the individuals response CITATION McL08 \l 6153 (McLeod S. A., 2008) yet Piaget believed language to be secondary to action.CITATION Vyg78 \t \l 6153 (Vygotsky L. S., 1978) Saying this Piaget’s contribution to developmental education and psychology was immense. He has had a major impact on how an adult views a child’s world and how to approach this thus increasing our understanding of cognitive development. Unfortunately, Vygotsky’s sociocultural view does not provide near as many specific theories to test as Piaget. Saying this, Bruner, Vygotsky and Piaget all have one thing in common, they all believe in discovery learning which fundamentally plays a great role in Cognitivism.My current philosophy of education is that every student has the right to the best possible education in an environment that is comfortable, safe and encouraging. There should be time to grow intellectually, socially and emotionally. I feel it is my utmost duty as an educator to fulfil this philosophy and I feel genuinely obligated to do so. I have developed a humanist philosophical ontological position and it is my desire to see my students maximize their potential by providing an encouraging environment where creativity, risk taking and innovation are acceptable.From my experience, the learning environment and outcomes of a commercial kitchen and that of the typical lecture room are very different. From my research on Bruner, Vygotsky and Piaget, I believe my work as a Culinary Educator relates to their cognitive theories in terms of discovery learning. This is portrayed by my student’s experience in a busy, pressurized kitchen environment. They have the opportunity to express and discover themselves under the instruction and influence of the educator where they are physically active, motivated, involved and are responsible for developing an opportunity for self- actualization. Here I am also influenced by Plato’s model of functionalist education where he promotes the talents and capabilities of the individuals which in fact is not too different to Vygotsky’s Zone of Proximal Development where he suggests that the educators use more co-operative means of learning exercises to give an opportunity for less competent children to learn from more skilful peers or Bruner’s theory of spiral curriculum that involves information been organized so more challenging ideas can be thought at a more simplified version first and then later revisited at a more complex level developing a clearer understanding for the student which enables the students to think and problem solve themselves. I believe this is an essential part of learning to become a Culinary Professional. This is very evident in my work. One such example would be the student – learning event in the second semester of Year 2 Culinary Arts. The students are invited to challenge and express themselves through their own developed learning experiences. At this stage they are more confident in their understanding and knowledge of food. They choose a culinary theme, research it and produce a menu for the training restaurant in our Hotel School. They run the restaurant kitchen for the event from start to finish under the supervision of their Lecturer. This is an example of student – led learning that is conducted within a social constructivist epistemology, and in my opinion, id the only way for learning to happen, where it will not be forgotten. I find by empowering the students to be creative, innovative and by demonstrating leadership and responsibility it is a great motivational tool resulting in the students working earnestly mastering the skills necessary to achieve their goals that they have set themselves. I find this creates a very rich working environment that the students are heavily engaged in. At the close of the event, all students come together with the Lecturer and we discuss the event outcomes. The student then has to complete a formative written assessment. The learning event accounts for 50% of the student’s overall marks for the semester. The other 50% is based on continuous assessment.I find that providing students with hands on activities in a practical learning environment, given time, individual attention and reinforcements creates a unique opportunity for discovery and an individual learning journey.I am currently at the early stages of my career as a third level educator and I embrace and look forward to the fact that as my career progresses, my influences, philosophy and position will be ever changing, ever developing as a reflective practitioner.Bibliography BIBLIOGRAPHY Bruner, J. S. (1957). Going beyond the information given. New York: Norton.Bruner, J. S. (1960). The Process of Education. Harvard University Press.McLeod, S. A. (2008). Bruner. Retrieved from Simply Psychology: , S. A. (2014). Lev Vygotsky. Retrieved from Simply Psychology: , S. A. (2015). Cognitive psychology. Retrieved from Simply Psychology: , S. A. (2015). Jean Piaget. Retrieved from Simply Psychology: , S. A. (2017, December Monday). Behaviorist Approach. Retrieved from Simplypsychology: , J. &. (1952). The origins of intelligence in children. International University Press, New York.Piaget, J. (1936). Origins of intelligence in the child. London: Routledge & Kegan.Piaget, J. (1958). The growth of logical thinking from childhood to adolescence. AMC. 10, 12. Piaget, J. (1959). The language and thought of the child (Vol. 5). Psychology Press.Schon, D. A. (1987). The reflective practitioner: How professionals think in action basic books. Sheedy, S. (2016, December). Philosophy statement. Retrieved from e-Portfolio: Vygotsky, L. S. (1962). Thought and Language. Cambridge MA: MIT Press.Vygotsky, L. S. (1978). Mind in society: The development of higher psychological process. Harvard University Press, 90.Vygotsky, L. S. (1987). Thinking and speech. New York: Plenum Press, 39-285. ................
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