IN LOCO PARENTIS TO MODERN DAY ADVISING:



CYCLES OF REEMPHASIS AND RENEWAL:

A HISTORY OF THE CHANGING RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN FACULTY AND

STUDENTS IN ACADEMIC ADVISING

Megan H. L. Tucker

George Mason University – CTCH 821

December 13, 2012

Cycles of Reemphasis and Renewal: A History of the Changing Relationship Between Faculty and Students in Academic Advising

Introduction

Though academic advising existed informally throughout the history of American higher education, it has developed into a formal, professional mechanism at colleges and universities. Modern academic advising is defined as "a series of intentional interactions with a curriculum, a pedagogy, and a set of student learning outcomes. Academic advising synthesizes and contextualizes students' educational experiences within the frameworks of their aspirations, abilities and lives to extend learning beyond campus boundaries and timeframes."[1] Academic advising in its earliest form emerged in U.S. higher education as far back as 1636 at Harvard College.[2] Those who then served in the role of advisors for college students were known as “tutors” as this was before “academic advisor” was a defined role for faculty. [3] The role of the college professors, tutors and presidents were considered to be in loco parentis or “in place of a parent.” [4] Over time, however, the roles of faculty advisors changed to what we see in current higher education. By examining the changes in the advising function over the years, we learn the history and evolution of the role of academic advisors from their inception to the present, and how these changes have influenced or been reflective of the relationships between academic advisors and college students.

As the curriculum and campus environments change, so do the needs of students. With these changing student needs, the faculty academic advisors’ roles have altered to meet student wishes and expectations. Different phases of academic advising have defined and redefined the roles of advisors and the relationships that advisors are expected to have with the student body. A reflection on the history of advising helps to answer the following questions: How has the role of the advisor evolved over time in U.S. colleges and universities? How have the relationships between advisors and students changed throughout the history of U.S. higher education? What were factors contributing to these relationship changes?

There is an extensive history of academic advising and how it has changed with the evolving needs of college students. [5] The development of college advising since 1636 is marked by adaptation to changing student and faculty cultures, including the roles of tutors and professors in colonial America. Advising and tutoring during the antebellum period marked a time of turmoil between faculty and students. The turn of the century to the 1900s saw a slow change in the social climate between faculty and students for the better, as well as the emergence of academic advising as a defined function, and ending with how we view advising and advisors in modern higher education. Each time period is divided chronologically, highlighting major events and changes surrounding students' and advisors' relationships.

Earliest Advisors – The Role of the Tutors (1600s-1800)

"In Loco Parentis"

Early forms of academic advising can be found as far back as the early 1600s in the American colonial era at historical institutions which still hold great prestige, such as Harvard, Yale, and the College of William and Mary.[6] During this time period the role of advisors were most closely aligned with the Harvard tutors who served in place of parents for the college students[7]. The concept of tutors was adapted from the pedagogy associated with Oxford and Cambridge in Great Britain.

In colonial American colleges the president of the college, and later the faculty, were responsible for advising students regarding their extracurricular activities, their moral life, and intellectual habits. [8] The earlier colonial period in American colleges saw the rise of tutors who acted "in loco parentis" or in the stead of parents. [9] Today we would think of tutors as a mixture of modern academic advisors, term faculty and resident assistants or hall directors.

Students were reliant on their tutors and tutorial sessions for achievement. However, colleges during this time were very small and lacked funding. As such, the instructors or "tutors" were paid minimally, though they made up a majority of the university. The professorial positions were rare. [10] The typical picture of the tutorship is that of an "ill-compensated, low-status" temporary position made up of "youngsters for whom teaching was only a bypath to more desired careers" Moore's research found that:

In Clifford Shipton's words, it was a "miserable life." However, subsequent studies have indicated that was not the whole picture. According to Smith's research, as the Harvard tutorship developed over time, terms of service lengthened and a more favorable career climate emerged. By 1758 terms of nine years or more were common and even lifetime careers like Henry Flynt's were a possibility.[11]

It was the norm that every student took the same subjects at the same time of day with the same tutor. After four years of developing this one on one relationship with the tutors, it is suggested that some solidarity continued beyond school. However, because tutors were frequently graduates who were serving in tutorship only as a transitional position, the turnover rates did increase. [12]

Relationships Between Tutors & Students in Colonial America

The end of the colonial era saw unrest among the faculty and students which reached a pinnacle during the antebellum era of higher education. Moore described the "war with the tutors" from 1745-1771. She notes that a possible cause of student discontent and rebellion rested with the system of social superiority that was held by colleges and subsequently the tutors that worked there. [13] An example of student rebellion occurred in 1769 at Harvard when the students launched a full-scale attack upon all the tutors. Moore notes that the battle was waged on both literary and physical fronts. The three tutors involved were Stephen Scales, Andrew Eliot and Joseph Willard. All three had reputations as able scholars, but they were also known as haughty and arrogant, which provoked the students to burn them in effigy one evening. When the students were caught and punished, they revenged themselves by publishing a "number of scurrilous libels" in the form of a poem entitled, "A True Description of a Number of Tyrannical Pedagogues."[14] The students’ lack of voice and independence created a rift between faculty and students which continued into the next century; influencing the formation of social fraternities and violence on campus.[15] The cycle of rebellion and discipline created a maelstrom of dissent between faculty tutors and students.

The Academic Civil War: Unrest among Faculty & Students (1800-1870)

Changing View of the Tutors & Student Rebellion

The role of the tutors and faculty became central in the struggles between faculty and students during the early to mid 1800s. A synopsis of the history of U.S. higher education notes that during the nineteenth century, the role of the tutor was reserved for younger men typically in his early twenties who was a recent graduate from that institution. [16] The tutor’s duties during this time period were to hear student recitations and act as a student overseer and, when required, the students' disciplinarian. [17]

The time period before and during the American Civil War saw vast changes in lifestyle, government and higher education. As college became more accessible, and the number of institutions grew, so did unrest among faculty and students. The Antebellum period of the United States was a tumultuous time for colleges. Uprisings took place during the 19th century against the combined authority of college professors and college presidents. This continued in some overtly violent and some other more covert forms of rebellion which Horowitz describes as the emergence of “college life.”[18]

The antebellum period in higher education was marked by grievances from students, and a continually strained relationship between faculty and their charges. Accounts were collected from newspapers, articles and journals during this time period; noting instances of violence and rebellions. In one instance at the University of North Carolina, students horsewhipped the college president, stoned two professors and threated other faculty members with personal injury. In the 1820s, Yale students bombed a residence hall and later a student killed a tutor who was trying to break up a fight. [19] At the University of Virginia in 1830, "honorable satisfaction" was the excuse given for violence by a student who struck a professor when the faculty member refused to offer an apology for what the student considered an insulting remark. The student was subsequently expelled, but his friends assembled and passed a resolution justifying the assault as a matter of honor. [20] Years later these same two students reemerged; one of whom had just been expelled and the other suspended for actions the chairman allegedly had labeled as "disgraceful." In a defensive response to the insult to their reputations, the students challenged the professor to fight. However, the professor refused to engage in violence on religious grounds. In frustration over their damaged honor, the students "collared" and shook the professor, calling him a coward. When the faculty member then called their acts "disgraceful," one student held him while the other began flogging him with a horsewhip. [21]

The mid-1800s marked the high point of a communication breakdown between faculty (the tutors) and students. What was once seen as a parental relationship had deescalated to opposition and even enemies in certain cases. The social status of faculty, and their power dynamic over the student body led to rebellions and unrest on campuses. It was at this point that the role of the faculty tutors needed to be addressed and redefined in hopes of re-establishing some discipline in the universities.

Revising In Loco Parentis in Response to Rebellion

In loco parentis as a concept changed greatly during the antebellum era of college development, however, the foundations of it remained well into the 1800s. Publications even harkened back to higher education when in loco parentis was the standard for the tutors. An address delivered before the society of the alumni of Harvard University, on their Anniversary, August 27, 1844 made mention of the need for a social bond between college men and their tutors; referring back to in loco parentis. "We wish that there were some mode, in which the students of the University could be brought into more intimate social relations with their instructors." [22] In the address, the presenter makes mention of the growing tensions between teacher and pupil:

Nor are we ignorant of the kind and persevering efforts of the present head of the College to introduce the students into social intercourse with the members of the faculty and their families. Yet there still remains too much of mutual distance and reserve. The forth-putting and self-confident among the students may, indeed, cultivate the acquaintance of their teachers, and feel always sure of a kind reception; but ought not the retiring and timid to be sought out, and made to feel that there are those ready and glad to stand to them in loco parentis? [23]

White's address goes on to acknowledge the history of the Harvard tutor and how they once filled the role of the parental relation. His wish was that the student would resort to the tutor of his class for special counsel and direction, when needed, and that the tutor would seek out other occasions of meeting the individuals of his class than those of set exercises and formal classroom settings. According to this plan, there should be a quota of students assigned to every member of the faculty. With them it should be the tutor's duty to make himself acquainted to the student, study their personal characteristics, watch over their forming habits, and "to give them advice on all subjects of importance, as to recreation, reading, and modes of study, and to act as their special moral guardian, in pointing out sources of danger and of evil." [24] The hope for this "arrangement" would be meant to go towards establishing a greater regard for moral obligation without which, White notes, "the literary attainments are empty and worthless." [25]

Likewise, in 1878, James McCosh again addressed the rise of rebellion and lack of discipline in U.S. colleges. McCosh notes, "I believe that the whole four hundred colleges which we have, happily or unhappily, profess to take a moral, most of them a religious, charge of their young men, in fact, coming in loco parentis." [26] In the case of some, this role was considered only a profession, and in such it were better that there should be no profession, that parents might make some other provision for their children (the students). In essence, the guardianship would extend no further than to secure that there are no disorders at the recitations or disgraceful disturbances in the college-rooms and no riots or protests on the streets. But in the great body of the American colleges, male and female, there is a real oversight, moral and religious, of the students. [27]

A 1897 article published in The William and Mary Quarterly notes of colonial Virginia tutors: “No well defined line can be drawn between the teachers of schools and private tutors, as the tutor generally had under his instruction others besides those in whose house he might reside.” [28] The article goes on to liken tutors to indentured servants as schoolmasters and educators. The notion of this "servitude" rested in the parental responsibilities that tutors took on during that era. Tutors were not only there to assist in schooling, but also in students' well-being. These early institutions were seen as a large socializing force for young men. Families paid good money to not only educate these men, but also have a sense of leadership instilled in them. The faculty, administration and tutors were "charged with transforming little boys into little men." [29]

These rebellions and lack of discipline led academics to reevaluate the role of the tutor and the approach to reforming students. In an article he wrote for The North American Review in 1878, McClosh notes that the current tutors may at times be too strict in order to maintain a sense of their authority, whereas others were quite as frequently much too lax themselves, as they were recent graduates. He notes that the professors seemed to be awfully solemn, "with looks that threaten the profane," but they are trying all the while to keep down a "tender feeling within." [30] In this connection it is important to note that it is advantageous to have in a faculty a mixture of older men and of young men as tutors; the former to restrain both from too great and too small of a punishment, and the latter to be there to sympathize with the student situation when need be. [31]

However, it is important to note that the strain between student and tutor did not occur in every circumstance. By the 1820s, Kenyon College in Ohio introduced the first known formal system of advising. Each student was teamed with a faculty member who served as the student's adviser. Furthermore, Rutherford Hayes described a rule instituted by Kenyon College which stipulated that each student choose a faculty member to be an adviser and friend in 1841.[32] It is important to note that the Kenyon College rule was still established before advising was a widely defined function, thus making this an important piece of progress during a time in which courteous relationships between faculty and students were practically nonexistent.

The Antebellum era of colleges became known as a time when moral philosophy emerged and the curriculum expanded to include literature, history and rhetoric. Frederick Rudolph is quoted in saying that “the curriculum had shifted from explaining the ways of God to exploring the ways of man.” [33] Students sought this new found independence of mind and sought to have their grievances known. When the demands of students were not met by faculty and administration, students subsequently revolted.

Relationships Between Faculty & Students in Antebellum America

By the 1870s the social climate on campus had become very rigid and formal. Students were kept in line by an “inflexible system of rules, regulations and punishments”; a rebuttal to the campus revolts in years past.[34] It became inappropriate for faculty to speak with students on a personal basis and students were considered improper if they approached faculty outside of class. [35] Furthermore, students came to think of faculty as a “necessary evil” and faculty saw the study body as an “unavoidable nuisance.” [36] There was a lack of mutual respect among faculty and students during this time, making the work of guidance and acceptance that much harder. The relationships between faculty and students needed to change.

Establishing the Profession: Curriculum Changes Redefine Advising (1870s-1970)

Emergence of Seminars, Orientations and Course Advising

Curriculum changes during this 100 year stretch affected the need and definition of advising.[37] At this point advising became a much more developed and defined role in student development in academia with fewer grievances from the student body than the colonial and antebellum eras of tutors.

In 1870, Harvard President Charles Eliot appointed the first administrator in charge of student discipline and development. He also “initiated the elective system that created the need for advisement about course choices.” [38] Boston University offered what was considered to be the first freshman seminar for which the focus was extended orientation to college. Lee College in Kentucky may have had a similar seminar in 1882, but records to corroborate this assertion are scarce. [39]

More changes took place by the turn of the century. Around 1900, student personnel workers were given titles of monitor or warden because the president of the college needed help in regulating student behavior. This system practiced all the negative aspects of in loco parentis, however it was seemingly a response to the turmoil, violence and rebellion that colleges saw in the 1800's. [40]

Also by 1900, the title “dean of women” evolved. These deans were charged with handling discipline, extracurricular activities, and resolution of academic problems. Likewise, the title “dean of men” was also said to have begun around this time.[41] Following World War I, college counselors were trained to complement faculty advising. Psychological and vocational needs of veterans were addressed using modern psychometric instruments.[42] In essence, colleges began to recognize the need for advising positions or for faculty to focus in on student need. However, administrators during the early part of the century were uncertain of what system would work best, and as such, many slow changes took place over a long stretch of time due to trial and error.

Systems of Advising Emerge

By the 1930’s most American colleges had developed an official system for academic advising. [43] Following World War II specially trained professionals were needed on campuses to address the needs of the WWII veterans who would be attending college in larger numbers under the G.I. Bill.[44] The 1930s and 40s saw a new, more student-centered philosophy which was detailed in the Student Personnel Point of View (SPPOV) in 1949:

Key elements of a student personnel program that included "the service to the student of trained, sympathetic counselors to assist him in thinking through his educational, vocational, and personal adjustment problems. More than anything else, the SPPOV established the legitimacy of academic counseling along with personal, vocational and job placement counseling in higher education.[45]

In the twenty plus years between 1920 and 1945, college reforms were increasing, and with it so were the number of students enrolled in colleges. However institutions devoted very little in the way of expertise and resources towards retention and counseling during this time. As such faculty was asked to serve as academic advisors to larger numbers of students. Because of the lack of available time management on the faculty's part, these advising meetings were brief and uninvolved. Students had distaste for the required meetings and as a result, drop-out rates skyrocketed.[46]

In the late 1920s and into the 1930s, there was concern over how to assist students and guide them to greater intellectual curiosity even before their college careers began. During freshman week at the University of Minnesota the dean interviewed the ten percent of the Freshmen who had the highest college aptitude ratings. The purpose was to see if they had any "problems in which he can help them, to give assurance of our interest in them, to arouse or strengthen intellect, and to interest them in scholarship for their own satisfaction." [47] Among these students and others who were interviewed by faculty advisors were those whose problems-of finances, of health, of social relations, and of many other kinds-were such that these students were put in the hands of a group of faculty counselors. These trained faculty members helped students who were having difficulties. The group included psychologists, a social case worker, a vocational adviser for women, and it enjoyed the most direct and cordial cooperation of the student health services with its psychiatrist, the religious-work groups, student-advising committees, the deans of men and women, as well as other agencies.[48] During the first six weeks of the college year the President from the University of Minnesota met all the freshmen for intimate talks with them alone, without upper classmen or faculty. In the process of registration or in other advisory contacts, members of the faculty found students who needed instruction in methods of study. [49] While the case of the University of Minnesota is only one example, their practices did reflect the gradual changes in student advising, as well as the attempt to utilize different methods in reaching out to the student population.

By this time in the 1930s, administration and scholars were continuing to try to connect students and faculty together in hopes of rekindling a greater interpersonal working relationship. In 1931, Brumbaugh and Emme described ideal settings for college counselors or academic advisors:

Faculty members will look upon counselors as agents who are cooperating in an endeavor to aid students in working at their highest level; students will look upon faculty members as friends and guides in their adventure in securing an education; and they will regard counselors as intimate confidants to whom they may go in times of perplexity in the belief that they will receive a sympathetic hearing, no matter what the issue, and all the aid that the counselors are able to give.[50]

Furthermore, the established principles pertaining to the functions of college counseling included: counseling must be organized in the light of the needs of the students, it should be a continuous and unified procedure, it must be made a responsibility of all who deal with students, and informal and unorganized counseling must be supplemented by more systematized procedures on the part of a few better qualified individuals. [51] Though these counseling functions are broad; they did allow for advisors and administrators of the time period to create guidelines and protocols as the field expanded.

The 1960’s saw record numbers of students attending college throughout the United States. By the late 60s and into the 1970s, students were demanding more personalized attention in academic planning and advising.[52] In the mid-1960s, English faculty member Austin Patty asked seventy-four freshmen in his first term composition courses to write an essay on what helped most and what helped least in their freshman orientation experiences. One student wrote that his faculty advisor was least helpful. In detailing his experience he wrote:

He looked at the subjects I had chosen rather hurriedly, checked to see if I had high enough scores, and that was it. In fact, his inspection was so fast that a mistake I had made in scheduling a class went unnoticed until I was trying to register. It was as much my fault as his probably, but it made me realize that I am just another face until, somehow, I can establish myself to them as more than this. [53]

This student's experience mirrors many of the decades prior to the 1970s wherein time was not a commodity that advisors or students were granted for advising sessions. Due to the lack of time and lack of staffing, students' advising sessions continued to suffer. The changes in student population reflected the need for increased advising and staffing of those advising positions. However, it wasn't until the 1970s when declining enrollments, high attrition rates, and student demand for improved advising finally resulted in advising programs beginning to receive more serious attention from colleges and universities. [54]

Relationships Between Advisors & Students Transition

Though change was slow to occur, the relationships between faculty and advisees began to evolve. The demand for advisors was growing, and with it was the willingness for students to reach out and stifle the rebellious tendencies of the preceding century. During the early to mid 1900s, the role of academic advisor was established as its own entity; with it creating a need to define the practice and ascertain goals for those with advising responsibilities. However, the new issue at hand was the lack of availability of academic advisors versus the sheer number of college students needing them.

The 100-year gap between the antebellum era of academia and what is considered modern academics saw a shift in relationships between faculty and students. During the early decades of this era, the advisor system "degenerated into a perfunctory affair involving only brief, impersonal interviews." [55] In another sense, there was little available on best practices for advising. Not only was there very little written on the training of academic advisors (especially for first year students), there was almost nothing in the literature on the evaluation of existing orientation programs at individual institutions and on research that explores whether or not a particular institution is compatible with an individual freshman. [56] It would not be until the 1970s before research on academic advising became more abundant. In essence, the total number of students versus the faculty assigned to advise them was a steep difference. Faculty who were given advising duties were caught in a time crunch of multiple advising appointments, as well as their regular teaching and research duties. The end result was a lack of time and training required to guide the student and offer mentorship that they were needing.

Student Needs Change in Modern Advising (1970s – Present)

Re-established Advising Goals

Faculty were overwhelmed with work, making their advising duties less than fulfilling for the study body. Colleges were once again on the precipice of change in order to meet the demands of their student populations. With the continuing influx of student enrollment, advisory roles needed to be redefined and expanded. It was at this point in time that academic advising became an examined activity, wherein advisors would compare how they conducted advising to those who advised in other college settings; thus expanding research in the field. [57]

In the early 1970s, diversity among student populations was on the rise, and with it came the increased demand for individualized attention. Gordon saw academic advising as an important vehicle for assisting individuals with academic planning and noted that O'Banion and Crookston identified a concept of academic advising that had been characteristic of 'earlier faculty-student relationships.'[58] Also around this time, academic advisors were hired as a profession separate from standard faculty. While faculty members still maintained many advising responsibilities; the demand was starting to be addressed. [59]

Addressing student needs began to change in the early 1970s along with an increase in academic advising and faculty counseling-based research publications. In 1972 the main goals of academic advisors were as follows: (1) exploration of life goals, (2) exploration of vocational goals, (3) program choice, (4) course choice, and (5) scheduling courses.[60] The 1970s also saw

the explosion of the community college and new student populations. There was a distinct increase in first-generation and lower-income students, underprepared students, reentry students, disabled students, and international students required individualized academic adjustment and planning; in other words, student in crisis and students with specialized needs. Academic advising became the vehicle for serving these student groups. [61]

The close of the 1970s saw a forward-thinking approach to changes needed in advising. Decreasing enrollments in four-year institutions and increasing enrollments in two-year community or junior colleges forced administrators to reevaluate their advising process and to develop a more cost-effective model. Research suggested a comprehensive and systematic program to prepare faculty, professional counselors, and paraprofessionals for improved student advising in the 1980s; again expanding the field. [62]

A development of the late 1970s and into the 1980s was that of peer advising wherein upperclassman college students would advise their peers who were usually freshman or sophomores.[63] Scholars urged against transitioning solely from faculty advising to a fully peer format. Many faculty are tempted to forsake informal interaction under the pressures of research or other time constraints. Peer advising programs had been developed in colleges and universities and these must guard against allowing such advising to take the place of informal faculty interaction. "Peer advising can supplement faculty interaction but should never replace it." [64]

Founding of NACADA

The first modern meeting of academic advisors took place in 1976 at California State University and at the University of California. By 1977 the first formal National Conference on Academic Advising was held at the University of Vermont in Burlington, Vermont.[65] Two years later in 1979 the National Academic Advising Association (NACADA) was chartered, furthering the prominence of modern academic advising in higher education.[66] By the end of NACADA’s first year, they had amassed over 400 members.[67] During the late 1970s and into the early 1980s academic advising centers as a delivery system began to make their appearance and the number of full-time professional advisers increased dramatically.[68] Advising became student-centric again, and because of that, the roles and responsibilities of the advisor increased.

Modern Advising Roles & Relationships

Research suggests that advisors have come full circle from the days of the tutors in colonial America. Matthews and Ware describe four ways to make advising more productive including: preparing for the first meeting, integrating course selections and career paths, promoting collegial support, and finally, serving as surrogate parents. Though they do not suggest sharing living space with students as was once common practice for tutors. This has since separated to the role of those in residence life. However, the notion of serving as surrogate parents harkens back to the concept of in loco parentis from earlier higher education in America.[69] Perhaps, though, there is less of a parental relationship and more of a mentorship or an advocate-based relationship. A series of ethical principles referring directly to advising helps establish the roles that advising faculty currently play: (1) Seek to enhance the student's learning, (2) Treat students equitably, (3) Enhance the student's ability to make autonomous decisions, 4) Advocate for the student, (5) Tell the truth, (6) Respect the confidentiality of communication with the student, (7) Support the institution's educational philosophy and policies, (8) Maintain the credibility of the advising program and finally, (9) Accord colleagues appropriate professional courtesy and respect. [70]

It is pertinent that modern advisors should be aware of the changing campus culture and student needs.[71] Students expect advisers to be knowledgeable with the job market opportunities of the future and the types of knowledge and skills needed to succeed as a college graduate. The work world graduates enter will be different from that of their parents in that they will encounter an economy that will be more service-oriented. There are increases in more home-based businesses, more flextime jobs, and a greater emphasis on corporate ethics. High technology will require a familiarity with computers, data processing, and telecommunications. Gordon concludes, “Although the acquisition of more technical knowledge is critical, the liberal learning that a college experience provides will continue to provide students with the communication and problem-solving skills needed in any endeavor.” [72]

Noted Challenges for Future Advisors

In looking forward advisors will need to continually develop new technological skills, expand their expertise in career advising, learn new skills as communicators and interpreters of complex information, and become more involved as collaborators. Thus, the relationship between advisor and student will again change to the role of advisor as futurist; one who not only assists students in their current curricula and developmental needs, but also advises on their futures beyond graduation. [73] Advisors may become the driving force in guiding students to seek out career opportunities, and assist in preparing college students for the needs of the working world or academics beyond the undergraduate level. Finally, collaboration may be a key component to raising the potential effectiveness of academic advising.[74]

Conclusion

Overall, the changes from early advising practices to the present have been vast but slow in their development. This history offers context on how advising emerged over time and due to necessity, and has continued to evolve based on student needs. A variety of environmental changes such as war and population increases in colleges over time have contributed to the adaptation of academic advising as a function, as well as the interpersonal relationships developed between faculty and students. Of course, this analysis is a surface level summation of each era that academic advising or the function of advising took place.

Advising has seen forward progression from it's meager beginnings in the 1600s in the form of tutors. Relationships have altered from needing a substitute "parent" or guide, to rebellion and disdain, to a lack of relationships due to lack of advisors available, to today where advising is an integral part of student development and the relationships fostered are meant to assist and mentor. The need to define and then again redefine the role of the advisor and the purpose of advising for the student have been central to developing this area of higher education. Current research is suggesting that another shift may be taking place in academic advising to meet the contemporary college students' needs. If the saying "those who do not remember the past are condemned to repeat it" [75] holds true, then it would behoove academic advising scholars and higher education researchers to explore the beginning of this field and how these relationships have slowly developed over time. Listening to the students' needs, and evolving with the changing campus culture have been central to creating a healthy and productive relationship among students and advisors.

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Wagoner, Jennings. "Honor and dishonor at Mr. Jefferson's university: The antebellum years." History of Education Quarterly, 26 (1986): 155-179.

Wechsler, Harold., Goodchild, Lester., and Eisenmann, Linda. The History of Higher Education (Ashe Reader Series). Pearson Custom Publications, 2008.

White, Daniel. "An address delivered before the society of the alumni of Harvard University, on their anniversary, August 27, 1844." The North American Review, 60 (1845): 38-63.

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[1] Kathryn Thurmond & Marsha Miller. (2006). The history of NACADA. NACADA About Us: History. Retrieved on December 3, 2012 from nacada.ksu.edu.

[2] Virginia Gordon. Wesley Habley & Thomas Grites. Academic advising: A comprehensive handbook (2nd ed). (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 2008).

[3] Harold Wechsler, Lester Goodchild, & Linda Eisenmann.. The History of Higher Education :Ashe Reader Series. (Pearson Custom Publications., 2008).

[4] John Thelin. (2011). A history of American Higher Education (2nd ed). Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press.

[5] Virginia Gordon, Wesley Habley, & Thomas Grites. (2008). Academic advising: A comprehensive handbook (2nd ed). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

[6] John Thelin. (2011). A history of American Higher Education (2nd ed). Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press.

[7] Harold Wechsler, Lester Goodchild, & Linda Eisenmann. The History of Higher Education :Ashe Reader Series. (Pearson Custom Publications., 2008).

[8] John Thelin. (2011). A history of American Higher Education (2nd ed). Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press.

[9] Sandra Cook. (2001). A chronology of academic advising in America. The Mentor.

[10] John Thelin. (2011). A history of American Higher Education (2nd ed). Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press.

[11] Kathryn Moore. (1978). "The war with the tutors: Student-faculty conflict at Harvard and Yale, 1745-1771." History of Education Quarterly, 41, 115-127.

[12] John Brubacher, & Rudy, W. (2004). Higher Education in Transition: A History of American Colleges and Universities

[13] Kathryn Moore. (1978). "The war with the tutors: Student-faculty conflict at Harvard and Yale, 1745-1771." History of Education Quarterly, 41, 115-127.

[14] Kathryn Moore. (1978). "The war with the tutors: Student-faculty conflict at Harvard and Yale, 1745-1771." History of Education Quarterly, 41, 115-127.

[15] John Thelin. (2011). A history of American Higher Education (2nd ed). Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press.

[16] Christopher Lucas. American higher education: A history. (New York: St Martin’s Press, 1994).

[17] Ibid., 16.

[18] Helen Horowitz. Campus life: Undergraduate cultures from the end of the eighteenth century to the present. (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1988).

[19] Helen Horowitz. Campus life: Undergraduate cultures from the end of the eighteenth century to the present. (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1988).

[20] Jennings Wagoner Jr. (1986). Honor and dishonor at Mr. Jefferson's university: The antebellum years. History of Education Quarterly, 26(2), 155-179.

[21] Jennings Wagoner Jr. (1986). Honor and dishonor at Mr. Jefferson's university: The antebellum years. History of Education Quarterly, 26(2), 155-179.

[22] Daniel A. White (1845). An address delivered before the society of the alumni of Harvard. The North American Review, 60, 38-63.

[23] Ibid., 22.

[24] Daniel A. White (1845). An address delivered before the society of the alumni of Harvard. The North American Review, 60, 38-63.

[25] Daniel A. White (1845). An address delivered before the society of the alumni of Harvard. The North American Review, 60, 38-63.

[26] James McCosh. (1878). Discipline in American colleges. The North American Review, 126, 428-441.

[27] Ibid., 26.

[28] The William and Mary Quarterly (VI, 1-6, 1897).

[29] John Thelin. (2011). A history of American Higher Education (2nd ed). Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press.

[30] James McCosh. (1878). Discipline in American colleges. The North American Review, 126, 428-441.

[31] Ibid., 30.

[32] Donald Biggs, Jane Brodie and William Barnhardt’s (1975)

[33] Helen Horowitz. Campus life: Undergraduate cultures from the end of the eighteenth century to the present. (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1988).

[34] Helen Horowitz. Campus life: Undergraduate cultures from the end of the eighteenth century to the present. (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1988).

[35] Virginia Gordon, Wesley Habley & Thomas Grites. Academic Advising: A Comprehensive Handbook, (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 2008).

[36] Laurence Veysey,. The Emergence of the American University. (Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1970).

[37] Virginia Gordon, Wesley Habley & Thomas Grites. Academic Advising: A Comprehensive Handbook, (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 2008).

[38] Kathryn Tuttle. (2000). Academic advising. New Directions for Higher Education, 111, 15-24.

[39] Sandra Cook. (2001). A chronology of academic advising in America. The Mentor..

[40] Miriam Raskin. (1979). Critical issue: Faculty advising. Peabody Journal of Education, 56, 99-108.

[41] Sandra Cook. (2001). A chronology of academic advising in America. The Mentor.

[42] Sandra Cook. (2001). A chronology of academic advising in America. The Mentor.

[43] Tuttle, K.N. (2000). Academic advising. New Directions for Higher Education, 111, 15-24.

[44] Sandra Cook. (2001). A chronology of academic advising in America. The Mentor.

[45] Terry Kuhn, (2008). Historical foundations of academic advising. Academic Advising Handbook (Ch.1). San Fransisco: Jossey Bass.

[46] John Thelin. (2011). A history of American Higher Education (2nd ed). Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press.

[47] T.B. Johnston (1930). Advising college students. The Journal of Higher Education, 1(6), 318.

[48] Ibid., 47.

[49] Ibid, 48.

[50] A.J. Brumbaugh & Earle Emme. (1931). The Phi Delta Kappan, 13 (6), 166-177.

[51] A.J. Brumbaugh & Earle Emme. (1931). The Phi Delta Kappan, 13 (6), 166-177.

[52] Virginia Gordon, Habley, W., & Grites, T. (2008). Academic advising: A comprehensive handbook (2nd ed). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

[53] Austin Patty (1966). Freshman orientation: A continuing concern. Improving College and University Teaching, 14, 184-188.

[54] Sandra Cook. (2001). A chronology of academic advising in America. The Mentor.

[55] Terry Kuhn, (2008). Historical foundations of academic advising. Academic Advising Handbook (Ch.1). San Fransisco: Jossey Bass.

[56] Austin Patty (1966). Freshman orientation: A continuing concern. Improving College and University Teaching, 14, 184-188.

[57] Terry Kuhn, (2008). Historical foundations of academic advising. Academic Advising Handbook (Ch.1). San Fransisco: Jossey Bass.

[58] Karen Thurmond & Marsha Miller (2006). The history of NACADA. NACADA About Us: History. Retrieved on December 3, 2012 from nacada.ksu.edu.

[59] Terry O’Banion. 1972). An academic advising model. NACADA Journal, 42, 62-69.

[60] Terry O’Banion. (1972). An academic advising model. NACADA Journal, 42, 62-69.

[61] Sandra Cook. (2001). A chronology of academic advising in America. The Mentor.

[62] Miriam Raskin (1979). Critical issue: Faculty advising. Peabody Journal of Education, 56. 99-108.

[63] Jean Endo & Richard Harpel. (1982). The effect of student-faculty interaction on students' educational outcomes. Research in Higher Education, 16, 115-138.

[64] Jean Endo & Richard Harpel. (1982). The effect of student-faculty interaction on students' educational outcomes. Research in Higher Education, 16, 115-138.

[65] Sandra Cook. (2001). A chronology of academic advising in America. The Mentor.

[66] Tuttle, K.N. (2000). Academic advising. New Directions for Higher Education, 111, 15-24.

[67] NACADA. (2012). "History of Advising." Retrieved on December 1, 2012 from .

[68] Sandra Cook. (2001). A chronology of academic advising in America. The Mentor.

[69] John Thelin. (2011). A history of American Higher Education (2nd ed). Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press.

[70] Marc Lowenstein. (2008) Ethical foundations of Academic Advising, Academic Advising Handbook (Ch 3). San Francisco: Jossey Bass.

[71] Karen Thurmond & Marsha Miller (2006). The history of NACADA. NACADA About Us: History. Retrieved on December 3, 2012 from nacada.ksu.edu.

[72] Virginia Gordon. (1992). "Meeting the needs of tomorrow's learners and tomorrow's workplace." Academic Advising, 27, 381-392.

[73] Sandra Cook. (2001). "A chronology of academic advising in America." The Mentor.

[74] Terry Kuhn, (2008). Historical foundations of academic advising. Academic Advising Handbook (Ch.1). San Francisco: Jossey Bass.

[75] George Santayana. (1905) The Life of Reason: Vol 1- Reason and Common Sense. Library of Alexandria.

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