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Online AppendixTable 3: Conceptualization and Operationalization of Populist Communication Strategies DimensionPopulist StrategyUnderlying IdeologyCategoriesAnti-ElitismDiscrediting the eliteElites are corrupt.Elites are accused of being malevolent, criminal, lazy, stupid, extremist, racist, undemocratic, etc. The elite are called names and denied morality, charisma, credibility, intelligence, competence, consistency, etc.Blaming the eliteElites are harmful.Elites are described as a threat/burden, responsible for negative developments/situations, or as having committed a mistake or crime. Elites are described as not being a source of enrichment or responsible for a positive development/situation.Detaching the elite from the peopleElites do not represent the people.Elites are described as not belonging to the people, not being close to the people, not knowing the people, not speaking for the people, not caring for them, or not performing everyday actions.People-CentrismStressing the people’s virtuesThe people are virtuous.The people are bestowed with morality, charisma, credibility, intelligence, competence, consistency, etc. The people are exempt from being malevolent, criminal, lazy, stupid, extremist, racist, undemocratic, etc.Praising the people’s achievementsThe people are beneficial.The people are described as being an enrichment or responsible for a positive development/situation. The people are described as not being a threat/burden, not being responsible for a negative development/situation, nor as having committed a mistake or crime.Stating a monolithic peopleThe people are homogenous.People are described as sharing common feelings, desires, or opinions.Demonstrating closeness to the peopleThe populist represents the people.The speaker describes himself as belonging to the people, being close to the people, knowing the people, speaking for the people, caring for the people, agreeing with the people, or performing everyday actions. The speaker claims to represent or embody the people.RestoringSovereigntyDemanding popular sovereigntyThe people are the ultimate sovereign.The speaker argues for general institutional reforms to grant the people more power (by introducing direct-democratic elements or increasing political participation). The speaker argues in favor of granting more power to the people within the context of a specific issue (e.g., election, immigration, security).Denying elite sovereigntyThe elites deprive the people of their sovereignty.The speaker argues in favor of granting less power to elites within the context of a specific issue (e.g., election, immigration, security)Table 4: Sample of PoliticiansCountryPartyNameSample CriterionPositionSocial Media CHCVPbDarbellay, ChristophedStatus & ActivityParty leaderFB & TCHCVPbRiklin, KathydActivityMPTCHCVPbSchmidt-Federer, BarbaradActivityMPFB & TCHFDPbMarkwalder, ChristaActivityMPFB & TCHFDPbMüller, PhilippcStatus & ActivityParty leader-CHFDPbPortmann, Hans-PeterdActivityMPFB & TCHFDPbSchneider-Ammann, JohannStatusVice-ChancellorTCHFDPbWasserfallen, ChristiandActivityMPFB & TCHGPSGirod, BastiendActivityMPFB & TCHGPSGl?ttli, BalthasardActivityMPFB & TCHGPSRytz, ReguladStatusCo-Party leaderTCHGPSThorens Goumaz, AdèledStatusCo-Party leaderTCHGPSTrede, AlinedActivityMPTCHSPbBadran, JacquelinedActivityMPFB & TCHSPbLevrat, ChristiandStatusParty leaderFB & TCHSPbSommaruga, SimonettacStatusChancellor-CHSPbWermuth, CédricdActivityMPFB & TCHSVPabBrunner, ToniStatusParty leaderFB & TCHSVPabM?rgeli, ChristophdActivityMPFB & TCHSVPabReimann, LukasdActivityMPFB & TCHSVPabRickli, NataliedActivityMPFB & TDAfDaEckleben, JensdActivityDistrict chairFB & TDAfDaLucke, BernddActivityFormer Party leaderFB & TDAfDaMeuthen, J?rgActivitySpokespersonFB & TDAfDaPetry, FraukedStatus & ActivityParty leaderFB & TDCDUbAltmaier, PeterdActivityFederal Minister for Special AffairsFB & TDCDUbMerkel, AngeladStatusChancellorFBDCDUbSchr?der, KristinadActivityMPFB & TDCDUbTauber, PeterdActivityMPFB & TDFDPKurth, PatrickActivityFormer MPFB & TDFDPLeutheusser-SchnarrenbergerdActivityFormer Federal MinisterFB & TDFDPLindner, ChristiandStatus & ActivityParty leaderFB & TDGrünenBeck, VolkerdActivityMPFB & TDGrünenG?ring-Eckardt, KatrindActivityVice presidentFB & TDGrünen?zdemir, CemdStatusCo-Party leaderFB & TDGrünenPeter, SimonedStatusCo-Party leaderFB & TDGrünenCohn-Bendit, DanielActivityMEPFB & TDGrünenTrittin, JürgenActivityMPFB & TDSPDbGabriel, SigmardStatus & ActivityParty leader & Vice-ChancellorFB & TDSPDbSchulz, MartindActivityMPFB & TDSPDbSteinbrück, PeerdActivityMPFB & TFREELVCosse, EmmanuelledStatusParty leaderFB & TFREELVDuflot, CéciledActivityFormer Party leaderFB & TFREELVJoly, EvadActivityMEPFB & TFRFNaLe Pen, MarinedStatus & ActivityParty leaderFB & TFRFNaMarechal-Le Pen, MariondActivityMPFB & TFRFNaPhilippot, FloriandActivityVice presidentFB & TFRLRKosciusko-Morizet, NathaliedActivityVice presidentFB & TFRLRLagarde, ChristineActivityFormer minister of financeFB & TFRLRSarkozy, NicolasdStatus & ActivityParty leaderFB & TFRMODEMBayrou, Fran?oisdStatus & ActivityParty leaderFB & TFRMODEMde Sarnez, MarielledActivityMEPFB & TFRMODEMLassalle, JeandActivityMPFB & TFRPSbCambadélis, Jean-ChristophedStatusParty leaderFB & TFRPSbHidalgo, AnnedActivityMayor of ParisFB & TFRPSbHollande, Fran?oisdStatus & ActivityPresidentFB & TFRPSbVallaud-Belkacem, NajatdActivityMinister of EducationFB & TFRPSbValls, ManueldStatusPrime MinisterFB & TITFdVBonelli, AngelodStatusParty leaderFB & TITFdVCovatta, GiobbeStatusParty leaderFB & TITFIaBerlusconi, SilviodStatusParty leaderFBITFIaCarfagna, MaradActivityMPFB & TITFIaGelmini, MariastelladActivityMPFB & TITFIaSantanchè, DanieladActivityMPFB & TITM5SaCrimi, VitodActivityFormer Party leaderFB & TITM5SaFico, RobertodActivityMPFB & TITM5SaGrillo, BeppedStatus & ActivityParty leaderFB & TITPDbBersani, Pier LuigidActivityMPFB & TITPDbLetta, EnricodActivityMPFB & TITPDbOrfini, MatteodStatusParty leaderFB & TITPDbRenzi, MatteodStatus & ActivityPrime MinisterFB & TITSCbMatarrese, SalvatoredStatusParty leaderFB & TITSCbQuintarelli, StefanodActivityMPFB & TITSCbVezzali, ValentinadActivityMPFB & TITSCbZanetti, EnricodActivityMPFB & TUKConsbCameron, DaviddStatus & ActivityPrime MinisterFB & TUKConsbHague, WilliamActivityFormer Secretary of StateFB & TUKConsbJohnson, BorisdActivitySecretary of State & Mayor of LondonFB & TUKGreenBennett, NataliedStatusParty leaderFB & TUKGreenJones, JennydActivityMPTUKGreenLucas, CarolinedActivityMPFB & TUKLabAylett, GeorgeActivityMPFB & TUKLabBrown, SarahdActivityMPFB & TUKLabCorbyn, JeremydStatusParty leaderFB & TUKLabMiliband, EdwardActivityMPFB & TUKLibDemCable, VincentdActivityFormer Secretary of StateFB & TUKLibDemClegg, NickActivityMPFB & TUKLibDemFarron, TimdStatusParty leaderFB & TUKLibDemHarris, EvanActivityFormer MPTUKUKIPaCarswell, DouglasdActivityMPFB & TUKUKIPaFarage, NigeldStatus & ActivityParty leaderFB & TUKUKIPaO'Flynn, PatrickdActivityMEPFB & TUSDemocratsbClinton, BillActivityFormer PresidentFB & TUSDemocratsbClinton, HillarydActivityPresidential CandidacyFB & TUSDemocratsbObama, BarackdStatus & ActivityPresidentFB & TUSDemocratsbWasserman Schultz, DebbiedStatusParty leaderFB & TUSGreensClement, AudreyStatusCo-Party leaderFB & TUSGreensEverette, SandaStatusCo-Party leaderTUSGreensMerida, AndreadStatusCo-Party leaderFB & TUSGreensOstdiek, CharlescStatusCo-Party leaderFB & TUSGreensYager, TamarcStatusCo-Party leader-USGreensYoung, KarencStatusCo-Party leader-USGreensZandi, BahramcStatusCo-Party leader-USRebublicanMcCain, JohndActivitySenatorFB & TUSRebublicanPriebus, ReincedStatusParty leaderFB & TUSRebublicanRomney, MittdActivityFormer GovernorFB & TUSRebublicanTrump, DonalddActivityPresidential CandidacyFB & TUSTeaPartyaCruz, TeddActivitySenatorFB & TUSTeaPartyaPalin, SarahdStatus & ActivityParty leader (symbolic)FB & TUSTeaPartyaPaul, RanddActivitySenatorFB & TNotes: a = party widely described as populist in the literature; b = governing party c = No social media account or inactive within time period; d = included in the final analysis; FB = Facebook; T = TwitterTable 5: Examples of original post and Tweets including one of the populist sub-dimensionsAnti-Elitism and People-Centrism combinedMarion Marechal-Le Pen, Front National, 13.10.2015, Facebook:The others before us: Trains for the illegal are for free! Thank you SNCF! [Original: Les autres avant les n?tres : pour les clandestins, le train, c'est gratuit ! Merci la SNCF ! ] Florian Philippot, Front National, 07.09.2015, Twitter:Unlimited support for our peasant once more humiliated by the EU and our government today. Long live the French agrarian politic. [Original: Entier soutien à nos paysans une nouvelle fois humiliés par l'UE et le gouvernement aujourd'hui. Vivement la politique agricole fran?aise ! ]Anti-ElitismVolker Beck, Alliance’90/The Greens, 24.09.2015, Twitter:The Government no longer knows, where it discriminates and even if, not why [Original: Die Regierung wei? l?ngst nicht mehr, wo sie diskriminiert und wenn ja warum]Nigel Farage, UK Independence Party, 10.10.2015, Facebook:The EU's irresponsible approach to the migrant crisis is causing chaos and is another example of why we must leave.People-CentrismBalthasar Gl?ttli, Green Party of Switzerland, 06.09.201, Facebook:Author Peter Stamm supports me because I am "a representative of the people and not an economic representative" [Original: Schriftsteller Peter Stamm unterstützt mich, weil ich ?ein Volksvertreter und kein Wirtschaftsvertreter? bin. ]Donald Trump, Republicans, 06.09.2015, Facebook:By self-funding my campaign, I am not controlled by my donors, special interests or lobbyists. I am only working for the people of the U.S.! Restoring SovereigntyRand, Paul, Republican (Tea Party), 30.10.2015, Facebook:This deal represents the worst of the Washington culture. I promised the voters of Kentucky to oppose deficits, to oppose budgets that don't balance, and to spend only what we have. I will not give this President or any President the power to borrow unspecified amounts of money.Table 6: Reliability ScoresDimensionPopulist StrategyPercent agreementBrennan and Prediger’s κAnti-Elitism Discrediting the elite.88.75Blaming the elite.82.65Detaching the elite.95.89Total.80.60People-CentrismStressing virtues.99.98Praising achievements.97.99Stating a monolithic people.83.65Demonstrating closeness.98.96Total.81.63Restoring SovereigntyDemanding popular sovereignty1.00.99Denying elite sovereignty.97.93Total.96.93Table 7: Overview of populist communication strategies by parties and country in percent (aggregated on party level)CountryPartyPopulist communication strategies (in %)SwitzerlandGreen Party of Switzerland6.0Social Democratic Party of Switzerland1.7Christian Democratic People's Party2.5FDP. The Liberals5.6Swiss People's Party10.9Total5.3GermanyAlliance'90/The Greens18.1Social Democratic Party of Germany2.4Union Party2.5Free Democratic Party5.6Alternative for Germany13.6Total8.4FranceEurope Ecology – The Greens5.5Socialist Party14.1The Democratic Movement16.6The Republicans19.2National Front24.9Total16.1ItalyFederation of the Greens0.0Democratic Party 2.6Civic Choice5.0Five Star Movement8.1Forza Italia12.4Total5.6United KingdomGreen Party19.2Labour Party10.9Liberal Democrats0.0Conservative Party5.6UK Independence Party11.2Total7.4USAGreen Party12.5Democratic Party4.6Republican Party13.6Tea Party Movement11.8Total10.6Notes: The populism score for the British Green Party is lower compared to the moderate left Labour Party ................
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