Learning Reflections - e-bites



Can a program design model ensure quality and consistency across training packages developed within my team?

Does the perfect program design model exist? If it does, can I apply it in my work place to solve the quality issues we have with designing training packages?

The aim of my learning contract is to deepen my understanding of program design and develop or adapt a suitable model to use as a reference in my work place. This will allow my training and development team to maintain an acceptable level of quality throughout all our training offerings.

To be able to assess my learning at the end of this project it is important that I measure where I am starting from and ask myself what I believe a “program design model” looks like and what I hope this will achieve for me.

I believe a program design model should be a set of steps or guiding questions that ensures my program development is not haphazard but instead a planned and thought through process, with an overall aim of promoting, enhancing and achieving learning.

My need for a program design model arises from a current workplace issue. I work for a financial services company in the training and development unit. My team is geographically dispersed, made up of 8 corporate trainers (2 in Sydney and 6 in Melbourne) of varying experiences and academic backgrounds. Our roles consist of designing and delivering training to the business. Our current problem is the disparate quality of the training packages we produce. We do not have any program design guidelines, review or quality assurance procedures for our design process, which means that training packages are designed according to the designer’s personal preference with no evident underlying framework. This results in fundamental flaws in the following areas:

▪ Learning objectives: there are no standards in how objectives should be written; objectives are inconsistent with content, objectives are created as an afterthought and in some instances appear disjointed from the rest of the package etc.

▪ Content: lack of logic in how content is structured (pc application training is mostly designed around what the system can do not what tasks the participant will do with the help of the system in their role), no clear flow of topics within a training course etc.

▪ Transfer of learning: no clear links between what the learners do throughout the training session and what they do back on the job, activities don’t always mirror work environment etc.

▪ Creativity: no diversity in terms of types of activities (all packages have the same core activities such as brainstorm on flipchart paper and discuss in groups), no risks taken in terms of trying new instructional strategies.

▪ Instructional design: lack of appropriate activities, little or no thought put into the underlying philosophical assumptions that guide the design and how this impacts the training package.

My aim is that through researching the different views and theories of program development I can adapt a suitable model to my work environment that will allow us to have a common ground from which we all start our design process. This will help us to achieve consistent levels of quality in all our training packages.

What is a program design model?

In order to find the perfect model we must first understand what is meant by a program design model. There are a plethora of terms and definitions used for program design. Amongst the alternatives Caffarella (2002) defines program planning models as ideas of one or more persons about how programs should be put together and what ingredients are necessary to ensure successful outcomes.

Gagne et al (1992) on the other hand has a more systematic approach, defining an instructional system as an arrangement of resources and procedures used to promote learning. He then adds that instructional systems design is the systematic process of planning instructional systems.

Sork and Caffarella (1990) state that program planning refers to the process of determining the ends to be pursued and the means employed to achieve them. They believe that planning is a decision-making process and a set of related activities that produce educational program design specifications for one or more adult learners. They also believe that a planning model is a tool used to help understand and to bring order to a complex decision-making process. A typical planning model consists of a set of steps or elements that suggest decisions that must be made. Models make the underlying logic of a planning process explicit and provide verbal or graphic cues to help practitioners systematize their work.

Newman (1995) has a different view; he says that program development is an art, not a science. Designing and then conducting a program of learning for a group of adults requires imagination, flexibility and willingness to take risks.

Newman states that there are accepted and proven ways of doing things but very few absolute rules. He believes educators must approach the design of learning as a creative endeavour.

My view of a program design model encompasses the systematic approach of steps or questions that guide the decision making process together with a degree of creativity and flexibility. Above all I believe it is important that the designer is aware of the underlying adult education assumptions and beliefs that in some way are guiding and influencing the design process.

What program design models can I use as reference?

Newman (1995) states that one of the most influential program development models devised was Ralph Tyler’s (1949) 4 stage model published in “Basic Principles in Curriculum and Instruction”. Tyler’s ideas are still current and are used as a guide for many of today’s curriculum design models. This model comprises the following stages:

1. Deciding on educational purposes (identify needs)

2. Selecting learning experiences to achieve those purposes

3. Organising the learning experiences for effective instruction (scope and sequence of instruction)

4. Evaluating the effectiveness of the learning experiences

Brookfield (1987) coincides with Newman and states that Tyler’s model has retained a conceptual pre-eminence in adult education. An example of this can be seen in the more recent generalized ADDIE model of instructional design as described by Carliner (2002). The ADDIE model defines 5 basic phases:

1. Analysis – purpose and audience are defined

2. Design – instructional plans are created

3. Development

4. Implementation – the training is finalized and made available to learners

5. Evaluation – the course’s effectiveness is assessed

There are clear similarities between the ADDIE model and Tyler’s model, both have three clear functions: identifying the outcomes of the instruction, developing the instruction and evaluating the effectiveness of the instruction. But there is a lack of consideration for the context and underlying philosophies involved in the design process.

Sork and Caffarella’s (1990) model fills some of the gaps mentioned above in their 6 step model. They take a slightly broader approach and amongst other things recommend:

▪ Analyses of the context and client system: The purpose of this phase is to identify internal and external factors or forces that should be taken into account such as history of the organization, structures within the organization that govern the flow of communication, resource limits etc. It also involves an analysis of the client group, establishing boundaries and determining characteristics that may have an impact in the planning process.

▪ Formulate administrative plan: The purpose of this phase is to pay attention to the administrative details such as financials, participation, scheduling, facilities etc.

There are various other models that have similar fundamental structures as the above (based on Tyler’s model) the main differences being additional phases that take the designer into deeper levels of detail.

An example of the deeper level of detail can be seen in Dick and Carey’s (1990) 9 stage model which explicitly presents phases relating to:

▪ Instructional Strategy: Described as an outline of how instructional activities will relate to the accomplishment of the objectives. Dick and Carey (1990) state that it is at this point that the designer must be able to combine knowledge of learning and design theory with his or her experience of learners and objectives.

▪ Instructional materials: This phase highlights the importance of selecting and/or developing appropriate materials and the link between objectives and the availability of materials as an impact to the overall design and planning process.

Buckley and Caple’s (2004) systematic approach also goes into detail, outlining a phases such as:

▪ Consider principles of learning and motivation: They mention that consideration must be given to the principles of learning and motivation such as reinforcement and practice etc that may need to be embedded in the training environment.

▪ Design and pilot traning: This involves testing all aspects of a training program before delivering it to the desired client base.

Saul Carliner (2002) takes a much more holistic view of program design in his instructional design framework for the 21st century. He starts off by differentiating between the terms model and methodology, stating that a model provides a scheme for organizing phenomena that people observe in the world around them whereas a methodology recommends a process for approaching a particular challenge. What I am in need of is a methodology that guides my team’s program design.

Carliner presents an updated model that addresses not only the basic process of designing instruction, but also encompassing the underlying design philosophies and techniques. This is something that has not had much emphasis, or been stated clearly in previous models.

Carliner’s model has three parts:

▪ Design philosophies and theories: this part of the framework addresses the science and philosophy of how humans learn, the theories underlying the approach to the instructional problem and other learning theories.

▪ General design methodology: this part covers the standard ADDIE methodology seen in other models (analysis, design, development, implementation and evaluation).

▪ Instructional considerations: this part points the designer to issues to consider (business, context etc), techniques and strategies.

In Planning programs for adult learners, Caffarella (2002) presents the Interactive model of program planning. She describes this model as 12component model that provides a map or guide of the planning process. This model is different from the others presented in that it has no beginning or end; program planners are encouraged to use the relevant parts of the model in any order and combination based on the planning situation. This is an important consideration and Caffarella built this model with the notion that planning programs is rarely, if ever, a linear, step-by-step process.

My adapted model

Based on my research of instructional design models I have come to the conclusion that no one model will meet all my needs. Each model discussed has it’s strong points and my best option is to collate the strengths of each model into a customized adapted model. I have used Saul Carliner’s model as a baseline and customized it based on the needs of my workplace.

The key requirements for my model are:

▪ It needs to be a flexible guide that allows my team members to choose which part of the model they want to work with based on the project they have at hand. A rigid step by step approach won’t fit our environment due to the diversity of projects, business requirements and experience within the team. If I want team members to embrace this model I have to acknowledge that an imposed step by step approach will create resentment instead of approval.

I will base my flexible approach on Caffarella’s (2002) interactive model, following her idea that the model has no beginning or end and can be used in any order based on the planning situation.

▪ It needs to be holistic and cover not only the ADDIE (analysis, design, development, implementation and evaluation) elements but also the design philosophies and theories involved in planning a program. For this I will borrow the ideas from Saul Carliner’s (2002) model where he states that most practising instructional designers are aware only of the design process, not the belief system that guides it and the assumptions about learning inherent in those belief systems. I agree with his notion that a more complete framework should inform designers about the belief systems that underlie their decisions, and how those beliefs influence the design of instruction.

▪ It needs to provide a guiding framework and also practical questions or checklists that trainers can use if they need a structured approach or that they can use if they are new to instructional design.

Instructional Design Model

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For the purpose of this project I will present an overview of my adapted model. As it is something that my whole team will use I will design the backbone or general framework and then present it to them for feedback, once we have gone over it as a team I will continue with the second stage of adding checklists and detailed information for each stage of the model.

The model is made up of three areas: Design Philosophies and Theories, General Design and Instructional Considerations. These three areas each have a “Core” sector that contain key questions considered to be important or instrumental to that section of the model.

The model is flexible, which means that designers can come in at any stage and refer to the section that most applies to their situation. There is no start or end. This is particularly important in our work context as some decisions about the program are already made by other stakeholders so we need a model that allows us the flexibility to bypass certain stages without compromising the quality of the final product.

The model has been designed to be used as a guide when planning and designing programs, specifically within my workplace. It takes into account the context, needs and considerations we deal with on a daily basis within the company.

Each section will have an accompanying set of checklists and guiding questions that expand and help the designer through the creation process with the aim of creating consistency and a common framework within the team.

Overview of the different sections of the model:

Design Philosophies and Theories section

This section covers a range of learning theories and philosophies. It is important that the designer review and ask him or herself what assumptions and philosophies are underpinning the ideas behind the design and whether this has an impact on the final product or whether they should be considering other positions. As a program planner or designer you need to have an idea of what learning is and what it means to you. It is also important for a designer to answer questions such as why am I making these design decisions? What is my value position? The only way that we can answer these questions is by looking at our underlying philosophies and identifying our own foundations.

This stage has 2 components:

▪ Philosophy of learning: This section focuses on the philosophies underpinning our work, helping to uncover the notion that everything we do is informed by some kind of theory, even if we don’t know it.

I have decided to incorporate Zinn’s (1990) Philosophy of Adult Education Inventory into my adapted model as a tool to help my team start reflecting on their personal philosophies of education. This is a good starting point in the reflection process and ensures we are starting to think about more than just how the content should be structured and what new activities can be devised. This inventory will introduce the team to the Liberal, Behaviourist, Progressive, Humanistic and Radical philosophies.

▪ Science and theory of learning: This section focuses on the scientific and theoretical side of learning. I will provide information on a few different theories so that we can acknowledge the influences and diversity that exists when it comes to instruction. I’ll cover the following topics:

Knowles’ (1990) Adult learning assumptions - I’ll introduce Knowles’ assumptions as a checklist for trainers to review and use as a guide. The assumptions will help root our training packages within a true adult learning framework.

Gagne’s Hierarchy of Intellectual skills – I’ll introduce Gagne’s theory in a visual form (laid out in pyramid format). This theory proposes that learning is like a building process which utilizes a hierarchy of skills that increase in complexity. This theory will aid when thinking about content and explaining why we structure it in a certain way.

The concept of Gagné's knowledge hierarchy leads to the assumption that it is important to present all the necessary lower-level facts before proceeding to teach at higher levels. Related to this is the concept that people can reason with higher-level concepts if they have learned all of the prerequisite lower-level information.

Bloom’s (1956) Taxonomy – This theory will help us question what domains of knowledge we are aiming to affect with our training and what ways are there to do it effectively.

I will include a table with Bloom’s Taxonomy for reference.

Kolb’s Experiential Learning: Kolb’s theory will provide another perspective focusing on learning from experience. I will include Kolb’s model with a brief explanation of each stage.

On the science side of things the model will include information about:

Memory, Retention and Transfer: The literature on these topics is quite extensive and impossible to include it all in the model but to simplify this I will include tips on how to improve memory and retention based on existing theories.

Motivation: It is important to have an idea about Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs and Bandura’s Self Efficacy theory. These two theories will explain what we need to keep in mind if we want our training packages to be successful and it will also help clarify issues that are occurring in terms of lack of motivation and how we can address these. I will include a graph with Maslow’s hierarchy and an accompanying excerpt that explains the theory.

Skill Learning: A lot of the training packages we develop are skill based; therefore it is very important that we are aware of theories such as Fitts Skill Learning theory. This theory presents us with 3 phases that we can use to guide our development of skill based training packages. I will include a table that outlines the 3 phases and how it is relevant to the type of training we develop.

Core Questions: A sample of the core questions for this section would include: Have you considered adult learning principles?, Have you taken into account memory, retention and transfer strategies to improve learning? etc.

General Design section

This section of the model focuses on the design challenges. I have borrowed from the ADDIE model and structured this as a guide with the following stages:

Analysis: The outcome of this stage is the development of a Scope Document. The Scope document guides the designer in considering issues such as clarifying the need for the training, identifying the audience, analysing the context and constraints of the learning project. The Scope Document will have a set of guiding questions and checklists to make this stage easier and consistent across the team. A Scope Document template will be designed by the team.

Design: This stage should include tasks such as developing a project brief with schedules, timelines and milestones for the development of the learning package, choosing instructional strategies, and structuring the learning program.

The project brief information can be added to the existing Scope Document. I will provide a matrix to guide the selection of instructional strategies. It is important that the team uses a variety of strategies so that our learners do not become accustomed and bored with the same strategies in all our programs, this matrix will provide alternatives and ideas for the team.

Development: The outcome of this stage is the development of a lesson plan and accompanying materials for the training program.

I will incorporate a lesson plan template and guidelines for its use that have been developed by the team. I will also provide activity handout templates to standardize the look and feel of all our materials.

In order to guide and assist with the actual development of the lesson plan I will provide tips on how to write learning objectives, and links back to the design philosophies and theories section that may assist with clearer content structure and organization.

I will also include the team’s guidelines on naming files and folders for our training packages.

Implementation: At the moment we do not have any formal strategies in place in regards to implementation of our training packages. The normal process is to develop the package and then deliver it to our intended audience. Unfortunately we do not have the opportunity to pilot every program we develop. I will include a checklist of things to look out for if we have the chance to pilot programs and a set of guiding questions that the trainer may ask him or herself after the program has been run for the first time.

This stage also introduces the concept of a Buddy system. As a team we have decided that to ensure quality across our packages we will buddy up with another team member to review our finished work. To aid this review process I will supply a list of questions that can be used in the Buddy review process to ensure consistency and accuracy across our packages.

Evaluation: At the moment we are using a web based system to evaluate our training packages once they have been delivered. We have also developed a 3 stage evaluation model based on Kirkpatrick’s theory which unfortunately hasn’t been used very often within the team. To facilitate the completion of this stage I will include instructions on how to setup our web based evaluations, guidelines on what we should be evaluating and suggestions for what to so with the collected data. I will also include the 3 step evaluation model that has already been created so that we can start looking at this again and make a plan to start using it.

Core Questions: A sample of the core questions for this section would include: Does your content suit all our lines of business?, Have you used a range of instructional strategies?, Have you setup a Sharepoint evaluation? Etc.

Instructional Considerations section

This section deals with the tasks that are involved after the training program has been developed, things such as scheduling, administration, marketing, reviewing and updating packages.

We have an existing set of guidelines for the administration side of things (using Peoplesoft, the learner management system), tasks that should be carried out after delivering a training session (updates to training packages based on what occurred during the delivery) and guidelines for periodical reviews of training packages.

This section would bring those guidelines together and organize them in an accessible format. Having these documents included in the model brings the training function full circle and allows for the flexibility we require. For example some members of the team may need to update a section of the lesson plan and then deliver the training, he or she can use the model to guide the design task and then refer to the Instructional Considerations section for the other tasks involved once the training has been delivered.

Core Questions: A sample of the core questions for this section would include: Has your Buddy reviewed the package? Do you need to add information to the package based on your delivery? And Have you completed Peoplesoft administration?

Conclusion

Throughout the course of this learning contract I have learned a great deal about program design and about my own expectations towards my team.

I found that there isn’t one single program design model that can cater for our needs, I was hoping to find a model that brought together all the theories I have learnt throughout my undergraduate and post graduate adult learning courses. I have realized this is impossible.

The models I have looked at each have their strengths and weaknesses, what I have done is pulled the parts that I consider important from each one into an adapted model of instructional design and coupled this with context specific considerations particular to my work environment .

I know this model will not solve all my team’s weaknesses but it can bring us one step closer to understanding what needs to be considered when designing training packages and ensure a higher degree of consistency across our instructional design.

The next step in the development of this model is the creation of checklists, questions and guidelines for each sections and consolidate these into an “Instructional Design Model” document. Once I have this finished I will present the draft to my team for feedback. This team based development and enhancement approach will help in the early adoption from all team members.

Bibliography

Bloom, B. 1956 ‘Bloom's Taxonomy of the Cognitive Domain’, , visited October 2006

Briggs L., Gustafson K., Tillman M. 1991, Instructional Design Principles and Applications, 2nd Edition, Educational Technology Publications, New Jersey, Chapters 7, 12 and 13.

Brookfield, S 1987, ‘Program development for adults: challenging the institutional approach’, in Understanding and facilitating adult learning, Jossey Bass, San Francisco, pp. 201-232.

Buckley R., Caple J. 2004, The Theory and Practice of Training, 5th Edition, Kogan Page, London, Chapters 2 and 7.

Caffarella R. 2002, Planning Programs for Adult Learners, 2nd Edition, Jossey-Bass, San Francisco.

Carliner, S. 2002, An Instructional Design Framework for the Twenty-First Century, Published at , visited October 2006.

Cornford, I 1999, ‘Skill learning and the development of expertise’, in, J Athanasou, (ed), Adult Educational Psychology, Social Science Press, Katoomba, pp. 237-262

Driscoll, M. 1991 Psychology of Learning for Instruction: Allyn and Bacon.

Gagne R., Briggs L., Wager W. 1992, Principles of Instructional Design, 4th Edition, Harcourt Brace Jovanovich College Publishers, Florida. Chapters 1 and 2.

Knowles, M 1990, ‘An andragogical theory of adult learning’, in The adult learner: a neglected species, Gulf Publishing, Houston, pp. 54-65

Leshin C., Pollock J., Reigeluth C. 1992, Instructional Design Strategies and Tactics, Educational Technology Publications, New Jersey, Chapter 3.

Merriam S & Caffarella R 1999, ‘Andragogy and other models of adult learning’, in Learning and adulthood, a comprehensive guide, Jossey bass, San Francisco. Pp.271-287

Newman, M 1995, ‘Program development in adult education and training’ in G Foley, (ed), Understanding adult education and training, Allen and Unwin, Sydney, pp.54-74.

Pithers, R.T 1999, ‘Memory and Retrieval: Implications for teaching and learning’, in, J Athanasou, (ed), Adult Educational Psychology, Social Science Press, Katoomba, pp. 237-262

Sork, TJ & Caffarella, RS 1990, ‘Planning programs for adult learners’, in Handbook of adult and continuing education, Jossey Bass, San Francisco, pp.233-245.

Zinn, L 1990, ‘Identifying your philosophical orientation’, in MW Galbraith (ed), Adult Learning Methods, RE Kreiger, Florida, pp. 39-77.

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