HOW DO INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES HAVE AN IMPACT ON …



HOW DO INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES HAVE AN IMPACT ON SECOND LANGUAGE ACQUISITION?

Phạm Thị Tố Như

College of Foreign Languages, Danang University

ABSTRACT

In the process of teaching and learning a second language, there are many requirements to guarantee success. As a consequence, there have been so many studies on this field including methodology, linguistics, second language acquisition and so on. In fact, second language acquisition is quite complicated and it is different from learners to learners. Moreover, this is influenced by different factors including teachers, course materials, learning environment, individual differences, etc. Although this a broad aspect, in the scope of this article, some individual differences including intelligence, language aptitude and language learning strategies in second language acquisition are discussed. After these factors are defined, they will be thoroughly analysed and then there will be recommendations for each part so that learners’ second language acquisition will become more successful and foreign language teachers may have suitable and effective methods in their teaching to bring success to their students.

INTRODUCTION

Real-life observation quickly tells us that even if second-language learners can be shown to be following a common developmental route, they differ greatly in the degree of success that they achieve. Social psychologists have argued consistently that these differences in learning outcomes must be due to individual differences among learners, and many proposals have been made concerning the characteristics that supposedly cause these differences. (Mitchell & Myles, 2004, p. 25)

In a two-part review, Gardner and MacIntyre (1992, 1993) divide what they see as the most important learner traits into two groups: the cognitive and the affective (emotional). In the scope of this article, I just follow their account and pay much attention to discuss the cognitive factors claimed to have significant influence on Second Language Acquisition (SLA) success. Accordingly, the following factors will be analysed:

1. Intelligence

2. Language aptitude

3. Language learning strategies

1. Intelligence

According to Lightbown & Spada (1999), the term ‘intelligence’ traditionally

been used to performance on certain kinds of tests. These tests are often associated with success in school, and a link between intelligence and second language learning has sometimes been reported. One theory among the researches on Intelligence is the Multiple Intelligence Theory proposed by Hovard Gardner in his book "Frame of Mind", published in 1983. He suggests that there are seven human intelligences. Afterwards, in ‘Unschooled Mind’ (1991), he adds:

Where individuals differ is in the strength of these intelligences -- the so-called profile of intelligences -- and in the ways in which such intelligences are invoked and combined to carry out different tasks, solve diverse problems, and progress in various domains." (p.12)

In fact, there are many studies on this field including the research by Genesee (1976). This research argues that intelligence may be a strong factor when it comes to learning which involves language analysis and rule learning.

Moreover, as Mitchell and Myles (2004) maintain, there is a clear evidence that second-language students who are above average on formal measures of intelligence or general academic attainment tend to do well in SLL (second language learning), at least in formal classroom settings. (p. 25). In fact, the kind of intelligence which is measured by IQ tests is a good predictor for success in classrooms where the emphasis is on learning about the language (for example, grammar rules and vocabulary items). In addition, people who do well on IQ tests may do well on other kinds of tests as well. However, in natural language learning settings and in classrooms where language acquisition through interactive language use is emphasized, research has shown that learners with a wide variety of intellectual abilities can be successful language learners. (Lightbown & Spada, 1999, p. 163)

Last but not least, it is important to keep in mind that ‘intelligence’ is complex and that individuals have many kinds of abilities and strengths, not all of which are measured by traditional IQ tests. In Lightbown and Spada’s experience, many students whose academic performance has been weak have experienced considerable success in second language learning. (Lightbown & Spada, 1999, p. 53)

As a consequence, it is the teachers’ task to know the diversity in their classrooms since every classroom is full of students who are different from each other in many different ways. Each student comes from a different social, economic and cultural background, each one has different areas of interest, different ways of expressing themselves, different strengths and weaknesses, and now the teacher is being asked to be aware of the fact that each student also has their own individual intelligence profile. It is quite necessary for teachers to be strongly creative in teaching so that they could offer students best opportunities in their learning.

2. Language aptitude

It is still a question whether language aptitude is a ‘gift’ for language learning, distinct from general intelligence as folk wisdom often holds. (Mitchell and Myles, 2004). Factually, language aptitude is a generalized capacity / ability to learn a foreign language. People have long been researching on this problem and the best known formal test of language aptitude was originated by J.B. Carroll. He is the originator of what Skehan called the ‘standard ‘four component’ view of language aptitude’ (1989, p. 26):

1. Phonemic coding ability. This is an ability to discriminate among foreign sounds and to encode them in a manner such that they can be recalled later. This would certainly seem to be a skill involved in successful second language learning.

2. Grammatical sensitivity. This is the ability to recognize the functions of words in sentences. It does not measure an ability to name or describe the functions, but rather the ability to name or discern whether or not words in different sentences perform the same function. It appears logical that skill in being able to do this helps in learning another language.

3. Inductive language learning ability. This is the ability to infer, induce, or abduct rules or generalizations about language from samples of the language. A learner proficient in this ability is less reliant on well-presented rules or generalizations from a teacher or from materials.

4. Memory and learning. Originally this was phrased in terms of associations: the ability to make and recall associations between words and phrases in a native and a second language. It is not clear whether this type of association plays a major role in language learning, but memory for language material is clearly important. Some linguists (e.g., Becker, 1991) suggest that second language learning is much more an accomplishment of memory for text than of the analysis of text. That is, much more is memorized than is broken into parts and subjected to rule formation and /or generalizations.

These four abilities seem to be reasonable predictors of second language learning success in that a person who is excellent in one or more of these abilities would seem to be at an advantage in learning a second language. There is no a priori reason to believe that individuals will be equally skilled in all abilities. (Gass & Selinker, 2001, p. 346). Indeed, Skehan (1989) suggests that all of the abilities are independent. In addition to that, successful language learners may not be strong in all of the components of aptitude. Some individuals may have strong memories but only average abilities in the other components of aptitude. Ideally, one could determine learners’ profiles of strengths and weaknesses and use this information to place students in appropriate teaching programs. (Lightbown & Spada, 1999, p. 54)

Additionally, McLaughlin (1990), Hartley and Hart (1997) argue that it is still not clear whether language aptitude is innate or acquired. Yet, it is certain that there is some relationship between aptitude and social background. (Gass & Selinker, 2001).

However, there are still some controversial questions about language aptitude. People still wonder if aptitude is only appropriate for the formal context or it is appropriate for all ages and for illiterate people. Many researches have been done but it seems that we still have to wait for a more satisfactory answer.

Despite all the debatable problems, it cannot be denied that aptitude has a key role in SLA. The active learning of a second language in a classroom context requires the use of language aptitude and intelligence. These cognitive factors relate to problem solving strategies employed by the learner in language development. In fact, each student has his/her own aptitude. Accordingly, teachers must be aware of the numerous variables that can effect students learning and be willing to assist students in their acquisition of the second language , as well as providing the support needed to aid students working through the difficulties of second language acquisition, and the problems arising from any of the variables discussed briefly in this paper. Teachers should also be prepared to modify their teaching programs within reasonable expectation to accompany and meet the needs, along with the expectations and desired goals of learners, whilst being conscious of the numerous factors that can improve or impinge upon SLA.

3. Language Learning Strategies

Second language learning process may vary from learner to learner. Good language learners often learn in a different way to less successful learners. The term commonly used in the second language acquisition literature to refer to what learners do that underlie these differences is learning strategies. (Gass & Selinker, 2001, p. 364).

Within L2 education, a number of definitions of LLS (Language Learning Strategies) have been used by key figures in the field. Early on, Tarone (1983) defined a LS as "an attempt to develop linguistic and sociolinguistic competence in the target language -- to incoporate these into one's interlanguage competence" (p. 67). Rubin (1987) later wrote that LS "are strategies which contribute to the development of the language system which the learner constructs and affect learning directly" (p. 22). In their seminal study, O'Malley and Chamot (1990) defined LLS as "the special thoughts or behaviours that individuals use to help them comprehend, learn, or retain new information" (p. 1). Finally, building on work in her book for teachers (Oxford, 1990), Oxford (1992) provides this helpful definition:

...language learning strategies -- specific actions, behaviours, steps, or techniques that students (often intentionally) use to improve their progress in developing L2 skills. These strategies can facilitate the internalization, storage, retrieval, or use of the new language. Strategies are tools for the self-directed involvement necessary for developing communicative ability. (Oxford, 1992, p. 18)

When discussing LLS, Oxford (1990) and others such as Wenden and Rubin (1987) note a desire for control and autonomy of learning on the part of the learner through LLS. Cohen (1990) insists that only conscious strategies are LLS, and that there must be a choice involved on the part of the learner. Transfer of a strategy from one language or language skill to another is a related goal of LLS, as Pearson (1988) and Skehan (1989) have discussed. In her teacher-oriented text, Oxford summarises her view of LLS by listing twelve key features. In addition to the characteristics noted above, she states that LLS:

• allow learners to become more self-directed

• expand the role of language teachers

• are problem-oriented

• involve many aspects, not just the cognitive

• can be taught

• are flexible

• are influenced by a variety of factors.

(Oxford, 1990, p. 9)

Accordingly, LLS are quite important for L2 (second language)/ FL (foreign language) learning and teaching due to many factors. Firstly, within 'communicative' approaches to language teaching a key goal is for the learner to develop communicative competence in the target L2/FL, and LLS can help students in doing so. Secondly, to developing students' communicative competence, LLS are important because research suggests that training students to use LLS can help them become better language learners. Early research on 'good language learners' by Naiman, Frohlich, Stern, and Todesco (1978, 1996), Rubin (1975), and Stern (1975) suggested a number of positive strategies that such students employ, ranging from using an active task approach in and monitoring one's L2 performance to listening to the radio in the L2/FL and speaking with native speakers. A study by O'Malley and Chamot (1990) also suggests that effective L2/FL learners are aware of the LLS they use and why they use them. Graham's (1997) work in French further indicates that L2/FL teachers can help students understand good LLS and should train them to develop and use them.

Besides, when applying certain strategies to a learning context, teachers should pay attention to all factors in that context. Take Vietnamese learning context in speaking classes, for example and it can be seen that CLT (communicative language teaching) can not work perfectly if it is not combined with other approaches such as task-based one. In Vietnam, the size of the class is rather large. Moreover, as influenced by Confucianism, learning hierarchy is first listening to the teacher, then repetition, then copying models (Kennett and Knight, 1999). Classroom interaction is largely one-way, either between the teacher and individual student or between the teacher and the whole class. When one particular student is responding to the teacher, others do not listen. They have their own business to attend to. Furthermore, students feel rude if they interrupt, question, or argue with their teacher. Language activities like role plays, problem-solving tasks, or information gap activities are strange to their culture of learning. When they fail to understand something, they are not daring enough to ask for clarification in public for fear of losing face. In such a classroom context, learners are not motivated to express themselves, which constrains the implementation of CLT in terms of learner autonomy and self-expression.

In conclusion, although LLS is known to be ‘…especially important for language learning because they are tools for active, self-directed movement, which is essential for developing communicative competence.’ (Oxford, 1990, p.1), teachers should be flexible in integrating LLS into their L2/FL curriculum.

CONCLUSION

The impact of individual differences on second language acquisition is really a broad aspect. This article has only mentioned a small part of it, i.e. the cognitive factors with intelligence, language aptitude and language learning strategies. It could be seen that the study of these factors is not easy and that the results of research are not entirely satisfactory nor settled. This is partly because of the lack of clear definitions and methods for measuring the individual characteristics. Thus, it remains difficult to make precise predictions about how a particular individual’s characteristics in general, and cognitive factors in particular, influence his or her success as a language learner. Nonetheless, in a classroom, a sensitive teacher, who takes learners’ individual personalities and learning styles into account, can create a learning environment in which virtually all learners can be successful in learning a second language.(Lightbown & Spada, 1999, pp. 68-69)

REFERENCES

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